CHEMISTRY C1 C2 C3

C1

Perfumes need certain properties…

Easily Evaporates – So the perfume particles
can reach the nose
Non- Toxic – so it doesn’t poison you
Doesn’t react with water – so it doesn’t react
with the water in your sweat
Doesn’t irritate the skin – so you don’t get a
rash/burn
Insoluble in water – so it doesn’t wash off
every time you get wet
 Mass and atomic number
Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge
Proton 1 1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0 -1
NUMBER OF ELECTRONS IN
OUTER SHELLS (ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION)

PROTON NUMBER = number of

protons (obviously)
SYMBOL
MASS NUMBER = number of
protons + number of neutrons
number of electrons = number of protons
 Paints and Pigments
Pigments – give paints their colour
Binding medium – liquid that carries the pigment parts and holds them together
Solvent – thins the paint to make it easier to spread

Colloids
• A colloid consists of really tiny particles of one kind of substance mixed into another
substance.
• The particles can be bits of solids, droplets of liquids or bubbles of gas.
• Colloids don’t separate out because the particles are so small they don’t settle at the
bottom.
• A PAINT IS A COLLOID where particles of the pigment (usually a solid) are dispersed
through a liquid.
Oil paint dries in two different stages:
1) The solvent evaporates
2) The oil is oxidised by oxygen in the air before it turns to a solid

Thermochromic Pigments – change colour when heated

Phosphorescent Pigments – glow in the dark
 Polymers
• Plastics are long chain molecules called polymers
• They need pressure and a catalyst to be made
• The forces between the molecules determine the properties of the
plastic;
- Weak Forces: if the plastic is made up of long chains that are held
together by weak intermolecular forces then the chains will be free
to slide over each other. This means that plastic can be stretched
easily and will have a low boiling point
-Strong Forces: some plastics have stronger between the polymer
chains , these might be covalent bonds between the chains or cross-
linking bridges. These plastics higher melting points are rigid and
can’t be stretched as the crosslink's hold the chains firmly together.
 Hydrocarbons; Alkanes, Alkenes
Alkanes all have C-C single bonds
• CnH₂n+₂ alkane formula
• Won’t form polymers (no double bonds to open up)
• Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane

Alkenes all have C=C double bonds

• CnH₂n alkene formula
• Can form polymers (double bonds can open up and join onto things)
• Ethene, Propene, Butene

You can do a test with bromine water:

Alkane: saturated compound, no reaction it will stay bright orange.
Alkene: an addition reaction takes place, bromine will add to the double bond, the
bromine water is decolourised.
 Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil
• Crude oil is a mixture of lots of different hydrocarbons ( chains
of different carbon atoms)
• The different compounds are separated by fractional distillation.
The oil is heated until most of it has turned into gas. The gases
enter the fractional distillation column and the bitumen(liquid
bit) is drained out at the bottom.
• It is hottest at the bottom and gets cooler as you go up.
• The longer hydrocarbons have higher boiling points – they turn
back into liquids and drain out of the column early on.
• The shorter hydrocarbons have lower boiling points – they turn
to liquid and drain out of the column much later on.
• You end up with the crude oil mixture separated out into
different fractions.
 Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil
• CRACKING: Splitting up long chain hydrocarbons. It turns long alkane molecules
into smaller alkane and alkene molecules which are more useful.
• Cracking allows large hydrocarbon molecules to be broken down into
smaller, more useful hydrocarbon molecules.
• Cracking needs high temperatures and a catalyst (HOT + A CATALYST)

There are two important types of bond in crude oil:

• The strong covalent bonds between the carbons and hydrogens within
each hydrocarbon molecule
• The intermolecular forces of attraction between different hydrocarbon
molecules in the mixture
 Burning Fuels
COMPLETE COMBUSTION HAPPENS WHEN THERE IS PLENTY OF OXYGEN

Hydrocarbon + oxygen carbon dioxide + water (+energy)

e.g. CH₄+2O₂ 2H₂O + CO₂ (+energy) [make sure it’s balanced]

INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION HAPPENS WHEN THERE ISN’T ENOUGH OXYGEN

Hydrocarbon + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + carbon monoxide +

carbon (+energy)

e.g. 4CH₄+2O₂ C + 2CO + CO₂ + 8H₂O (+energy) [make sure it’s balanced]
 SUMMARY
1. The Atomic Number of an atom = number of
protons in the nucleus.

2. The Atomic Mass of an atom = number of

Protons + Neutrons in the nucleus.

3. The number of Protons = Number of Electrons.

4. Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells.

5. Each shell can only carry a set number of electrons.

C2
 Periodic table
The periodic table arranges all the elements
in groups according to their properties.

Vertical
columns are Mendeleev
called GROUPS

Li
Na
K
Rb Horizontal rows are called PERIODS
Cb

The melting points then decrease as you go down the group. More reactive as you go down.
 Some examples
-
Magnesium
chloride: 2+ Cl
Cl
Mg
Mg + -

Cl Cl
MgCl2
Calcium oxide:
2+
2-

Ca + O Ca O

CaO
 2+ 2-

H N H Ca O

H
2,8,8 2+
2,8 2-

Type of bonding?
Type of bonding?
• Ionic
• Covalent
How do you know?
How do you know?
• Metal and non-metal
• Non-metal and non-metal
• Transferred electrons charge atoms to form
• Shared pairs of electrons ions
• Outer shell only in diagram • Loss is Positive – metals (and H / NH3) lose
Tips for drawing diagrams:-
• Gain is Negative – non-metals gain
• Use periodic table to work out how many
• Bracketed diagrams with charges
electrons in outer shell
• Tips for drawing diagrams:-
Use shared pairs to ensure each atom
can use enough electrons to fill its outer • All shells shown
shell by sharing • Brackets and charges for diagram
• Size of circles should reflect the energy • Brackets and charges for electronic
level they represent – 1,2 or 3 structure
Q4 DRAW A COVALENT BONDING DIAGRAM Q5 DRAW AN IONIC BONDING DIAGRAM FOR
FOR SILICON DIOXIDE SODIUM OXIDE.
 IONIC BONDING
DESCRIBE THEIR STRUCTURE:-
- + - + - • GIANT IONIC LATTICE
+ - + - + • REGULAR STRUCTURE OF
- + - + - ALTERNATING POSITIVE AND
+ - + - + NEGATIVE IONS
- + - + -

PROPERTIES:-
•CRYSTALLINE, SOLID AT ROOM TEMP
•BECAUSE THERE IS A STRONG ELECTROSTATIC ATTRACTION BETWEEN POSITIVE AND
NEGATIVE IONS (IONIC BOND)
•HIGH MELTING /BOILING POINT
•BECAUSE MUCH ENERGY NEEDED TO OVERCOME ELECTROSTATIC ATTRACTION
•SOLID DOES NOT CONDUCT ELECTRICITY
•BECAUSE IONS ARE NOT FREE TO MOVE
•MOLTEN / DISSOLVED DOES CONDUCT ELECTRICITY
•BECAUSE IONS ARE FREE TO MOVE
 COVALENT BONDING – SIMPLE
MOLECULAR DESCRIBE THEIR STRUCTURE:-
• COVALENT
• SIMPLE MOLECULAR
•Small molecules
• SHOWN BY LINES IN DIAGRAM

LINK STRUCTURE TO PROPERTIES AND EXPLAIN THE PROPERTIES:-

• LIQUID OR GAS AT ROOM TEMPERATURE
• BECAUSE
• LOW BOILING POINT
• BECAUSE INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ARE EASILY OVERCOME BY HEAT
 COVALENT BONDING - DIAMOND
DESCRIBE THEIR STRUCTURE:-
• GIANT COVALENT STRUCTURE
• MANY COVALENT BONDS (BLACK
LINES

PROPERTIES:-
• HARD / STRONG
•BECAUSE EACH CARBON ATOM FORMS 4 COVALENT BONDS
• AND BECAUSE THERE ARE MANY COVALENT BONDS
•HIGH MELTING POINT
BECAUSE MUCH ENERGY NEEDED TO OVERCOME THE MANY COVALENT BONDS
• DOES NOT CONDUCT ELECTRICITY
•BECAUSE THERE ARE NO FREE IONS OR ELECTRONS
 COVALENT BONDING - GRAPHITE
DESCRIBE THEIR STRUCTURE:-
• GIANT COVALENT STRUCTURE
• LAYERED STUCTURE
• WEAK INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
HOLD LAYERS TOGETHER

PROPERTIES:-
• HARD
•BECAUSE HAS MANY COVALENT BONDS
• SOFTER THAN DIAMOND
• BECAUSE EACH CARBON ATOM FORMS 3 COVALENT BONDS
• USED AS A LUBRICANT
• BECAUSE IT HAS LAYERS THAT CAN SLIDE
• CONDUCTS ELECTRICITY
• BECAUSE ONE FREE ELECTRON PER ATOM FREE TO MOVE AND CARRY ELECTRIC
CHARGE
 Relative formula mass, Mr
The relative formula mass
= relative atomic masses of elements in the compound added together.

E.g. water H2O:

Relative atomic mass of O = 16

Relative atomic mass of H = 1

Therefore Mr for water = 16 + (2x1) = 18

RFM = RAM +RAM ETC

Q15 WHAT IS THE Mr OF Ca(OH) 2?
 Calculating percentage mass

Percentage mass Mass of element Ar x100%

(%) =
Relative formula mass Mr

Q16 Calculate the percentage mass of the following:

OXYGEN in potassium OXIDE, K2O
 Empirical formulae
A classic exam question:
Find the simplest EMPIRICALformula of
2.24g of iron reacting with 0.96g of oxygen.

Step 1: Divide both masses by the relative atomic mass:

For iron 2.24/56 = 0.04 For oxygen 0.96/16 = 0.06
Step 2: Write this as a ratio AND DIVIDE BY SMALLEST RATIO:
0.04:0.06
0.04 : 0.06
0.04 0.04
=1:1.5 SO MULTIPLY TO WHOLE NUMBERS - is equivalent to 2:3
Step 3: Write the formula:
2 iron atoms for 3 oxygen atoms means the formula is Fe2O3
 % atom economy helps scientists to work out how many atoms have been usefully
used in a chemical reaction, and how many have been wasted.

percentage Atom economy = relative formula mass of useful product X100

% Relative formula mass of all products

Ethanol  ethene + water

C2H5OH  C 2 H4 + H 2O
(12 x 2) +(1 x 6) + 16  (12 x 2) + (4 x1) + (1 x 2) + 16
46  28 + 18
= 28 x 100
46
= 61%
61% of ethanol atoms were usefully used to make ethene
 RATES OF REACTION
Increasing temperature increases rate of reaction because:-
•Increases energy of particles
•Particles move faster
•more collisions
•More successful collisions that have reached activation energy of reaction

Use of a catalyst increases rate of reaction because:-

•Provides a surface that `collects` reactants and holds them while they react
•Decreases the energy required for the reactants to react
•Lowers the activation energy of the reaction

Increasing surface area increases rate of reaction because:-

•Increases number of exposed particles
•Increasing the rate at which reactants collide
•Resulting in more collisions

Increasing concentration increases rate of reaction because:-

•Increases number of reactant particles
•Particles closer together
•Greater chance of collision
•More collisions likely to be successful
 Exothermic & Endothermic

Exothermic – thermal energy given OUT as bonds are MADE (MEX)

e.g. combustion, oxidation, neutralisation
Endothermic – thermal energy taken IN as bonds are BROKEN (BEND)
e.g. thermal decomposition, photosynthesis
 Electrolysis
• Electrolysis is the process by which ionic
substances are broken down into simpler
substances using electricity.

• During electrolysis,
metals and gases may
form at the
electrodes.
 Haber Process Summary
Nitrogen + hydrogen Ammonia
Endothermic Exothermic
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
• A low temperature increases the yield of ammonia
but is too slow
• A high temperature improves the rate of reaction
but decreases the yield too much
• A high pressure increases the yield of ammonia but costs a lot of money

To compromise all of these factors, these conditions are used:

•200 atm pressure

•450O C
•Iron catalyst
C3
 Group 1 – Alkali metals
• They are all silver solids.
• Their hydroxides dissolve in water to give an alkaline solution.
• When you go down the group the elements:
- Have bigger atoms (one extra full shell for each row)
- Are more reactive (outer electron more easily lost)
- Have higher density (atoms have more mass)
- Lower boiling and melting point
• They are soft, easy to cut
• They float
• They are very reactive, have to be stored in oil (to stop them from reacting with
oxygen) and handled with forceps
• All have one outer electron, and form ionic compounds which form 1+ ions
• The forces between the atom and the outer shell are weak
• Reaction with water produces hydrogen gas, which also produces metal hydroxide –
it is soluble in water, produces a colourless solution and with a high Ph.
2Na(s)+2H2O(I)  2NaOH(aq)+H2(g)
2K(s)+2H2O(I)  2KOH(aq)+H2(g)
(the black twos are meant to be small lower 2’s but I don’t know how to do that,
sorry)
 Group 7 - Halogens
• As you go down the group the elements:
- Are less reactive
- Higher melting points
- Higher boiling points
- Have slower reactions
• They are all poisonous non-metals with coloured vapours.
• They use ionic and covalent bonding.
• They react with metals to form salts.
2AI(s)+3CI2(g)  2AICI3(s)
2Fe(s)+3Br2(g)  2FeBr3(s)
• More reactive halogens will displace less reactive ones.
CI2(g)+2KI(aq)  I2(aq)+2KCI(aq)
CI2(g)+2KBr(aq)  Br2(aq)+2KCI(aq)
• They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
• They react with metals to form ionic compounds and with hydrogen to
form covalent compounds.
• They all from ions with a single negative charge
 Transition Elements
• They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
• They’re very dense, strong and shiny.
• Less reactive than group 1 metals, doesn’t react vigorously with oxygen and
water. However, some do corrode easily so it makes it good for building
materials and can be mixed together to make alloys.
• More than one ion usually, but it is always positive.
• The compounds are very colourful.
• They make good catalysts.
• Their properties are due to the way their electron shells fill.
• They have typical metallic structure, the metal atoms are held together by
metal bonds and the outer electrons can move around freely within the
metal.
 Artificial Additives
Why do we use additives?
Some examples:

Additive Interesting information

Flavour enhancers Improve the taste

Colour enhancers Make the food look more appealing

Preservatives Makes the food last longer

Vitamins and minerals Can be used to replace those lost during cooking

Sweetener Used to reduce the amount of sugar needed

Antioxidant Used to stop fats or oils reacting with oxygen

Emulsifier Used to mix ingredients like oil and water

Hydrogen gas (squeaky pop test)
To test for the presence of hydrogen gas, collect a sample of the gas in a small container
such as a test tube. Light a wooden splint, but do not blow out the flame. Insert the
burning splint into the mouth of the test tube.

If the gas is hydrogen, you will hear a slight explosive "pop" sound.

Carbon dioxide (lime water test)

To test for the presence of carbon dioxide gas, collect a sample of the gas in a small
container such as a test tube. Add a small amount (2 to 3 ml) of lime water to the test
tube and shake the test tube to mix the gas and the lime water.

If the lime water solution turns a milky white, the gas is carbon dioxide.

Oxygen (relight a glowing splint)

Blow it out so that there are still some hot embers on it, then put it in a beaker
of oxygen, if it re-lights, there's oxygen.
 C4
Chemical
Economies
ACIDS AND
BASES
The pH Scale and Universal Indicator

An indicator is just a dye that changes colour. The dye in the indicator changes colour depending
on whether it’s above or below a certain pH. Universal indicator is a very useful combination of
dyes which gives the colours shown above. It’s very good for estimating the pH of a solution

A very strong acid has a pH 0

A very strong alkali has a pH 14
A neutral substance had a pH 7

An ACID is a substance with a pH of less than 7. Acids for H+ ions in water.

A BASE is a substance with a pH of greater than 7
An ALKALI is a base that DISSOLVES IN WATER. Alkalis form OH- ions in water
 The reaction between acids and bases is called neutralisation;

ACID + BASE SALT + WATER

Neutralisation can also be seen in terms of H+ and OH- ions;

H+ + OH- H2O

When an acid neutralises a base (or vice versa), the products are
neutral, they have a pH of 7
REACTIONS OF
ACIDS
 Metal Oxides and Metal Hydroxides are
Bases
1. Some metal oxides and metal hydroxides dissolve in water.
These soluble compounds are alkalis
2. Even bases that won’t dissolve in water will still react with acids.
3. So, all metal hydroxides react with acids to form a salt and water
Acid + Metal Oxide  Salt + Water

Acid + Metal Hydroxide  Salt + Water

THESE ARE NEUTRALISATION REACTIONS

Hydrochloric acid + Copper oxide  Copper chloride + water
2HCl + CuO  CuCl2 + H2O

Sulfuric acid + Potassium hydroxide  Potassium sulfate + water

H2SO4 + 2KOH  K2SO4 + 2H2O

Nitric acid + Sodium Hydroxide  Sodium nitrate + water

HNO3 + NaOH  NaNO3 + H20
 Acids and Carbonates produce Carbon
Dioxide
These are like the ones but they just produce carbon dioxide as well

Acid + Carbonate  Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

Hydrochloric acid + Sodium Carbonate  Sodium chloride + water + Carbon dioxide

2HCl + NaCO3  2NaCl + H2O + CO2

Hydrochloric acid + Calcium Carbonate  Calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide

2HCl + CaCO3  K2SO4 + H2O + CO2
 Acids and Ammonia produce Ammonium
Salts

Acid + Ammonia  Ammonium salt

Hydrochloric acid + Ammonia  Ammonium chloride

HCl + NH3  NH4Cl

Sulfuric acid + Ammonia  Ammonium sulfate

H2SO4 + 2NH3  (NH4)2SO4

Nitric acid + Ammonia  Sodium nitrate

HNO3 + NH3  NH4NO3

This last reaction with nitric acid produces the famous ammonium nitrate
fertiliser, much appreciated for its double dose of essential nitrogen
PERCENTAGE
YIELD
Percentage Yield compares Actual and Predicted
Yield
The more reactants you start with, the higher the actual yield will be. But the
percentage yield doesn’t depend on the amount of reactants you started with – it’s a
percentage.

Percentage yield = actual yield (grams) x100

predicted yield (grams)

100% yield means 0% yield means that

that you got all the no reactants were
product you expected converted into product,
to get i.e. no product at all
was made.
 Yields are always less than 100%
In real life, you never get a 100% yield. Some product or reactant always gets lost along the way – and that
goes for big industrial processes as well as school lab experiments.
How this happens depends on what sort of reaction it is and what apparatus is being used.
Lots of things can go wrong but here are the four you need to know;

1) EVAPORATION 2) HEATING
Losses while
Liquids evaporate all heating can be due
the time – not just to evaporation or speed
while they’re being more complicated yield
heated reasons
In reversible reactions, increasing temperature
moves the equilibrium position
So heating the reaction to speed it up might mean a
3) FILTRATION lower yield
When you filter a liquid to remove
solid particles, you nearly always
lose a bit of liquid or bit of solid.
4) TRANSFERRING LIQUIDS
1) If you want to keep the liquid, You always lose a bit of liquid when
you lose that bit that remains with
you transfer it from one container
the solid and filter paper
2) If you want to keep the solid, to another
some of it usually gets left behind Some of it always gets left behind
when you scrape it off the filter on the inside surface of the old
paper container.
FERTILISERS
 Fertilisers provide plants with the essential
elements for growth
1) The three main essential elements in fertilisers are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
If plants don’t get enough of these elements their growth and life processes are affected.
For example, nitrogen is used to make plant proteins, which are essential for growth.

2) Sometimes these elements are missing from the soil because they’ve been used up by
a previous crop

3) Fertilisers replace these missing elements or provide more of

them. Thus helps to increase the crop yield.

4) The fertiliser must first dissolve in water before it can be

taken in my the crop roots
 Ammonia can be neutralised with acids to
produce fertilisers
1) Ammonia is a base, and can be neutralised by acids to make ammonium salts
2) Ammonium nitrate is an especially good fertiliser because it has nitrogen from
two sources, the ammonia and nitric acid.

Ammonia + Nitric acid  Ammonium nitrate

3) Ammonium sulfate can also be used as a fertiliser, and is made by neutralising

sulfuric acid with ammonia

Ammonia + Sulfuric acid  Ammonium sulfate

4) Two other fertilisers manufactured using ammonia are ammonium phosphate and urea.
5) Potassium nitrate is also a fertiliser
Preparing ammonium Nitrate in the lab
1) Set up your apparatus as in the diagram. Add a
few drops of methyl orange indicator to the
ammonia – it’ll turn yellow
2) Slowly add the nitric acid from the burette into
the ammonia, until the yellow colour changes to red.
The burette
Gently swirl the flask as you add the acid. Go
contains nitric
especially slowly when you think the alkalis almost
acid solution
neutralised. Methyl orange is yellow in alkalis, but
red in acids, so this colour change means all the
ammonium has been neutralised and you’ve got
ammonium nitrate solution.
3) To get solid ammonium nitrate crystals, gently
evaporate the solution until only a little bit is left.
The flask Leave it to crystallise.
contains 4)The ammonium nitrate crystals aren’t pure –
ammonia they’ve got methyl orange in them. To get pure
solution and ammonium nitrate crystals, you need to note exactly
indicator how much nitric acid it took to neutralise the
ammonia and you repeat the titration using that
volume of acid, but no indicator.
 Relative formula mass of a fertiliser
Find the relative formula mass for ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3, using the following data:
Ar for H = 1 Ar for N = 14 Ar for O = 16

NH4NO3
14
+ (1 X 4) + 14 + (16 x 3)

Mr = 80
 Calculating the % Mass of an essential
element in a fertiliser

PERCENTAGE MASS
OF AN ELEMENT
IN A COMPOUND
= Ar x No, of atoms (of that element)
Mr (of whole compound)
X 100
Fertilisers damage lakes and rivers – eutrophication

1) Fertliisers which contain nitrates are essential to modern farming

2) But you get problems if some of the rich fertiliser finds it way into rivers and
streams
3) This happens quite easily if too much fertiliser is applied, especially if it rains soon
afterwards
4) The result is EUTROPHICATION, which basically means ‘too much of a good thing’
THE HABER
PROCESS
The haber process is a reversible reaction:

N2 + 3H2 2NH3 (+heat)

1) The nitrogen is obtained easily from the air, which is 78% nitrogen (and 21%
oxygen)
2) The hydrogen comes from the cracking of oil fractions or natural gas
3) Because the reaction is reversible (it goes in both directions), not all the
nitrogen and hydrogen will convert to ammonia
4) The N2 and H2 which don’t react are recycled and passed through again so none
is wasted.

Industrial Conditions:
PRESSURE: 200 atmospheres; TEMPERATURE: 450°; CATALYST: Iron
 Because the reaction is reversible there’s a
compromise to be made:
1) Higher pressure favours the forward reaction
(since there are four molecules of gas on the
left-hand side, but only two molecules on the
right)
2) So the pressure is set as high as possible to
give the best % yield, without making the plant
to expensive to build
3) The forward reaction is exothermic, which
means that increasing the temperature will
actually move the equillibrium the wrong way –
away from ammonia and towards N2 and H2.
So the yield of ammonia would be greater at
lower temperatures.

4) The trouble is, lower temperatures mean a slower rate of reaction. So what they do is
increase the temperature anyway to get a much faster rate of reaction
5) The 450° is a compromise between maximum yield and speed of reaction. It’s better to
wait just 20 seconds for a 10% yield than to have to wait 60 seconds for a 20% yield.
6) Remember, the unused hydrogen and nitrogen are recycled, so nothing is wasted
MINIMISING
THE COST OF
PRODUCTION
Production depends on five different factors
1) PRICE OF ENERGY
a) Industry needs to keep its energy bills as low as possible
b) If a reaction needs a high temperature, the running costs will be higher
2) COST OF RAW MATERIALS
a) This is kept to a minimum by recycling any materials that haven’t reacted
b) A good example of this is the haber process.
3) LABOUR COSTS (wages)
a) Everyone who works for a company has got to be paid
b) Labour intensive processes (ones that involve many people) can be very expensive
c) Automation cuts running costs by reducing the number of people involved
d) But companies have always got to weigh any savings they make on their wage bill against
the initial coast and running costs of the machinery
4) PLANT COSTS (equipment)
a) The cost of equipment depends on the conditions it has to cope with
b) E.g. It costs far more to make something to withstand very high pressures than something
which only needs to work at atmospheric pressure
5) RATE OF PRODUCTION
a) Generally speaking the faster the reaction goes, the better it is in terms of reducing the
time and costs of production
b) So rates of reaction are often increased by using catalysts
c) But the increase in production rate has to balance the cost of buying the catalyst in the
first place and replacing any that gets lost
 Optimum conditions are chosen to give the
lowest cost
1) Optimum conditions are those that give the lowest production cost per kg of product – even if
this means compromising on the speed of reaction or % yield

OPTIMUM CONDITIONS are those that give the LOWEST PRODUCTION COST

2) However, the rate of reaction and percentage yield must both be high enough to make a
sufficient amount of product each day
3) Don’t forget, a low percentage yield is okay, as long as the starting materials can be
recycled
DETERGENTS
AND DRY-
CLEANING
 Washing at low temperatures saves energy
(and your clothes)
1. When you’re washing clothes, high temperatures usually work best for getting things
clean. They melt greasy dirt deposits, so your detergent can break up and remove the
stain more easily.

2. But some natural fabrics (wool) shrink, and some artificial fabrics (nylon) quickly lose
their shape, if they’re washed at too high a temperature

3. Also, some dyes will run in high-temperature washes. Brightly coloured clothes can
quickly fade and stop looking new.

4. Nowadays you can get biological detergents, with enzymes in them. The enzymes
digest protein-based and fat-based stains without the need for high temperatures,
which protects your clothes. If you heat biological detergents above 40°C, the enzymes
denature and stop working.

5. Low-temperature washes also save energy, which is great for the environment and your
energy bill. Less energy used means less carbon dioxide emissions, reducing the
greenhouse effect and climate change
Detergents work by sticking to both water and grease
1) Some dirt will dissolve in water without the help of a
detergent, but most won’t. Anything that’s oil based won’t
dissolve in water at all
2)Detergents help water and oil mix
3) Detergents contain molecules that have hydrophilic
(water-loving) head and a hydrophobic (water-hating) tail.
4) The hydrophilic heads form intermolecular bonds with
the water.
Hydrophobic tail
Hydrophilic head 5) And the hydrophobic tails bond to the fat molecules in
greasy dirt
6) When you swish the fabrics around, the
Detergent molecules surround the oil
detergent molecules find their way in
Water
between the grease and wet fabric
molecule 7) The detergent molecules eventually
surround the grease completely, and bond to
it, with their hydrophilic heads around the
outside like a coat
Oil stains in 8) This hydrophilic coat stops the grease
clothes droplets reattaching themselves to the fabric
and they’re pulled away into the wash water
Wet fabric 9)Then, when you rinse the fabric, the grease
and dirt are rinsed away with the water
 Most detergents are salts
1) The original detergents were soaps, which are made from fats. Soaps form a scum with
hard water which can build up on your clothes – so they’re not used so much nowadays
2) Modern synthetic (soapless) detergents are mostly made using big organic molecules
from crude oil. An acid group is added to one end of the molecule to make an organic acid.
This is neutralised with a strong alkali, usually sodium or potassium hydroxide to form a salt:

Organic acid + strong alkali  salt(detergent) + water

3) Both kinds of detergent work in the same way. The covalent hydrocarbon chain is the
hydrophobic tail. The ionic bit on the end is the hydrophilic head
 CHEMICAL
PRODUCTION
 The type of manufacturing process depends
on the product
Continuous production: Large-scale industrial manufacture of popular
chemicals, e.g. The Haber process for making ammonia

Batch production: small quantities of specialist chemicals, e.g.

Pharmaceutical drugs, often on demand

Five factors affect the cost of pharmaceutical drugs

1) Market research
2) Research and development
3) Trialling
4) Marketing
5) Manufacture
To extract a substance from a plant it has to be crushed and dissolved in a suitable
solvent. Then, you can extract the substance you want by chromatography

Separate by
chromatography
Crush

Dissolve in a
suitable solvent
ALLOTROPES OF
CARBON
Diamond is used in jewellery and cutting tools
1) Diamonds are sparkly, colourless and clear. Ideal for jewellery
2) Each carbon atoms forms four covalent bonds in a very rigid giant
covalent structure, which makes diamond really hard. This makes
diamonds ideal as cutting tools.
3) All those strong covalent bonds give diamond a very high melting point.
4) It doesn’t conduct electricity because it has no free electrons.

Graphite makes the lead of your pencil

1) Graphite is black and opaque, but still kind of shiny
2) Each carbon atom only forms three covalent bonds, creating sheets of carbon
atoms which are free to slide over each other
3) The layers are held together so loosely that they can be rubbed off onto
paper, to leave a black mark – that’s how a pencil works. This also makes
graphite slippery, so it’s ideal for lubricating a material.
4) Graphite’s got a high melting point – the covalent bonds need loads of
energy to break
5) Since only three out of each carbon’s four outer electrons are used in bonds,
there are lots of spare electrons. This means graphite conducts electricity its
used for electrodes.
 Fullerenes are nanoparticles
Fullerenes are molecules of carbon, shaped like hollow balls or closed tubes.
Each carbon atom forms three covalent bonds with its neighbours, leaving
free electrons that can conduct electricity
2) The smallest fullerene is buckminsterfullerene, which has 60 carbon
atoms joined in a ball – its molecular formula is C60 Buckminster-
3) Fullerenes can be used to ‘cage’ other molecules. Fullerene structure fullerene
forms around another atom or molecule, which is then trapped inside. This
could be a new way of delivering a drug into the body, e.g. For slow release.

Fullerenes can be joined together to form nanotubes – teeny tiny hollow carbon tubes:
a) All those covalent bonds make carbon nanotubes very strong. They can be used to
reinforce graphite in tennis rackets and to make stronger, lighter building materials.
b) Nanotubes conduct electricity, so they can be used in tiny electric circuits for computer
chips.
c) They have a huge surface area, so they could help make great industrial catalysts –
individual catalyst molecules could be attached to the nanotubes (the bigger the surface
area the better)
Nanoparticles have very different properties from the
‘bulk’ chemical. Nanoparticles of normally unreactive
silver can kill bacteria. The colour of gold nanoparticles
actually varies from red to purple.

Nanoparticles can be made by molecular engineering, but

this is really hard. Molecular engineering is building a
product molecule-by-molecule to a specific design –
either by positioning each molecule exactly where you
want it or by starting with a bigger structure and taking
bits off it.
WATER PURITY
UK water resources
SURFACE WATER: lakes, rivers and reservoirs (artificial lakes).

GROUNDWATER: aquifers (rocks that trap water underground)

Water is purified in water treatment plants

1) Filtration – a wire mesh screens out large twigs etc., and then gravel and sand
beds filter out any other solid bits
2) Sedimentation – iron sulfate or aluminium sulfate is added to the water, which
makes fine particles clump together and settle at the bottom
3) Chlorination – chlorine gas is bubbled through to kill harmful bacteria and other
microbes

Tap water can still contain impurities

1)Nitrate residues – from excess fertiliser ‘run-off’ into rivers and lakes.
2) Lead compounds – from old lead pipes – POISONOUS
3) Pesticide residues – from spraying to near rivers and lakes
 You can test water for various dissolved ions

Test for some dissolved ions very easily using precipitation reactions (where two dissolved
compounds react to form an insoluble solid – the precipitate)
Add BaCl2
solution White
1) TEST FOR SULFATE IONS: add some dilute precipitate of
hydrochloric acid, then 10 drops of barium BaSO4

chloride solution to the test sample. If you see

a white precipitate, there are sulfate ions in
the sample.

Barium chloride + sulfate ions  barium sulfate + chloride ions

BaCl2 + SO4(2-)  BaSO4 + 2Cl-
TEST FOR HALIDE IONS: add some dilute nitric acid, then 10 drops of silver nitrate
solution to the test sample
Chloride ions will produce a white precipitate
Bromide ions will produce a pale yellow precipitate

e.g. If sodium iodide (Nal) is present in the water, you’ll get the following reaction:

AgNO3 + Nal  Agl + NaNO3

 C5
HOW MUCH?
THE MOLE
 MASS
(g)

MOLES MOLAR
(mol) MASS
(g/mol)
ELECTROLYSIS
The reaction at the negative electrode is:

Cu2+ + 2e-  Cu
The reaction at the positive electrode is:

Cu  Cu2+ + 2e-
 C5 Revision
56 Questions

GCSE Gateway Chemistry B

 Contents
1. Moles & empirical form... 4 questions
2. Electrolysis… 10 questions
3. Quantitative analysis… 2 questions
4. Titrations… 10 questions
5. Gas volumes… 2 questions
6. Equilibria… 9 questions
7. Strong and weak acids… 15 questions
8. Ionic equations… 4 questions
 Chapter 1

Moles and empirical formulae

4 Questions

Back to contents page

 Question 1

What is the Number of moles =

Mass of chemical
equation to
molar mass
work out the
number of
moles?
 Question 2

What is the The average

relative mass of an atom
atomic mass of the element
compared to the
of an
mass of 1/12th of
element?
carbon-12
 Question 3

What does the It gives the

empirical simplest whole
formula work number ratio of
out? each type of
atom in a
compound
 Question 4
1. Write down the mass of
each element present
What is the 2. Look up the relative atomic
mass of each element
step by step present
3. Work out how many moles
method of of each element present
4. Choose the element present
working out in the lowest amount
5. Divide the moles of each
empirical element by the moles in the
lowest amount
formulas
 Chapter 2

Electrolysis
10 Questions

Back to contents page

 Question 1
State the products of the electrolysis
decomposition of the following ...

1. K2SO4(aq)

Hydrogen and oxygen

contains K2SO4(aq) + SO42-(aq)
 Question 1
State the products of the electrolysis
decomposition of the following ...

2. KNO3(aq)

Hydrogen and oxygen

contains K+(aq) + NO3- (aq)
 Question 2

What is Electric current

electric is a flow of
current? charge
 Question 3

Describe A flow of
electrolysis charge and
discharge of
ions
 Question 4

What is an A solution in
aqueous which the
solution (aq)? solvent is
water
 Question 5

In the In the electrolysis

electrolysis of of aqueous
an aqueous solutions it may
solution, where be easier to
may it be easier discharge ions
to discharge from the water
ions from? rather than from
the solute
 Question 6
Fill in the table below ...

Electrolyte Half equation at cathode Half equation at anode

KCl 2K+ + 2e-  K 2Cl- - 2e-  Cl2

PbBr2 Pb2 + 2e-  Pb 2Br- - 2e-  Br2

Al2O3 2Al3 + 6e-  2Al 6O2- - 6e-  3O2

 Question 7
1. Positive ions move
towards the cathode
What happens 2. Negative ions move
to the ions towards the anode
3. When the ions reach
during the electrodes they are
discharged – they turn
electrolysis? into atoms or
molecules
 Question 8
• The negative
Describe the electrodes gain more
changes in mass of mass
the copper • The positive electrodes
loses mass
electrodes used in • The gain in mass of the
the electrolysis of negative electrode is
copper (II) sulfate equal to the loss in
mass of the positive
solution electrode
 Question 9
The amount of substance
Describe the produced at each
electrode increases with
factors that affect
current and time
the amount of Current – the amount of
substance charge transferred every
second
produced during
Time – the time the current
electrolysis flows
 Question 10

What is the link

between charge
Q = It
transfer, current Q = charge
and time? I = current
T = time
 Chapter 3

Quantitive Analysis
2 Questions

Back to contents page

 Question 1
Fill in the gaps ...

__________
The more ___________
CONCENTRATED a

solution is, the _____

MORE ______
________
CROWDED

_______
the ________
SOLUTE particles
 Question 2

Convert cm3 1 cm3 = 0.001 dm3

in dm3 and
vice verse 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
 Chapter 4

Titrations
10 Questions

Back to contents page

 Question 1

What is Titrations are used

titrations to find the
used to find concentration of an
alkali from a known
out?
concentration of an
acid or vice versa
 Question 2

What is the The point where

end point? all the acid has
reacted with all
the alkali
 Question 3

Why does the • Neutralisation

pH change • Acid + alkali 
during the salt + water
reaction of an
acid?
 Question 4

What is the Concentration =

equation to number of moles
work out the ÷ volume in dm3
concentration
of an alkali?
 Question 5

What is the Number of moles

equation to = concentration x
work out the volume in dm3
number of
moles?
 Question 6

What is the Volume in dm3 =

equation to number of moles
work out the ÷ concentration
volume in
dm3 ?
 Question 7

What is It gives one sudden

special about colour, and so the
litmus end point in
titration is very
paper?
easy to spot
 Question 8

What is It gives a
special about continuous colour
universal change so it is
difficult to see the
indicator?
end point
 Question 9

Explain the Titration is an

need for accurate technique
several but there is a chance
of experimental error.
consistent titre
If the readings are
readings in close, the technique
titration is reliable
 Question 10

When an acid It changes

reacts with an
alkali, what
happens to
the pH of the
solution?
 Chapter 5

Gas volumes
2 Questions

Back to contents page

 Question 1

What is the The one that is

limiting used up first of
reactant? all
 Question 2

What is the Number of

equation to moles =
work out the Volume of gas
number of in dm3 ÷ 24
moles in a
gas?
 Chapter 6

Equilibria
9 Questions

Back to contents page

 Question 1

Describe that • At equilibrium the rate

of the forward reaction
some equals the rate of the
reversible backward reaction
• The concentration of
reactions may the reactants and the
reach an products do not change
equilibrium
 Question 2

What happens The

when the concentration of
position of product is
equilibrium is greater than the
on the right? concentration of
reactant
 Question 3

What happens The

when the concentration of
position of the reactant is
equilibrium is greater than the
on the left? concentration of
product
 Question 4

• importance of a closed
Explain why a system
reversible • initially rate of forward
reaction decreases
reaction may • initially rate of backward
reaction increases
reach an • eventually rate of
equilibrium forward equals rate of
backward reaction
 Question 5
• removing a product moves
the position of equilibrium to
Explain factors the right or vice versa
that affect the • adding extra reactant moves
the position of equilibrium to
position of the right or vice versa
• increasing the pressure
equilibrium moves the position of
equilibrium to the side with
the least number of moles of
gas molecules.
 Question 6

State the • V2O5 catalyst

conditions • around 450°C
used in the • atmospheric
Contact pressure
Process
 Question 7

Where does the Sulfur dioxide

sulfur dioxide needed for the
that is needed Contact Process
often comes from
for the Contact
burning sulfur:
Process come sulfur + oxygen 
from? sulfur dioxide
 Question 8

Recall the symbol

equations for the
three stages in
the manufacture
of sulfuric acid by
the Contact
Process
 Question 9

• high temperature
Explain the decreases yield and
conditions increases rate of reaction
so an optimum is used
used in the • catalyst increase rate but
Contact not change position of
equilibrium;
Process • position of equilibrium is
already on right so high
pressure is expensive and
is not needed.
 Chapter 7

Strong and weak acids

15 Questions

Back to contents page

 Question 1

An acid To produce H+
ionises in
water to
produce...?
 Question 2

What happens It completely

to a strong ionises in
acid? water
 Question 3

The ionisation A reversible

of a weak acid reaction
is an example
of ...?
 Question 4

The ionisation An equilibrium

of a weak acid mixture
produces ...?
 Question 5

Why is the pH of Low pH number =

a weak acid much high concentration
higher than the of H+
pH of a strong High pH number =
acid of the same lower
concentration? concentration of
H+
 Question 6

Explain the • acid strength (strong

or weak) is a measure
difference of the degree of
between acid ionisation of the acid;
strength and • concentration of an
acid acid is a measure of
how many moles of
concentration acid in one dm3.
 Question 7

Write equations ????

for the
ionisation of
weak and
strong acids
given the
formula of the
acid limited to
 Question 8

Why does Because there

ethanoic acid are fewer
reacts slower hydrogen ions
than and so fewer
hydrochloric collisions with
acid? hydrogen ions
 Question 9

Why does • ethanoic acid is weak

and hydrochloric acid is
ethanoic acid strong
reacts slower • greater concentration of
than hydrogen ions
• greater collision
hydrochloric frequency with hydrogen
acid of the ions
same
concentration?
 Question 10

The volume of The amounts of

hydrogen reactants
formed is present not the
determined by acid strength!
...?
 Question 11

Why is ethanoic because there

acid is less are fewer
conductive than hydrogen ions
hydrochloric
acid of the
available to
same move
concentration?
 Question 12

Explain why ????????

hydrogen is
produced during
the electrolysis of
ethanoic acid and
of hydrochloric
acid
 Question 13

Explain that • ethanoic acid is

ethanoic acid is weak and
less conductive hydrochloric acid is
strong
than hydrochloric • greater
acid of the same concentration of
concentration hydrogen ions to
because carry the charge
 Question 14

Explain why ??????

strong acids
are
inappropriate
as descaling
agents
 Question 15

Why does ???????

acid reacts
slower than
hydrochloric
acid?
 Chapter 8

Ionic equations
4 Questions

Back to contents page

 Question 1

Ionic In fixed
substances positions in the
contain ions solid but can
which are ...? move in the
solution or
when melted
 Question 2

What must They must

happen to collide with
ions for them other ions if
to react? they are to
react
 Question 3

What are Extremely fast

most reactions
precipitate between ions
reactions?
 Question 4

Describe the • Mix solutions

stages involved of reactants
in the • Filtration
preparation • Wash and dry
given the
residue
names of the
reactants
End Of C5 Revision

Back to contents page

 C6

By Claire Hagger
 Redox Reactions
• A loss of electrons is called oxidation and a gain of
electrons is called reduction. REDuction and
OXidation happen at the same time hence REDOX.
An oxidising agent accepts electrons and gets
reduced and a reducing agent donates electrons and
get oxidised.
• Displacement reactions are redox reactions. It’s
always the metal ion that gains electrons and so is
reduced. The metal atoms looses electrons and so is
oxidised.
 Rusting of Iron
• Rusting happens when iron comes into contact with both oxygen from the air and water. It
is a form of hydrated iron (III) oxide.
• Iron+water+oxygenhydrated iron (III) oxide
• It is a redox reaction because each iron atom loses three electrons to become Fe3+. Iron is
oxidised. Oxygen gains two electrons when it reacts with iron to become O2-. Oxygen’s
reduced.
• Metals can be combined with other metals to make alloys- this prevents rust, e.g. stainless
steel.
• By coating the iron is a barrier it can prevent rusting as it keeps water and oxygen out.
Painting is best for larger structures and it makes they look nicer. Oiling or greasing is used
when moving parts are involved- e.g. bike chains.
• Tin plating is where a coat of tin is applied to object e.g. food cans. The tin acts as a barrier
stopping water and air reaching the iron. However, this only works if the tin remains in tact,
if it is scratched then the iron will lose electrons in preference to the tin and it will rust even
faster.
• There is also a sacrificial method where a more reactive metal is put with the iron so that
the water and air react with this and not the iron. Galvansing is when zinc is coated on the
object. It is more reactive so loses electrons instead of the iron. Blocks of metal can also be
bolted to the iron such as magnesium. IT IS NOT A DISPLACEMENT REACTION!!! There is not
a metal reacting with a metal salt.
 Electrolysis 1
• Electrolysis is the breaking down of a substance using electricity.
• An electric current is passed through a molten or dissolved ionic compound causing it to
decompose.
• This creates a flow of charge through the electrolyte.
• The positive ions in the solution move towards the cathode (negative) and gain electrons.
• The negative ions in the solution move towards the anode (positive) and lose electrons.
• As ions gain or lose electrons they become atoms or molecules and are discharged from
the solution at the electrodes.
• In aqueous solutions, as well as the ions from the solute, there are hydrogen ions (H+) and
hydroxide ions (OH-) from the water.
• Sometimes it’s easier to discharge the ions from the water than the ones in the solute.
• This means hydrogen could be produced at the cathode and oxygen at the anode.
• The electrolysis of NaOH and H₂SO₄ are both redox reactions, reduction takes place at the
cathode and oxidation takes place at the anode.
 Electrolysis 3
• The amount of product made during electrolysis depends on the
number of electrons that are transferred. If you increase the number
of electrons, you increase the amount of substance you produce. This
is done by electrolysing for a longer time or increasing the current.
• Current is the flow of charge and it’s charge that determines how
much product is formed during electrolysis. More charge means
more product. The amount of charge (Q, measured in coulombs)
flowing through a circuit is equal to the current (I) multiplied by the
time in seconds (t): Q=IT
• This means that the charge and the amount of product created
during electrolysis are directly proportional to the time taken and
current used.
 Fuel Cells 1
• Hydrogen and oxygen react to produce water, the reaction is exothermic (releases
energy).
• A fuel cell is an electrical cell that’s supplied with a fuel and oxygen and uses energy
from the reaction between them to produce electrical energy efficiently. There are
many different types but the main one is hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell. This cell combines
hydrogen and oxygen to produce heat energy and clean water so there are no nasty
pollutants.
• Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells involve a redox reaction:
– The electrolyte is a solution of potassium hydroxide. The electrodes are porous carbon with a
catalyst.
– Hydrogen goes into the anode compartment and oxygen in the cathode compartment.
– At the cathode (negative), oxygen gains electrons and reacts with water to make OH- ions. This is
reduction.
– OH- ions in the electrolyte move to the anode.
– At the anode (positive), hydrogen combines with the hydroxide to make water and electrons. The
hydrogen loses electrons so is oxidised.
– The electrons flow through an external circuit from the anode to the cathode- this is the electric
current.
– The overall reaction is hydrogen and oxygen make water.
 Fuel Cells 2
• Advantages:
• More efficient than power stations or batteries at producing electricity.
• Electricity generated is direct from reaction.
• Less stages in production mean less places for energy to be lost as heat.
• No moving parts so no energy is lost through friction.
• Only product is water, so there is no pollution.

• Disadvantages:
• Producing the hydrogen to power the fuel cells requires a lot of energy which normally comes from burning fossil fuels
which causes pollution.
• They contain poisonous catalysts which have to be disposed of which takes a lot of time, costs a lot of money and causes
environmental problems.
• Spacecrafts:
• Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells are used in spacecrafts.
• The gases are both readily available from the rocket fuel tanks.
• They are lightweight and compact so don’t take up much room.
• They don’t have moving parts which could go wrong.
• The product from the reaction (water) can be used as drinking water so the astronauts don’t have to take lots of water with
them.
• There are no other waste products or pollutants to get rid of.
• Car Industry:
• Developing fuel cells to replace petrol/diesel engines.
• Don’t produce conventional pollutants so are a major advantage in cities where air pollution from traffic is a big problem.
• There is a large amount of hydrogen as it is obtained by decomposing water, this is a big advantage over non-renewable
fuels like petrol.
 CFCs and the Ozone Layer 1
• Chlorofluorocarbons are organic molecules containing carbon, chlorine and fluorine.
• They are non-toxic, non-flammable and chemically invert. They are also insoluble in water and
have low boiling points. Scientists were very happy they discovered them as they were ideal for
many uses because of these properties. CFCs were used a coolants in fridges and air conditioning
systems and also propellants in aerosol cans.
• In ’74, scientists discovered chlorine helped destroy the ozone. In ‘85, scientists found evidence
of decreasing ozone levels above the Antarctica.
• Measurements showed that the upper atmosphere showed high levels of the compounds
produced by the breakdown of CFCs, this supported that CFCs were destroying the ozone.
• Ozone is a form of oxygen (O₃) so it has 3 oxygen atoms per molecule. It hangs about in the ozone
in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) where it absorbs UV light from the sun, ozone aborbs UV
light and breaks down into an oxygen molecules and an oxygen atom. These then join together to
make the ozone again.
• Reducing the amount of ozone means that more UV light can pass through the atmosphere
meaning more cases of skin cancer and sunburn.
• Governments had to wait until the research had been peer assessed before they could make a
decision about how harmful CFCs were.
• In ‘78 USA, Canada, Sweden and Norway banned CFCs as aerosol propellants.
• After the hole in the ozone was found, many countries decided to ban CFCs completely and
reduce there usage.
 CFCs and the Ozone Layer 2
• Free radicals are made by breaking covalent bonds. The covalent bond breaks evenly and each
atom gets one of the shared electrons. The unpaired electron makes the free radical very, very
reactive.
• UV light makes the carbon-chlorine bonds in the CFCs break to form free radicals. This happens
in the upper atmosphere where the UV light is stronger. Chlorine free radicals from this
reaction react with the ozone, turning it into ordinary oxygen molecules and chlorine oxide.
The chlorine oxide is very reactive and reacts with ozone to make two oxygen molecules and
another free radical. This radical now goes and reacts with another ozone molecule, this is a
chain reaction so just one free radical from one CFC can go around breaking up lots of ozone
molecules. They don’t attack the ozone directly, they break up and form chlorine atoms which
attack the ozone, these aren’t used up so they carry on breaking down the ozone.
• CFCs won’t react in the lower atmosphere, only the upper where there is lots of UV light. CFCs
in the upper atmosphere take a long time to be removed as one CFC molecule producing one
chlorine atom then reacts with lots of ozone molecules sp the millions of CFCs present will
continue to destroy the ozone even after CFCs are banned, continuing to destroy the ozone.
• Alkanes don’t react with the ozone so provide a safe alternative to CFCs. Hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs) don’t contain chlorine. Scientists have investigated the breakdown of HFCs in the upper
atmosphere and have found that none attack the ozone so have been deemed safe.
 Hardness of Water 1
• Hard water won’t lather easily but instead makes a scum. To increase the lather you need
to use more soap or softer water. Hard water also forms lime scale which is a thermal
insulator so when it builds up in a kettle it takes longer for the water to boil.
• Hard water contains calcium ions, magnesium ions or both. As water flows over rocks
containing these compounds, these ions dissolve it. Magnesium sulfate dissolves in water.
Calcium carbonate doesn’t dissolve in water but reacts with acids, as CO₂ from the air
dissolves in rainwater, it is slightly acidic which means that calcium carbonate can react
with rainwater to form calcium hydrogencarbonate which is soluble.
• Temporary hardness is caused by hydrogencarbonate ion. Permanent hardness is caused by
dissolved calcium sulfate.
• Temporary hardness is removed by boiling and the calcium hydrogencarbonate
decomposes to form insoluble calcium carbonate. This won’t work for permanent
hardness.
• Both types of hardness are removed by adding washing soda (sodium carbonate). The
carbonate ions join onto the calcium ions and make an insoluble precipitate of calcium
carbonate. This works whether the hardness is due to calcium sulfate or calcium
hydrogencarbonate.
• Both types of hardness can also be removed using ion exchange resin. The sodium or
hydrogen ions exchange for the calcium or magnesium ions.
 Hardness of Water 2
• Experiment to test water hardness:
• Add 100cm³ of water to an conical flask.
• Add 1cm³ soap solution to the water. Put a bung in and shake.
• Repeat this until a good lasting lather is formed (where bubbles cover the
surface for more than 30 seconds).
• Record how much soap was needed.

• If only 1cm³ of soap is needed then there is little or no hardness.

• If lots of soap was needed then it contains more hardness.
• If all hardness is removed by boiling water then the water only had temporary
hardness.
• If there is still some hardness left after boiling the water then it contains both
temporary and permanent hardness.
 Alcohols
• The general formula for alcohols is CnH₂n+₁OH.
• The basic naming system is the same as alkanes but replace the final
‘e’ with ‘ol’.
• Fermentation is used to convert sugars into ethanol. The reaction is
brought around by enzymes found in yeast. The temperature is
carefully controlled so that it’s not too cold the enzymes are inactive
but it’s not too hot so that the enzymes are denatured (25°C to
50°C). It’s important to prevent oxygen getting into the fementer as
the oxygen converts ethanol into ethanoic acid which is in vinegar.
Once the reaction stops, the mixture can be distilled using fractional
distillation to get pure ethanol.
• Ethanol can also be made by hydrating ethene. This is usually done
on an industrial scale. Ethene will react with steam to make ethanol.
The reaction needs a temperature of 300°C and a pressure of 70atm,
to speed up the reaction a phosphoric acid catalyst is heated.
 Fermentation Hydration
Manufacture Batch process= slow and Continuous process= quickly
inefficient made but more expensive
due to harsher conditions

Sustainability Renewable fuel- made by Non-renewable fuel-

renewable resources so we produced from crude oil
won’t run out which will eventually run out

Purity Not very pure and has to be Higher purity

distilled before use

Atom Economy Low atom economy as not all Higher atom economy
the atoms in the reactants
are used to make the ethanol

Percentage Yield Much lower Yield is very low but the

recycling of any unused
products means you can
achieve yields of 95%
 Fats and Oils
• Animal fats and oils include lard, blubber, ghee and cod liver oil. Plant fats and oils include walnut
oil, olive oil and soya oil.
• Fats are solid at room temperature and oils are liquid at room temperature.
• Fats and oils are esters (what you get when you react an acid with an ester). Fats and oils are
produced when glycerol reacts with fatty acids.
• These are important raw materials for the chemical industry (paints, machine lubricants,
detergents, cosmetics). They can also be used as alternative to chemicals made from crude oil.
• Oils don’t mix in water- they’re immiscible. You can mix two immiscible liquids to make an
emulsion, if you shake the two liquids then they break up into small droplets and disperse through
the water.
• Milk is an oil-in-water emulsion (oil droplets suspended in water, less oil than water).
• Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion (water droplets suspended in oil, less water than oil).
• Vegetable oils (rapeseed, soybean) can be processed and turned into fuels, it has lots of energy so
is suitable. Biodiesel has similar properties to diesel so can be burnt in the same way making it a
good alternative.
• Vegetable oils react with alkali to make soap. Natural fats and oils are boiled up with sodium
hydroxide, the hot sodium hydroxide splits up the fats and oils to produce soap and glycerol. This is
called saponification.
• The chemical reaction first breaks up the fat or oil to release glycerol and fatty acids. This is called
hydrolysis. Then the fatty acids react with the sodium hydroxide to make soap.
• Fat + sodium hydroxide  soap +glycerol
 Using Plant Oils
• Oil and fats contain long chain molecules with lots of carbon atoms. They can either be
saturated or unsaturated. Saturated has single C-C bonds. Unsaturated has double C=C
bonds. Monounsaturated have one double C=C bond. Polyunsaturated have more than
one double C=C bond. C=C double bonds can be detected with bromine water. An
unsaturated double bond will decolourise the bromine water as an addition reaction takes
place at the double bond and a colourless dibromo compound is formed. Saturated has
only single bonds so cannot react and the bromine water stays orange.
• Unsaturated vegetable oils are liquid at room temperature. They can be hardened by
reacting them with hydrogen with a nickel catalyst at 60°C. This is called hydrogenation
(the hydrogen reacts with the double-bonded carbons and opens out the double bonds).
• Margarine is made from partially hydrogenated vegetable oil as turning all the double
bonds into single ones would make it too hard to spread.
• Vegetable oils/fats are unsaturated and animals fats/oils are saturated.
• Saturated fats are less healthy as they increase the amount of cholesterol in the blood
which blocks up arteries).
• Natural unsaturated oils (olive, sunflower) reduce the amount of cholesterol in the blood.
• Partially hydrogenated vegetable oil increases the amount of bad cholesterol in the blood
and decreases the good. Eating foods with partially hydrogenated vegetable oils in can
increase the risk of heart disease.
 Detergents
• Detergents/ soaps have a hydrophobic tail/ long hydrocarbon chain which doesn’t like
water and a hydrophilic head/small ionic part which loves water. The hydrophilic end
forms strong intermolecular forces with the water molecules and the hydrophobic end
forms strong intermolecular forces with the oil molecules. This means that when
detergents come into contact with fat/oil a droplet of oil/fat forms, surrounded by a
coat of detergent which helps lift oily dirt out of a fabric.
• Dry cleaning is any cleaning process that uses other solvents instead of water. These
solvents are better than detergents at cleaning stains that won’t dissolve in water. This
is because the solvents completely dissolve the oil and grease removing the stains:
• There are weak intermolecular forces between the solvent molecules and between the molecules of grease.
• When a solvent is applied to the clothes, intermolecular forces are formed between the solvent and grease molecules so
the grease molecules are surrounded by molecules of solvent.
• When the solvent is removed, the grease is removed with it and the clothes are left clean.
• Biological detergents contain enzymes which are biological catalysts that help break
down large insoluble molecules into smaller soluble ones that can be removed. Most
enzymes work best at lower temperatures so using biological detergents mean you can
wash at lower temperatures so that the enzymes are not denatured. It also means that
you can energy and money off your bills and you can wash more delicate clothes in the
washing machine.