Journal Pre-proofs

Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap

in Theory of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satis-
faction and Trust in Organic Food Consumption

Parves Sultan, Tasmiha Tarafder, David Pearson, Joanna Henryks

PII: S0950-3293(19)30073-4
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2019.103838
Reference: FQAP 103838

To appear in: Food Quality and Preference

Received Date: 30 January 2019

Revised Date: 25 October 2019
Accepted Date: 28 October 2019

Please cite this article as: Sultan, P., Tarafder, T., Pearson, D., Henryks, J., Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived
Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication,
Satisfaction and Trust in Organic Food Consumption, Food Quality and Preference (2019), doi: https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.foodqual.2019.103838

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Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–
Behaviour Gap in Theory of Planned Behaviour: Moderating
Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in Organic
Food Consumption

Parves Sultan1
School of Business and Law
Central Queensland University
Level 4/08, 120 Spencer Street
Melbourne, VIC. 3000, Australia

Tasmiha Tarafder
School of Management
RMIT University, Australia

David Pearson
School of Business and Law
Central Queensland University, Australia

Joanna Henryks
Independent Management Consultant

Abstract

This study examines the moderating effects of perceived communication, satisfaction and trust on the intention–
behaviour gap and the perceived behavioural control (PBC)–behaviour gap in the theory of planned behaviour
(TPB) model, using a quantitative research method. A nationwide panel-only online survey was conducted,
resulting in 1,011 usable responses from organic food consumers in Australia. Data were analysed statistically
using SPSS v.25 and SmartPLS 3 software, and the hypotheses were tested using the partial least squares-based
structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) technique. The findings confirm that perceived communication,
satisfaction and trust positively and significantly enhance purchase behaviour and lessen gaps in the intention–
behaviour and PBC–behaviour relationships in the TPB model. This study also validates the TPB model and finds
statistically significant results in support of all of its 14 hypotheses. It is the first such study to examine the
intervention efficacy or moderating effects of perceived communication, satisfaction and trust on the intention–
behaviour and PBC–behaviour gaps in the TPB model. Examining the mediational effect of behavioural intention
in the TPB model and including the Australian context are among its other contributions. Organic food producers
and marketers aiming for sustained, positive changes in consumer behaviour are encouraged to consider the
findings and implications of this study.

Keywords: Communication; trust; satisfaction; behaviour; organic food; TPB; SEM

Paper type: Research Paper

1
Corresponding author, E-mail: p.sultan@cqu.edu.au
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

Author Bios
Parves Sultan is a Senior Lecturer at the School of Business, Central Queensland University, Australia. His research
articles appeared in a number of scholarly journals. Among these, Journal of Brand Management, Managing
Service Quality (Journal of Service Theory and Practice), Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing,
International Journal on Disability and Human Development, Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics,
International Journal of Bank Marketing, Australasian Journal of Regional Studies, Journal of Food Products
Marketing, Quality Assurance in Education, and International Journal of Quality and Service Sciences are worth
mentioning. His research interests include sustainable consumption, consumer behaviour, corporate–society
relationships, environmental and health challenges, performance measurement and branding of the profit and non-
profit sectors.
Tasmiha Tarafder works at the RMIT University, Australia. She received a few best paper awards from the
ANZSRAI conferences and published in the Australasian Journal of Regional Studies, and a book on sustainable
health issues.
David Pearson is a Professor at the School of Business, Central Queensland University, Australia. He is currently
an executive in the Fight Food Waste Cooperative Research Centre, Australia. His research articles appeared in a
number of journals, including, Food Quality and Preferences, British Food Journal, Appetite, and Social Marketing
Quarterly.
Joanna Henryks is a management consultant and coach. She was an Assistant Professor at the University of
Canberra and a Senior Consultant at the Matrix. Her research articles appeared in a number of journals, including,
Health Promotion International and Journal of Food Products Marketing.
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory

of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

Abstract

This study examines the moderating effects of perceived communication, satisfaction and trust on the intention–
behaviour gap and the perceived behavioural control (PBC)–behaviour gap in the theory of planned behaviour
(TPB) model, using a quantitative research method. A nationwide panel-only online survey was conducted,
resulting in 1,011 usable responses from organic food consumers in Australia. Data were analysed statistically
using SPSS v.25 and SmartPLS 3 software, and the hypotheses were tested using the partial least squares-based
structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) technique. The findings confirm that perceived communication,
satisfaction and trust positively and significantly enhance purchase behaviour and lessen gaps in the intention–
behaviour and PBC–behaviour relationships in the TPB model. This study also validates the TPB model and
finds statistically significant results in support of all of its 14 hypotheses. It is the first such study to examine the
intervention efficacy or moderating effects of perceived communication, satisfaction and trust on the intention–
behaviour and PBC–behaviour gaps in the TPB model. Examining the mediational effect of behavioural
intention in the TPB model and including the Australian context are among its other contributions. Organic food
producers and marketers aiming for sustained, positive changes in consumer behaviour are encouraged to
consider the findings and implications of this study.

Keywords: Communication; trust; satisfaction; behaviour; organic food; TPB; SEM

Paper type: Research Paper

Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory

of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

1. Introduction and research context

Consumer interest in organic food has increased significantly in recent years. The global sales
of organic foods in 2010, 2012 and 2014 exceeded USD59.1 billion, 63 billion and 80 billion,
respectively (Asif, Xuhui, Nasiri, & Ayyub, 2018; Willer & Lernoud, 2013). The Australian
organic sector is conservatively estimated to have a value of more than USD1.82 billion,
which is strongly influenced by both export growth and domestic sales (Willer & Lernoud,
2018). Exports of Australian organic foods accounted for 17% of total organic food sales in
the country between 2015 and 2016. The Australian domestic market is also growing steadily,
with an annual average organic food consumption of USD46 per person (Willer & Lernoud,
2018). Despite this growth, current organic food sales continue to be low and are estimated to
represent only a 0.8–1.2% share of the Australian food market (Monk, Mascitelli, Lobo, Chen,
& Bez, 2012). A low sales volume reflects that the organic food market is a niche market
(Lockie, Lyons, Lawrence, & Grice, 2004), and that consumers often lack sufficient
information, trust, motivation, satisfaction and conviction to support their intention of buying
organic foods (Harper & Makatouni, 2002; Pham, Nguyen, Phan, & Nguyen, 2019).

Various theories have been proposed to explain individuals’ behaviour. For example, the
theory of reasoned action (TRA) describes behaviour as a product of attitudes and subjective
norms (beliefs) mediated through behavioural intention (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). To enhance
predictability, Ajzen (1991) added another construct, perceived behavioural control (PBC), to
the TRA model and termed this resulting model the theory of planned behaviour (TPB).
However, studies have revealed that consumers’ generally accepted positive attitudes towards
organic food do not reflect their organic food purchase behaviours, which is referred to as the
attitude–behaviour gap (Ackermann & Palmer 2014; Iweala, Spiller, & Meyerding, 2019;
Padel & Foster, 2005; Valkila & Saari, 2013; Vermeir & Verbeke, 2008; Zhou, Thøgersen,
Ruan, & Huang, 2013). A meta-analytic study on the efficacy of the TPB model found that
this theory can explain 39% of the variance in behavioural intention and 27% of the variance
in reported behaviour (Armitage & Conner, 2001). This intention–behaviour gap in the TPB
framework was also found in a cross-cultural study that demonstrated that an extended TPB
model could explain 56% and 32% of the variance in intention to purchase and 53% and 17%
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

of the variance in the purchasing behaviour of organic food consumers in Germany and Chile,
respectively (Meyer-Höfer, Olea-Jaik, Antonio Padilla-Bravo, & Spiller, 2015). Although the
attitude–behaviour gap in the TPB or TRA is commonly found in the recent literature
(Michaelidou & Hassan, 2014), adequate evidence on the intention–behaviour gap and PBC–
behaviour gap and the ways in which these gaps can be lessened to improve behavioural
outcomes is lacking. Thus, the intention–behaviour gap is poorly understood, although it has
theoretical and practical significance for researchers as well as managers (Carrington, Neville,
& Whitwell, 2010).

Many empirical studies have explored the attitude–intention and intention–behaviour

relationships; however, studies exploring ways to minimise or explain these gaps are scarce
(Hassan, Shiu, & Shaw, 2016). Some studies have found that planning has a positive and
significant mediational effect only in the intention–behaviour relationship (Carrington et al.,
2010; Grimmer & Miles, 2017; Hassan et al., 2016). However, research explaining the
intention–behaviour gap using the full TPB model is lacking to date.

Moreover, current literature fails to explain how the gap in the PBC–behaviour relationship in
TPB might be reduced to increase desirable behaviours. PBC is defined as the perceived ease
or difficulty related to personal control over resources, opportunities (Ajzen, 1991), desires
and motives to intend or to reach a behavioural outcome. Organic foods are perceived as
healthier (Chen, 2007) and environmentally sustainable produce (Singh & Verma, 2017).
However, certain barriers may affect organic food consumption behaviour. It was reported that
many consumers are aware of the meaning conveyed by the term ‘organic’, but cannot define
organic practices (Asif et al., 2018). Thus, they are often unaware of the processes used to
produce organic food items (Pettersson, Weeks, Wilson, & Nicol, 2016) and the reasons that
these are costlier than conventional food items (Misra & Singh, 2016). These barriers are
likely to weaken the PBC–behaviour relationship in the TPB model despite consumers having
control over their personal factors to some extent, including resources, desires and motives.

In addition, studies have found that the moderating effect of awareness about organic food on
the PBC–intention relationship is negative and insignificant (Asif et al., 2018). Consumer
awareness about organic food items and perceived benefits to health and environment varies
across countries (see, for example, Blandon, Cranfield, & Henson, 2007; Bonti-Ankomah &
Yiridoe, 2006). Thus, current literature suggests that the use of communications aiming to
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

provide green knowledge and encourage customers to buy green products can further
influence buying behaviour (e.g. Grimmer & Miles, 2017; Meyer-Höfer et al., 2015;
Nuttavuthisit & Thøgersen, 2017). The current review, however, did not find any evidence on
the moderating roles of communication, satisfaction and trust in the intention–behaviour and
PBC–behaviour relationships.

Consumer satisfaction and trust have been reported as important determinants of behavioural
intention (Sultan & Wong, 2012, 2014, 2018) and behaviour (Ottar Olsen & Grunert, 2010).
Satisfaction is the degree to which the level of fulfilment is pleasant or unpleasant (Oliver,
1997), and trust is a psychological state derived from transactional, evaluative, affective
and/or emotional judgement (Sultan & Wong, 2014). Trust in organic food refers to relying on
organic food quality, taste, certification, production and marketing processes despite these
having vulnerabilities. Trust in the organic food production process, including in relation to
maintaining standards and control, was found to have significant causal effects on both
intention and behaviour (Giampietri, Verneau, Del Giudice, Carfora, & Finco, 2018;
Nuttavuthisit & Thøgersen, 2017).

In the context of organic foods, communication, consumer satisfaction and trust are more
important than in the case of conventional foods because of the related environmental claims,
including production processes and certification, and health claims. These are important
because a lack of appropriate communication or awareness, dissatisfaction and distrust in any
of those elements negatively influences consumer purchase intention and behaviour.
Therefore, communication and consumer satisfaction regarding, and trust in, organic food
items may help to remove perceived barriers (e.g. PBC) and ease the behavioural control
factors to intend and to perform a specific behaviour.

In summary, the current literature does not provide evidence to demonstrate the moderating
role of perceived communication (as an external stimulus), satisfaction and/or trust (as internal
stimuli) in the PBC–behaviour and intention–behaviour relationships using the TPB model.
Further, some studies have reported that the attitude–behaviour gap exists (Ackermann &
Palmer 2014; Iweala et al., 2019; Zhou et al., 2013), whereas research on the intention–
behaviour gap is relatively scarce, and on the PBC–behaviour gap is non-existent. Hassan et
al. (2016) found that very little quantitative evidence is available on the intention–behaviour
gap and the possible efficacy of interventions in ethical consumption contexts. The present
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

study considers that consumers may intend to buy a product but later encounter barriers
related to psychological (e.g. trust, satisfaction, learning and motivation), economic (e.g.
affordability) and physical (e.g. distance and availability) factors in making a purchase
decision. Similarly, consumers may have PBC over hedonic and cognitive factors (e.g.
enjoyment, feeling, desire and pleasure) and yet lack sufficient drive to make a purchase
decision. Thus, the novel aim of this study is to examine the moderating effects or intervention
efficacy of perceived communication, satisfaction and trust on the intention–behaviour and
PBC–behaviour relationships in the TPB framework (Figure 1). Including the Australian
organic food consumers in the current research has several merits. The Australian organic
food sector is emerging strongly, based on the considerable area of Australian organic
farmland and growth of the market for Australian produce in the Oceania region (Willer &
Lernoud, 2018). Moreover, research evidence in the Australian context is inadequate,
compared with that on North America, Central Asia and Europe (Sultan, Wong, & Sigala,
2018).

-------------------------------------Please insert Figure 1 about here------------------------------

2. Construct definition and research hypotheses

The conceptual framework for this study is founded on the TPB (Ajzen, 1991). TPB posits
three major antecedents to behavioural intention: attitudes, subjective norms and PBC. The
TPB considers behaviour the product of the mediating effect of behavioural intention on
attitudes, subjective norms and PBC. It assumes that perceived ease and difficulty (PBC) also
influences a consumer to perform a certain behaviour. Although TPB has been widely used in
the literature, a clearer model based on quantitative analysis is required (Scalco, Noventa,
Sartori, & Ceschi, 2017, p. 238). The call for more studies based on TPB was echoed by
several other studies that suggested conducting further empirical and quantitative analyses of
the moderating effects of various factors (Grimmer & Miles, 2017; Hassan et al., 2016). Thus,
the novel aim of the present study is to examine the moderating effects of perceived
communication, satisfaction and trust on the intention–behaviour and PBC–behaviour
relationships in the TPB model and in the context of Australian organic food consumers.

Attitude and behavioural intention: TPB defines attitude as the extent to which a person
favourably or unfavourably evaluates the subject in question (Ajzen, 1991). The relationship
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

between attitude and behavioural intention in the TPB framework is perhaps the most
predictable, and is stronger than the others. Research on organic food has also found that
attitude can significantly predict behavioural intention (Armitage & Conner, 2001; Asif et al.,
2018; Tarkiainen & Sundqvist, 2005). According to Ajzen (1991), stronger attitudes,
subjective norms and PBC lead to a stronger behavioural intention to perform the behaviour in
question. Attitudes reflect an individual’s preferences to perform or not to perform a
behaviour (Scalco et al., 2017). Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H1: Attitude has a positive and significant effect on behavioural intention.

H2: Behavioural intention mediates the relationship between attitudes and behaviour.

Subjective norms and behavioural intention: Subjective norms shape an individual’s

behaviour, based on elements that people generally approve of and the customary behaviour of
their community. Ajzen (1991) stated that a global measure of the subjective norm is the
extent to which ‘important others’ would approve or disapprove of an individual’s behaviour.
The most important social influences in relation to organic food purchase and consumption are
from family, friends, relatives, work colleagues and other reference groups (Scalco et al.,
2017). Thus, the subjective norm is the individual’s belief about opinions of significant others
in social settings about certain behaviours, which encourages the individual to perform or not
to perform a particular behaviour. Therefore, this study proposes the following hypotheses:

H3: Subjective norm has a positive and significant effect on behavioural intention.
H4: Behavioural intention mediates the relationship between subjective norm and
behaviour.

PBC, behavioural intention and behaviour: PBC reflects the extent to which the performance
of an intended behaviour is under the consumer’s control and within their capacities (Ajzen,
2002; Grimmer & Miles, 2017; Kidwell & Jewell, 2003). PBC assesses an individual’s self-
control in regard to performing a behaviour or not (Asif et al., 2018). Earlier research
conceptualised PBC as influenced by external barriers, including price and availability
(Magnusson, Arvola, Koivisto Hursti, Å berg, & Sjödén, 2001), but ignored the roles of
consumers’ internal factors, such as consumption pleasure versus disappointment and
excitement versus regret. In this context, Ajzen (1991) stated that PBC is based on
individuals’ beliefs about their influence over a situation and the internal factors that facilitate
their behaviour. Thus, PBC reflects the effects of previous consumption experience and of the
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

anticipated barriers and ‘ease factors’ on intended behaviour and reported behaviour.
Experiences with affirmative PBC result in positive behavioural intention and may lead
directly to a behaviour. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H5: PBC has a positive and significant effect on behavioural intention.

H6: Behavioural intention mediates the relationship between PBC and behaviour.
H7: PBC has a positive and significant effect on behaviour.

Behavioural intention and behaviour: Behavioural intentions signal whether consumers will
continue to purchase from the company (Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1996). Behavioural
intention is defined as the consumer’s readiness to perform particular behaviours and can
encompass positive and negative attitudinal outcomes (Sultan & Wong, 2012). Behavioural
intentions in the organic food context are associated with positive word-of-mouth
recommendations, a commitment to repurchase organic food items and a commitment to pay
price premiums. Stronger intentions to engage in certain behaviours usually produce those
behaviours (Ajzen, 1991; Vermeir & Verbeke, 2008). The intention to behave and the
behaviour arising from that intention are conceptually distinct. Many studies have argued that
intentional and attitudinal loyalty measures do not necessarily predict subsequent behaviour
(Mittal & Kamakura, 2001; Ottar Olsen & Grunert, 2010) and that consumers’ purchasing
behaviours are a product of their behavioural intentions (Michaelidou & Hassan, 2014).
Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H8: Behavioural intention has a positive and significant effect on behaviour.

Moderating effects: To the best of our knowledge, no study empirically examines how
perceived communication, trust and satisfaction moderate the intention–behaviour and PBC–
behaviour relationships. PBC is defined as external (e.g. price and availability) and internal
(e.g. motivation) control factors determining whether a person commits to buying a product.
The intention–behaviour gap has been widely discussed in the literature, whereas the PBC–
behaviour gap has not attracted much attention. Numerous studies have empirically examined
the intention–behaviour gap and suggested that some factors (e.g. planning) may hinder the
development of intentions into behaviour (Hassan et al., 2016). Grimmer and Miles (2017)
suggested that research considering the role of in-store promotion and its effect on purchasing
decisions may reduce the intention–behaviour gap. The literature has also suggested that a
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

lack of information and trustworthiness are major factors impeding consumers from buying
organic foods (Meyer-Höfer et al., 2015; Nuttavuthisit & Thøgersen, 2017).

Organic foods are pro-environmental, healthy and credence goods (Chen, 2007; Chiu, Ortiz,
Chih, Pang, & Huang, 2019; McCarthy & Murphy, 2013; Roitner-Schobesberger, Darnhofer,
Somsook, & Vogl, 2008). Their production, storage, transportation and preservation processes
are quite different, and these factors add to the perceived higher costs of organic food items
compared with those of conventional foods. Consumers often lack required information about
the reasons that organic foods are healthy, environment-friendly and costly. Thus, effective
communication, including labelling, packaging, trustworthy certification and point-of-
purchase (PoP) information/promotion, may prove useful intervening activities to ease PBC
factors and strengthen consumers’ intentions to promote the desired behaviour. Similarly,
psychological factors, including consumer satisfaction and trust in perceived communication,
consumption experience, certification, labelling, packaging, PoP activities, vendors and
producers, also help organic food consumers to overcome PBC factors and strengthen their
intention to perform a behaviour. Thus, this study proposes:

H9a: Perceived communication significantly moderates the intention–behaviour

relationship.
H9b: Perceived communication significantly moderates the PBC–behaviour relationship.
H10a: Perceived satisfaction significantly moderates the intention–behaviour relationship.
H10b: Perceived satisfaction significantly moderates the PBC–behaviour relationship.
H11a: Perceived trust significantly moderates the intention–behaviour relationship.
H11b: Perceived trust significantly moderates the PBC–behaviour relationship.

3. Research method

3.1 Questionnaire design and pre-testing

The survey instruments for each of the constructs were conceptualised and adapted from the
literature, including attitude—eleven items (Baker, Thompson, & Engelken, 2004; Chen,
2009; Roitner-Schobesberger, Darnhofer, Somsook, & Vogl, 2008; Shin, Im, Jung, & Severt,
2018); subjective norm—three items (Giampietri et al., 2018; Shin et al., 2018); PBC—seven
items (Asif et al., 2018; Grimmer & Miles, 2017; Kang, Tang, Lee, & Bosselman, 2012);
behavioural intention—eight items (Cronin, Brady, & Hult, 2000; Sultan & Wong, 2012,
2014; Zeithaml et al., 1996); behaviour—two self-reported items (Giampietri et al., 2018);
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

perceived communication—four items (Hänninen & Karjaluoto, 2017; Sultan & Wong, 2012,
2014); trust—eight items (Krystallis & Chryssohoidis, 2005; Sultan & Wong, 2012, 2014);
and satisfaction—four items (Oliver, 1997; Ottar Olsen & Grunert, 2010).

The research instruments are reproduced in Appendices 1 and 2. A seven-point Likert-type

scale was provided for responses, except for self-reported behaviour. Although self-reported
behaviour is not an accurate measure of observed or actual behaviour (Barr, Gilg, & Ford,
2005; McFarland, Checinska Sielaff, Rasco, & Smith, 2019), it is often used as a proxy
measure in the literature reflecting actual behavioural practices (Feng & Bruhn, 2019; van
Bavel, Rodríguez-Priego, Vila, & Briggs, 2019). Thus, the behaviour construct, in this study,
used two self-reported items: the monthly average frequency of purchasing organic foods and
the monthly average expenditure on organic foods. The scale development process followed
suggestions to include multi-item measures for each construct to obtain better assessments
(Churchill, 1979). The layout and design of the online questionnaire were modelled around the
suggestions of Dillman, Smyth and Christian (2009), including asking general and
demographic questions at the beginning. The questionnaire was reviewed, and its face validity
was also confirmed by an expert panel of four academic researchers and one practitioner. The
questionnaire underwent a two-stage pilot test with 49 respondents, and some minor changes
were made to clarify some items.

3.2 Survey administration

This research was based on an online panel survey. The online panel was a targeted sample,
which was appropriate because not many Australian consumers have had experience with
organic food items, unlike consumers in more mature markets (Dermody, Hanmer-Lloyd,
Koenig-Lewis, & Zhao, 2015; Thøgersen, Barcellos, Perin, & Zhou, 2015). An independent
market research company was recruited to collect data. A sample of 17,615 respondents, from
all six Australian States and two Territories, was randomly selected from the national online
panel. To qualify for this survey, respondents had to be at least 18 years old and have
purchased organic food products in the recent past (≤ 6 months; Sultan & Wong, 2014, 2018)

3.3 Response rate

Although some studies have suggested that a sample size of 200 is sufficient for structural
equation model (SEM) analysis (Hoelter, 1983; Loehlin, 1992), the literature has also used
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

less than 100 samples (Whittaker, Ledden, & Kalafatis, 2007). According to Bentler and Chou
(1987), SEM analysis requires at least five cases per parameter estimate. From this
perspective, at least 235 valid responses are required for 47 items, but a larger sample size is
always desirable to minimise sampling error (Randall & Gibson, 1990). The online survey for
the current research generated 1,011 completed responses (5.7% response rate), excluding
incomplete responses (508 responses) and screened-out responses (351 responses). The online
response rate was relatively low compared with those for pen-paper and face-to-face surveys,
but this is in line with rates reported by other studies (Sax, Gilmartin, & Bryant, 2003).
Therefore, the completed responses were sufficient for SEM data analysis.

3.4 Data analysis

To establish valid and reliable scales for each of the constructs and to determine the causal
relationships for theory confirmation, this study used the partial least squares-structural
equation modelling (PLS-SEM), which focuses on estimating and analysing the relationships
between the latent variables in the model, provides the flexibility to consider all pathway
coefficients simultaneously and results in more robust estimates of the structural model than
does covariance-based structural equation modelling (CB-SEM; Ma, Li, & Zhang, 2018;
Rahman & Kamarulzaman, 2015; Reinartz, Haenlein, & Henseler, 2009). As an alternative to
the CB-SEM approach (which requires software such as AMOS, LISREL, EQS, COSAN and
SEPATH), PLS-SEM (which requires software such as SmartPLS 3) avoids two serious
problems: inadmissible solutions and factor indeterminacy (Fornell & Bookstein, 1982). PLS-
SEM is capable of modelling latent constructs under non-normal conditions with small-to-
medium sample sizes (Bagozzi & Yi, 1994; Chin, 2010). Further, PLS-SEM can work with
reflective and/or formative indicators (Rodríguez-Entrena & Salazar-Ordóñez, 2013). Hence,
the use of PLS-SEM is appropriate.

4. Results

An overview of the sample profile revealed that the sample consisted of 501 males and 510
females. The gross annual household incomes of the organic food consumers were skewed
towards the low income (≤ AUD44,999, 25.2%) and the high income (≥AUD 105,000,
17.3%) categories. The results demonstrated that 87.9% of these organic food consumers
spent below AUD100 for household organic food purposes in an average week. Most
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

consumers (97.4%) had formal educational qualifications, ranging from Year 10 to

postgraduate degree qualifications. The results also revealed that organic foods were
consumed mostly by young adults (25–39 years old, 36.2%) and middle-aged consumers (40–
54 years old, 28.6%). Overall, Australian-born consumers (72.2%) dominated the sample

The nonparametric chi-square (𝑥 2 ) test of goodness-of-fit for ‘gender’ yields an insignificant

𝑥 2 value, 𝑥 2 (df = 1, n = 1,011) = 0.120, p > 0.05, meaning that there is no significant
difference in the ratio of males to females in our sample compared with the ratio for
Australian organic food consumers generally (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010; Ho,
2006). The extrapolation method was used to determine nonresponse bias. This study divided
the usable responses (n = 1,011) into two groups, early responses and late responses, and
employed the independent sample t-test (Pallant, 2010). The results of the nonresponse bias
test showed that the p-value for each item was greater than 0.05 for Levene’s test for equality
of variances, meaning that equal variances may be assumed for the two groups being
compared. Thus, there is no significant difference caused by nonresponse between the two
groups for any variable considered by this study.

Table 1 shows the results of convergent and discriminant validity tests. The Cronbach’s alpha
(CA) value exceeds 0.70, suggesting good internal consistency for each of the constructs,
except for behaviour. The behaviour construct included two self-reporting items and was not
based on a Likert-type scale. However, composite reliability values for all the constructs were
satisfactory (> 0.60). Research suggests that the CA value is not always sufficient to evaluate
the internal consistency of the measurement model since it can provide results sensitive to the
sample size and the scale used for a construct (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair, Hult, Ringle, &
Sarstedt, 2014). Thus, an alternative measure, such as composite reliability, has been
suggested in the literature for use in conjunction with CA values (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).
The results of both tests were satisfactory and confirmed the internal consistency and
reliability of the measures.

-----------------------------Please insert Table 1 about here-----------------------------

Convergent validity was ensured by examining the outer loadings (factor loadings) of the
items in each of the constructs. Research suggests that an outer loading of > 0.70 is acceptable
and that values < 0.40 should always be eliminated (Hair et al., 2014). Results indicated an
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

outer loading of 0.61 (Q15) for a self-reported item, ‘average expenditure for organic foods in
a month’ within the ‘behaviour’ construct, and of 0.70 (Q7_3) for ‘no harmful effect to health’
in the ‘attitude’ construct, which were lower than those for other items (Figure 2). However,
all the item loadings were statistically significant (t-value > 1.96; Hair et al., 2014).

First, the Fornell–Larcker criterion, where the square root of the average variance extracted
(AVE) is compared with the coefficient of the correlation values of a paired construct (Fornell
& Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2014), was used to ensure discriminant validity. Table 1 shows
that the square root of the AVEs of all constructs (the diagonal values in bold) is greater than
the highest correlation value for other constructs; thus, discriminant validity is confirmed.
Second, the discriminant validity of the reflective constructs was also ensured by examining
the heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) ratio (Appendix 3). The results show that none of the
HTMT values of the constructs exceeded 0.85, reconfirming discriminant validity (Henseler,
Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2015). Appendix 1 shows the cross-loadings of items, where item loadings
for their own constructs are relatively higher than loadings for the other constructs, confirming
the discriminant validity of the items.

The model ‘fit’ was ensured by examining the coefficient of determination (R2) and the model
fit indices, including the goodness-of-fit value. The coefficient of determination shows the
nomological validity, explanatory power and predictive validity of the structural model on a
scale of 0 to 1. Figure 2 shows that behavioural intention explains 66% of the variance of
attitudes, subjective norms and PBC and that behaviour explains 9% of the variance of the
independent constructs; these are both statistically significant. The standardised root mean
square residual value is 0.07, which is less than 0.08, and the normalised fit index is 0.75,
which is closer to 1. The goodness-of-fit value for the model is the square root of the product
of average AVE and average R2, which is 0.504, where a value greater than 0.36 is considered
adequate (Hair et al., 2014; Tenenhaus, Vinzi, Chatelin, & Lauro, 2005). Overall, the
predictive validity and model fit indices were satisfactory.

-----------------------------Please insert Table 2 about here-----------------------------

Table 2 confirms the causal hypotheses of the TPB model in the context of organic food
consumption in Australia. The results show that the attitude–intention (β = 0.411) and PBC–
intention (β = 0.325) paths are both stronger than other path coefficients in the model, and that
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

all path coefficients are statistically significant, using 2,000 bootstrap samples in the 95%
confidence interval. Table 3 shows the mediating effect of behavioural intention in the model.
The results in Table 3 show that behavioural intention has a full-mediational effect between
attitudes and behaviour, and partial-mediational effects between subjective norms, PBC and
behaviour.

-----------------------------Please insert Figure 2 about here-----------------------------

-----------------------------Please insert Table 3 about here-----------------------------

The moderating effects of perceived communication, satisfaction and trust were assessed with
SmartPLS 3 software, using the product indicator method (Kenny & Judd, 1984). Appendix 2
shows satisfactory factor loadings (> 0.50), CA values (> 0.70) and AVE (> 0.80) for
perceived communication, satisfaction and trust. The moderation test results are reported in
Table 4. Overall, the results are positive and significant and demonstrate that the moderators,
namely, perceived communication, satisfaction and trust, significantly improve the intention–
behaviour gap and PBC–behaviour gap.

-----------------------------Please insert Table 4 about here-----------------------------

Figure 3 shows the moderation interaction graphs. The green, blue and red lines in the
interaction graphs represent the high (+1 SD above the mean), mean, and low (−1 SD below
the mean) positions of the moderators, respectively. The three moderators are perceived
communication, satisfaction and trust. Figures 3a and 3b demonstrate that a low (−1 SD)
communication effect results in lower effects on both intention and behaviour, and on both
PBC and behaviour, respectively, compared with a high communication effect (+1 SD), which
results in higher effects on both intention and behaviour, and higher effects on both PBC and
behaviour, respectively. Similarly, Figures 3c, 3d, 3e and 3f also confirm the positive
moderating effects of satisfaction and trust in the intention–behaviour and the PBC–behaviour
relationships.

The f2 measures the extent to which the endogenous latent variable is explained by the
moderation, with f2 effect sizes of 0.02, 0.15 and 0.35 suggesting small, medium and large
effect sizes, respectively (Cohen, 1988). Table 4 shows that the f2 effect sizes are lower than
0.02 (Table 4). This is because ‘behaviour’ included two self-reported items and excluded a
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

Likert-type measurement scale, in contrast to the attitudinal- and perception-based items in

‘intention’ and ‘PBC’ constructs, which included a Likert-type measurement scale. Perhaps
this also resulted in the low R2 value of the behaviour construct in the current study.
Nonetheless, the moderating effects of perceived communication, satisfaction and trust were
found to have explained the gaps with significant and positive coefficients for both the
behavioural intention–behaviour relationship and the PBC–behaviour relationship.

-----------------------------Please insert Figure 3 about here-----------------------------

5. Discussion

The aim of this study was to examine the intervention efficacy or moderating effects of
perceived communication, satisfaction and trust on the intention–behaviour gap and PBC–
behaviour gap in the TPB model. Hence, this study proposed five causal, three mediating and
six moderating hypotheses. Using the PLS-SEM technique, this study validated the TPB
model in the context of Australian organic food consumption behaviour, and found
statistically significant results for all hypotheses. Overall, the results show positive and
significant effects of attitude (β = 0.411, p < 0.01), subjective norm (β = 0.163, p < 0.01) and
PBC (β = 0.325, p < 0.01) on behavioural intention. Thus, the results find support for H1, H3
and H5. The results also show that both PBC (β = 0.175, p < 0.01) and behavioural intention
(β = 0.142, p < 0.01) positively and significantly influence behaviour and thus confirm H7 and
H8. The mediation test results show that behavioural intention has a full-mediation effect
between attitudes and behaviour (H2), but partial-mediation effects for the subjective norm–
behaviour (H4) and PBC–behaviour (H6) relationships. Thus, all three hypotheses regarding
mediational tests are supported (see Table 3).

The findings are novel for several reasons. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first
to examine the moderating effects of perceived communication, satisfaction and trust on the
intention–behaviour and PBC–behaviour gaps in the TPB model. Second, this study shows
how behaviour can be enhanced and how the intention–behaviour and PBC–behaviour gaps
can be explained and lessened. Third, empirical examination of the mediating effect of
behavioural intention in the TPB framework has been inadequate to date because most studies
have only considered behavioural intention as the final outcome. Fourth, most studies on
organic food were in the context of the United Kingdom, the United States and Europe.
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

Therefore, research in the Australian context yields new insights with support from the current
literature.

The major contribution of this study pertains to the interaction/moderation effects of perceived
communication, satisfaction and trust on the intention–behaviour gap and PBC–behaviour gap
in the TPB model. The results show that moderation of perceived communication significantly
increases behaviour by 0.7% (H9a) and 0.6% (H9b), respectively, through the intention–
behaviour and PBC–behaviour relationships. Similarly, behaviour increases by 1.3% (H10a)
and 0.5% (H10b) when consumer satisfaction moderates the intention–behaviour and PBC–
behaviour relationships, respectively. Last, the results also reveal that consumer trust
significantly moderates the intention–behaviour and PBC–behaviour relationships; these result
in 1.1% (H11a) and 0.5% (H11b) increases in behaviour, respectively. Thus, the study
confirms all six hypotheses regarding moderational effects (see Table 4).

The findings show that attitude and PBC both have stronger and significant path coefficients
with behavioural intentions as compared with the subjective norm–behavioural intention,
PBC–behaviour and behavioural intention–behaviour paths, although all are positive and
statistically significant (Table 2). This is consistent with the literature that has used TPB as the
underlying theory and found that subjective norm has a relatively weak relationship with
intention in the TPB model (Ajzen,1991). By contrast, certain studies have found weak and
insignificant relationships as regards subjective norm–consumption of organic food (Chekima,
Chekima, & Chekima, 2019) and subjective norm–purchase intentions of genetically modified
food (Zhang et al., 2018). Such weak, insignificant results might occur owing to small sample
size (n = 150) and use of a single-item measure for the consumption of the organic food
construct (see Chekima et al., 2019) and purchase intentions of genetically modified food (see
Zhang et al., 2018).

Organic food products are credence goods. Thus, trust in the certification process and
institutions can increase perceived benefits and could reduce perceived risks (Zhang et al.,
2018). Customers are often unaware of the production processes, storage, production costs and
health benefits of organic foods (Lea & Worsley, 2005; Pettersson et al., 2016). They typically
look for credentials before making a purchase decision, including trustworthy certification and
direct or indirect communications (Janssen & Hamm, 2012; Sultan et al., 2018). Our study has
demonstrated that moderation by perceived communication, satisfaction and trust enhance
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

behaviour, through the intention and PBC links in the TPB model. This finding implies that
increased customer awareness, knowledge and pleasure in the whole production and
marketing processes can further strengthen purchase-related decisions. Similarly, satisfaction
with organic foods, certification and information, and trust in organic food production,
communication, packaging, labelling and certification processes are also found to enhance
behaviour via the intention–behaviour and PBC–behaviour paths.

Organic food consumption is viewed as sustainable and ethical consumption (Azzurra,

Massimiliano, & Angela, 2019), and consumers have pro-environmental attitudes towards
organic foods (Laureti & Benedetti, 2018). Thus, awareness and reminder campaigns via mass
media, in-store and online, including low-cost mass media (e.g. social networking sites) are
promising ways to encourage organic food choices, particularly when combined with effective
labelling and packaging as well as trustworthy certification. Owing to the credence nature of
organic foods, marketers need to promote organic food values and attributes with more than
just the label, to better communicate the environmental and social benefits associated with
organic food consumption (Azzurra et al., 2019) and include integrated promotional mix
elements in their communication campaign (Chekima et al., 2019). Communication
intervention, including through mass media, social media, blogs and in-store PoP campaigns,
may prove effective in the initial stages of the campaigns to build awareness. PoP campaigns
are often effective to overcome internal and external barriers that may hinder consumers from
buying a food item (Jaeger et al., 2018).

Australia is currently an emerging organic food market in the Oceania region. The findings of
this study highlight that perceived communication, satisfaction and trust play significant
moderating roles in enhancing purchase behaviour. In an emerging market, it is always
challenging to motivate consumers to buy organic foods; however, purchase intentions and
trial purchases can convert nonusers into users and irregular users into loyal customers. The
overall positive and significant moderating effects of perceived communication, satisfaction
and trust on the intention–behaviour and PBC–behaviour paths imply that mass
communication and in-store communication, including through labelling and certification,
production processes, packaging, trustworthy retailers and customer satisfaction can enhance
behavioural outcomes by reducing the intention–behaviour gap and the PBC–behaviour gap.
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

Finally, measuring behaviour is often challenging (Meier, Dillard, & Lappas, 2019). Recent
research has used a single item to develop the behaviour construct (Giampietri et al., 2018),
although the literature has reported that a single-item construct is problematic in a multivariate
structural model (Bentler & Chou, 1987; Churchill, 1979). However, the present study used
two self-reported items to measure the behaviour construct. Although the results show low R2
and f2 values for the behaviour construct, the items’ outer loadings and AVE for this construct
were within the cut-off points suggested in literature (Hair et al., 2014). A low CA coefficient
(α) value of the behaviour construct was perhaps because those were self-reported items and
did not use a seven-point Likert-type scale, in contrast to the rest of the constructs, where
multiple items for each construct were measured on this scale. Future research should consider
using the Likert-type scale to measure the self-reported items of the behaviour construct and
examine the moderating and intervening effects of demographic variables in the TPB model.
This study used online panel samples, which are targeted samples, and thus, the findings may
differ from those for random samples.

6. Conclusion

The novel aim of this study was to examine the moderating effects of perceived
communication, satisfaction and trust on the intention–behaviour gap and PBC–behaviour gap
in the TPB model. This is the first study to demonstrate the effects of perceived
communication, satisfaction and trust in increasing desirable behaviour and reducing gaps in
the intention–behaviour and PBC–behaviour relationships in the TPB model. Another
contribution of this study was considering the Australian organic food context because of its
emergence as a large market in the Oceania region.

Acknowledgements
The research supporting this paper was funded by the Australian Government through
the University of Canberra, the Organic Federation of Australia and the National
Association of Sustainable Agriculture Australia.
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

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Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

Moderating effects of perceived

Attitudes communication, satisfaction, and trust

Behavioural
Subjective Norms Behaviour
Intention

Perceived
Behavioural Control

Note: Causal effects are marked with bold arrows, and moderating effects are marked with dotted-line arrows

Figure 1: The original TPB model with the conceptualised moderating effects

Figure 2: The structural model with outer loadings and path coefficients
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

a. Moderating effects of communication in intention– b. Moderating effects of communication in PBC–

behaviour relationship behaviour relationship

c. Moderating effects of Satisfaction in intention– d. Moderating effects of satisfaction in PBC–

behaviour relationship behaviour relationship

e. Moderating effects of trust in intention–behaviour f. Moderating effects of trust in PBC–behaviour

relationship relationship

Figure 3: Moderating effects

Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

Table 1. Results of convergent and discriminant validity tests

CA CR AVE 01 02 03 04 05
Attitudes 0.930 0.941 0.590 0.768
Behaviour 0.288ª 0.725 0.577 0.238 0.760
Behavioural Intention 0.921 0.937 0.682 0.765 0.272 0.826
Perceived Behavioural Control 0.907 0.926 0.643 0.747 0.280 0.740 0.802
Subjective Norm 0.941 0.962 0.894 0.676 0.247 0.654 0.654 0.946
a=Self-reported; CA=Cronbach's Alpha; CR=Composite Reliability; AVE=Average Variance Extracted

Table 2: Hypothesis test results

Causal Hypothesis β-values t-values p-values Result

H1: Attitude has a positive and significant
0.411 10.648 0.000 Accepted
effect on behavioural intention.
H3: Subjective norm has a positive and
0.163 5.390 0.000 Accepted
significant effect on behavioural intention.
H5: PBC has a positive and significant effect on
0.325 8.854 0.000 Accepted
behavioural intention.
H7: PBC has a positive and significant effect on
0.175 3.391 0.001 Accepted
behaviour.
H8: Behavioural intention has a positive and
0.142 2.641 0.008 Accepted
significant effect on behaviour.

Table 3: Mediation test results

Hypothesis Direct effect Indirect effect Result

H2: Behavioural intention mediates the β= 0.053, β=0.058, Full
relationship between attitudes and t-value=0.875, t-value=2.644, Mediation
behaviour. p-value=0.382 p-value=0.008 Effect
H4: Behavioural intention mediates the β= 0.095, β= 0.023, Partial
relationship between subjective norm and t-value = 2.128, t-value= 2.229, Mediation
behaviour. p-value=0.033 p-value=0.026 Effect
β=0.179, β=0.046, Partial
H6: Behavioural intention mediates the
t-value=3.107, t-value=2.451, Mediation
relationship between PBC and behaviour.
p-value=0.002 p-value=0.014 Effect
Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory
of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

Table 4: Moderation test results

Actual Behaviour
β t p
Hypothesis f2 R -without
2
R2-with R2
values values values
moderation moderation Result
H9a: Perceived communication 0.7
significantly moderates the intention– 0.076 3.306 0.001 0.008 0.088 0.095 per cent
behaviour relationship. Accepted
H9b: Perceived communication 0.6
significantly moderates the PBC– 0.074 3.024 0.003 0.008 0.088 0.094 per cent
behaviour relationship. Accepted
H10a: Perceived satisfaction 1.3
significantly moderates the intention– 0.106 3.642 0.000 0.015 0.088 0.101 per cent
behaviour relationship. Accepted
H10b: Perceived satisfaction 0.5
significantly moderates the PBC– 0.068 2.717 0.007 0.006 0.088 0.093 per cent
behaviour relationship. Accepted
H11a: Perceived trust significantly 1.1
moderates the intention–behaviour 0.095 3.122 0.002 0.014 0.088 0.099 per cent
relationship. Accepted
H11b: Perceived trust significantly 0.5
moderates the PBC–behaviour 0.068 2.362 0.018 0.007 0.088 0.093 per cent
relationship. Accepted
 Appendix 1: Cross-loadings of the items

Attitudes Sub
Behavioural
Towards Behaviour PBC ab
Intention
Organic Food
nd to purchase organic foods 0.643 0.146 0.834 0.622
buy more organic food if I could find it 0.662 0.201 0.861 0.635
check to see if food products are organic before I purchase them 0.594 0.320 0.812 0.590
choose organic even if the ‘organic version’ of the same product is more expensive
0.578 0.269 0.769 0.583
ventional version’
purchase organic food in the future 0.533 0.112 0.723 0.461
ld recommend purchasing organic food to a friend/relative 0.704 0.241 0.879 0.669
d to buy food today, I would buy certified organic food 0.687 0.260 0.888 0.683
most people’s opinions that organic foods have health-promoting effects 0.606 0.219 0.572 0.566
pected of me that I lead a healthy lifestyle 0.650 0.237 0.643 0.637
eople who are important to me think that organic food enhances one’s health 0.659 0.245 0.638 0.648
sing organic food makes me feel good 0.649 0.217 0.612 0.767
ng money on organic food products is enjoyable 0.565 0.224 0.569 0.756
control over my desire to buy organic food 0.578 0.207 0.625 0.768
to me to enjoy new experiences of trying organic food 0.563 0.263 0.555 0.828
to me to treat myself by eating organic foods 0.606 0.230 0.570 0.843
organic foods is pleasure 0.664 0.237 0.658 0.875
, the best time to enjoy organic foods is during meals with family/friends 0.552 0.190 0.546 0.765
nic food is perceived to be free of chemical residuals 0.783 0.149 0.545 0.470
nic food is perceived to be not contaminated by chemicals 0.764 0.137 0.520 0.453
nic food maintains high food safety standards 0.816 0.156 0.587 0.525
c food has superior quality 0.783 0.207 0.666 0.634
c food has no harmful effects to health 0.702 0.167 0.504 0.446
c food has superior taste 0.790 0.215 0.647 0.632
ming organic food is good for the environment 0.754 0.119 0.595 0.492
c foods are produced more ethically 0.805 0.112 0.628 0.551
ng organic foods is truly enjoyable 0.751 0.240 0.573 0.679
me pleasure to consider myself as an organic food consumer 0.764 0.253 0.604 0.703
ng organic food is an exciting experience 0.731 0.250 0.558 0.688
n do you purchase organic food products in a month? 0.216 0.882 0.255 0.254
ch do you spend for organic food products in a month? 0.136 0.612 0.141 0.160

Appendix 2: Factor (outer) loadings, Cronbach’s Alpha values and AVEs of perceived
communication, trust and satisfaction
Items Perceived Trust Satisfaction
Communication
Q4_1 I am happy about the level of available
0.60
organic food information
Q4_2 Current organic certification is a sufficient
0.86
proof
 Page 2 of 32

Q4_3 Current level of information provided on

0.80
organic food labels is clear
Q4_4 Organic food industry should use mass media
0.53
communication
Q8_1 I trust Australian institutions that certify
0.90
organic foods
Q8_2 I trust Australian organic food sellers 0.92
Q8_3 I trust Australian organic food
0.93
manufacturers/producers
Q8_4 I trust claims on organic food labels 0.90
Q8_5 I trust organic food products 0.91
Q8_6 I rely on organic food products 0.90
Q8_7 I trust store personnel who sell organic foods 0.82
Q8_8 I trust a product that carries an organic
0.90
label/certificate
Q9_1 I am satisfied with the available range of
0.76
organic food products
Q9_2 I am satisfied with the current state of organic
0.90
food certification
Q9_3 I am satisfied with the information available
0.93
about organic foods
Q9_4 I am satisfied with the quality of organic food
0.93
information
Cronbach’s Alpha 0.717 0.966 0.905
AVE 0.880 0.899 0.884

Appendix 3: Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT)

Behavioural
Attitudes Behaviour PBC Subjective Norm
Intention
Attitudes -
Behaviour 0.443
Behavioural
0.820 0.499
Intention
PBC 0.807 0.530 0.803
Subjective Norm 0.717 0.445 0.700 0.704 -
 Page 3 of 32

Intention–Behaviour Gap and Perceived Behavioural Control–Behaviour Gap in Theory

of Planned Behaviour: Moderating Roles of Communication, Satisfaction and Trust in
Organic Food Consumption

Highlights

 The intention-behaviour and PBC-behaviour gaps of the TBP model were addressed.
 As moderators, communication, satisfaction and trust increased reported behaviour.
 Behavioural intention was a significant mediator in the TPB model.