PRELIMS

what is anatomy ? £
Gyrating ↳ comes from the
a
62
Physiology
divisions :
↳ what is physiology ?
defined the
"

study
"
of word
systemic physiology of nature
as
Greek A- NATOMA
study
• - •

body structure ( internal means to dissect -

cellular physiology
•
deals with
processes
or

and external ) functions

IMPORTANCE OF ANATOMY &

PHYSIOLOGY TYPES OF ANATOMY
how the
understand
body : •
systemic
-

body systems
to stimuli
responds regional body regions
•
• -

environmental
changes diseases
-
-

•
surface -

external features
environmental injury anatomical imaging using technologies
-

cues -
• -

•
maintains stable ,
internal conditions despite continually
environment
changing

STRUCTURAL • FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION

SIX / 6) STRUCTURAL LEVELS ELEVEN (4) SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

Chemical chemical bond molecules Integumentary

•
1 .
-

atoms ,
,

2. cellular -

cells , compartments organelles ,

• skeletal

3. tissues -

group
of similar cells
/ group of • Muscular

cells with similar and function

structure •
Lymphatic
4 broad types Respiratory
-

epithelial muscular
Digestive
• •
•

•
connective •
nervous • Nervous

4.
organs two or more tissue types acting together Endocrine
-

to functions
perform •
Cardiovascular
5.
organ system -

group
of
organs contributing to some •
Urinary
function •
Reproductive
6. organism -

all
organ systems working together
-

living thing as a whole

-
includes associated
microorganisms
such as intestinal bacteria
Characteristics of Life NEGATIVE
that
FEEDBACK
all
living mechanism homeostasis
collectively show maintains
:
species
-

1 .

Organization -

functional interrelationships NEGATIVE FEEDBACK RESPONSE :

deviation
between parts detection
away from
of
: set point

2. metabolism -

sum of all chemical and Hahm

Magauran
setpoint
physical changes sustaining correction : reversal of deviation toward
and normal range
an
organism
ability to acquire and
-

use

energy in support of these

changes
3. responsiveness -

ability to sense and respond to

environmental changes ( internal or

external )

4.
growth -

increase in size .

5. development -

changes in form and size

changes an
organism undergoes
through time

changes in cell structure and

function from generalized to

3 COMPONENTS OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

specialized -
differentiation , ,
receptor

6. reproduction -

formation of new cells or 2. control center

effector
new
organisms 3 .

µyfffÑÑ→
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
" "

home . the
T
-
same

" "

stasis to stop deviation from the set becomes

point
. -
-

-
maintenance of constant internal environment
even greater

variables not
directly used homeostasis
body properties
for
of that
change
-

measure
may
-

in value ( temp heart rate BP ( e. g. birth)

e.
g. body .

,
, ,

blood cell counts , glucose levels )

set point normal value of variable

-

or
average a

normal range -

normal extent of increase or decrease

around a set
point
Terminology Body Play -

face
position
erect with
Anatomical person standing
:

forward
and palms

all relational descriptions based

on the anatomical position no matter

the orientation ( body)

supine -

lying facing up

prone lying facing down

-

BODY REGIONS
DIRECTIONAL TERMS
superior : above anterior : front ( ventral :
belly ) UPPER LIMBS :

inferior : below posterior : back ( dorsal : back ) •

upper arm / arm ( shoulder -
elbow)

o forearm Kel bow -

wrist)

medial : close to midline proximal : close to point of attachment • wrist

lateral
: from midline distal far from attachment hand
away
:
point •

LOWER LIMBS
superficial : structure close to •
Thigh Chip -

knee)

surface
ankle)
lower
leg / leg ( knee
0 -

: structure toward
deep °
Ankle
interior of
the
body o foot

BODY PLANES M How to cut CENTRAL REGION

•
Head
thorax ( chest)
sagittal i vertical
plane between anterior and
posterior surfaces Neck
yay→
.

abdomen (belly)

mid
sagittal :
along the midline ; divides
body into equal left and
right •
Trunk → pelvis Chips )
→ sometimes subdivided
halves
quadrants
figmaginary
* abdomen is often subdivided into four
into
regions by
lines
transverse : horizontal plane
• Nine (g)
regions
•
epigastric
frontal : vertical
plane between lateral surfaces •
righto
left
hypochondriac
• umbilical
lumbar
long
•
right and left
oblique :
diagonally across the axis
•
hypo gastric
left iliac
reveal
•
right and
longitudinal : out to internal structure
 BODY CAVITIES PLEURA
THORACIC CAVITY heart , lungs , thymus gland esophagus
, ,
trachea visceral pleura →f covers
lungs
chest wall and
-

space within diaphragm parietal pleura →↳ lines inner wall of thorax

't space between

-
divided into right and left parts by a center structure -

mediastinum
lungs pleural cavity → reduces friction

to thoracic wall
ABDOMINAL CAVITY stomach intestines
LAB adheres lungs
,
,
liver , spleen pancreas
, ,
kidneys

PERITONEUM
-

space between diaphragm and pelvis

PELVIC CAVITY urinary bladder reproductive organs part of intestine

, ,
large
-
me sentries

double layers
µ
-

space within pelvis -

connect viscera,
visceral peritoneum → covers ,
anchors organs
peritoneum to
parietal peritoneum
or to other
parietal peritoneum -4m lines inner walls
visceral peritoneum

peritoneal cavity → reduces friction

SEROUS MEMRANES
line the trunk cavities and the of these cavities
cover
organs
-

visceral serous membrane

-
inner wall

parietal serous membrane

-
outer wall

cavity
-

filled with a thin lubricating

film of serous fluid

3 SETS OF SEROUS MEMBRANES AND CAVITIES

pericardium pericardial cavity

↳ around the heart

pleura pleura cavity

↳ around the lungs
peritoneum peritoneal cavity
4A around abdomino pelvic
and its
cavity organs

PERICARDIUM
visceral pericardium → covers heart

parietal pericardium → thick , fibrous

pericardial cavity → reduces friction

 £ ace also contains other molecules
FUNCTION • Basic unit of life µ
cell membrane
such as cholesterol and carbohydrates
•
synthesis of molecules •
made up yot phospholipids and
proteins
•
Communication
on
phospholipids form a double layer or
bilayer
Cell metabolism and release •
Phospholipids contain 2 regions :
polar and nonpolar
energy
•

G- acid
( DNA) fatty
Reproduction and inheritance phosphate containing end is
-

•
ends are

hydrophilic hydrophobic

intracellular matrix

]g
* faces the extra and
polar
faces each other
* nonpolar parts
2
selective
"

supports the

phospholipids
•

/ ;
function
"
barrier

G. also termed as
glycerophos
-
specialized
the gates)
proteins
to allow
serve as

different

pho lipids ( contains a

glycerol substances in and out the cell
and a
phosphate group ) g n - m

acids attached
Glycerol 3- carbon molecule
Fatty to
- -

functions
that as the
glycerol back -

backbone of the lipid bone

in

CELL STRUCTURE CELL MEMBRANE -

loaded with different molecules

membrane lipids
membrane and
ORGANELLES ( little organs)
membrane proteins usually embedded to
-

functions
-

specialized structures in cells that perform specific stick out on both sides

also referred to as transmembrane

CYTOPLASM
-

holds
-

jelly
-

like substance that organelles protein

membrane carbohydrates
CELL MEMBRANE
↳ What is it ? also called
DNA Cell membrane is adaptable to its environment
fluid
of cell plasma membrane
• in normal / physiological temperatures , they are
-

outermost component a

11 -

like during cooler temperature / ) s

FUNCTION :

-
selective barrier ( supports the cell ) / gatekeeper fluid characteristic

the membranes in
encloses despite the fluid characteristic most of
cytoplasm
- * ,

the structure are not

freely moving
EXTRACELLULAR -

material outside the cell

INTRACELLULAR -
inside the cell

STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE

•
Fluid Mosaic Model ( Garth Nicolson , Seymour singer)
1972
 ]
Outer leaflet faces the extracellular
region MEMRANE PROTEINS abundant in
living organisms
-
-
-

TV
their structure there 3 MAIN TYPES OF MEMBRANE
Inner Leaflet -

faces the intracellular region Based on , are

PROTEINS :
combined ,
forms the phospholipid bilayer
of cell membrane membrane protein
i.
Integral

CELL MEMBRANES → semi -

permeable -

only some 2.
Peripheral membrane protein
molecules can defuse this
across
3 .
Lipid
-
anchored protein

lipid bilayer ( selective barrier / INTEGRAL MEMBRANE PROTEIN

↳ Transmembrane Proteins
gatekeeper ) e.g
.

→
usually hydrophobic molecules that
-
these are membrane proteins that are
permanently
are
very small like Oz and coz ,
cross anchored / part of a membrane

the membrane rapidly -

contain a channel pore

water
→ big polar molecules such as
PERIPHERAL PROTEIN

and alcohol
pass
in a slower rate -

temporarily attached to lipid bilayer or

→
highly charged molecules such as ions and
very
another integral protein

large molecules such as

sugars and amino -

usually function as carriers of signal

acids are restricted in
passing through all
-
GLYCOPROTEINS

membranes -

type of
protein molecule that has a carbohydrate

the structure of attached to it

MEMBRANE LIPID -
involved in
forming our

cell membrane
-

usually contribute to the structure of cell

cholesterol
main component phospholipids glycolipids membrane also reproduction immune system hormones
-

, ,
,
,
,

molecules defuse
-

Lipid bilayer is fluid →- individual lipid can

rapidly and protection of the cells and organisms as a whole

( OH group )
lipid bilayer
that
• cholesterol -
substances that contain hydroxyl group -
most are found on the surface of
( allows to
with
phosphate head of
phospholipids hydrophilic in nature them function
-

interacts

important part the fluidity of the cell in environment outside )

-

plays an in
aqueous

membrane
-

most of the time they act as cell to cell

* In Eukaryotes ,
cell membrane contains a large amount of cholesterol recognition between same or different types of

of cholesterol molecule)
( every phospholipid has a
consequent presence
a
cells

distributed membrane other

Glycolipids widely throughout the cell aid in
binding molecules ; adds strength and
-

• -

tissue
-

facilitate cell communication

by acting as stability to a
( cell surface )
; In plant cells
receptors or anchors for
proteins and glycoproteins allow plants to
stay standing upright
of
signal transaction intercellular help different
regulators communication and
-

carbohydrates of glycolipids are the most organ systems with

communicating with each
-

exposed structure on the extracellular other

like
surface ; they have different binding sites which -

e.
g-
hormones
Erythropoietin CEPO)
↳ carry out red blood
cell
makes them
optimal for
signaling cells
 MEMBRANE CARBOHYDRATE WAYS MOLECULES PASS THROUGH CELL MEMBRANE

Directly through ( diffusion )

bound molecules i
example :
blycocalyx highly charged layer of membrane i.
- -

Oz and coz ( small molecules )

Function of
Glycocalyx
•
barrier between the cell and its
surrounding ( protection from 2. MEMBRANE CHANNELS

direct action
of physical forces and stress ) -

proteins that extend from one side of cell membrane to other

linked to the and charge 1+1 ) determine what can

go through
Glycocalyx
size
cytoskeleton / skeletal shape
-

usually
- -

, ,

integrity of the cell inside movement may be passive or active

there is no
energy utilized G. requires the utilization of
energy
-

linkage of glycocalyx with protein constitutes

by the cell in order to
transport for transport
a material / does not require to
the structure
the foundation
of expend
energy
.

allows signal from outside to inside Ot " " DIFFUSION -

example of PASSIVE movement

↳ what is it ?
their
ORGANELLES
and movement of molecules from areas of high to low concentration

FUNCTIONS • solution -
solid .
liquid ,
or
gas
that contains solutes )

• Solute -
substance added to solvent that dissolves

is
• solvent
-
substance such as H2O that solute being added to

* movement of solute depends on

concentrationgradie.ir/--
-
measures concentration

difference at 2
points

the distance the

greater
-

faster the solute will travel

THROUGH CELL
•
Filtration : movement of fluid
through a partition w/ holes

MOVEMENT MEMBRANE MEDIATED TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

•
cell membrane selectively determines what can
pass in / out •
Facilitated diffusion :

found in
-

diffusion with aid of a carrier molecule

•
Enzymes , glycogen ,
and potassium are higher concentrations

INSIDE the cell ATP

requires no
-

• Sodium ,
calcium ,
and chloride are found in higher concentrations •
Active transport

OUTSIDE the cell .

-
moves substances from low to high concentration

CARRIER MOLECULES ATP

-

act as transport molecule -

requires
•
bind to molecules
,
transport them across
,
and drop them off ex . Sodium -

potassium pump ( movement of Na and Kin / out the

celij
ex .

glucose OSMOSIS → diffusion of water across a cell membrane

VESICLES transport media * movement of solute depends on

Osmoticpressure
-

of
•
can transport a
variety materials
and
Hydrostatic pressure to prevent
force required
-

movement of
• fuse with cell membrane -
allows movement of water across cell

water in
general membrane

IMPORTANCE -

regulate water movement

a selective permeable

• Osmosis can occur when cell membrane is Lesspirmeabe to solutes

 TYPES OF OSMOTIC SOLUTIONS -

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE

•
Hypotonic solution location :
edge of nucleus

lower of solutes outside cell NUCLEAR PORES

'
-

cone .

higher conc . of H2O outside cell location : surface of nucleus

into cell
-
it ,
o moves
function : where materials pass in / out of nucleus

lysis ( burst ) CHROMOSOMES

•

Hypertonic solution location : inside nucleus

of solutes cell
higher cone outside characteristic :
of DNA Proteins
-

made
.
a

higher cell
cone H2O inside function part of genetic makeup
-
.

H~O moves out ( cell decrease in size ) CHROMATIN

•
Isotonic Solution location : inside nucleus

characteristic chromosomes
-

equal cone .

of solutes :
loosely coiled

doesn't move
-
water
NUCLEOLUS
-

cell remains intact location : in nucleus

AB Endocytosis
function : ribosomes
produce
veg 1 CU (AR ☒⑧
TRANSPORT Exocytosis RIBOSOME

location attached to RER

• ENDOCYTOSIS : or
cytoplasm
↳ process that brings materials into cell vesicles
using ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM ( RER)
2 TYPES
location :
cytoplasm

eating (
solid particles )
>
phagocytosis cell
-

characteristic : membranes with ribosomes attached

> pinocytosis cell

drinking / liquid particles ) function : site of
protein synthesis
-

*
Endocytosis
-

very specific SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SER)

•
EXOCYTOSIS location :
cytoplasm

↳ process that carries materials out of the cell characteristic :

membranes with no ribosomes

CELL STRUCTURE.SI -
function : site of lipid synthesis Ctx . Cholesterol )

ORGANELLES 60h61 APPARATUS

•
CYTOPLASM location :
cytoplasm

location : inside cell characteristic : closely .

packed stacks of membranes

and distribute proteins and lipids

characteristic :
jelly -

like fluid function : collect ,

sort , package .

function i hold SECRETORY VESICLES

give cell shape and organelles in place

location :
•
NUCLEUS cytoplasm

location of cell function : distribute materials out of cell

:
center

:
characteristic all cells contain nucleus LYSOSOME

houses DNA
function : location :
cytoplasm
function :
enzymes
that digest foreign material
 DNA
MITOCHONDRIA
'

location :
cytoplasm
☒ double helix in nucleus
characteristic : contains folds ( cristae)
nucleotides
BBB composed of
: ATP
function produces
B- contains 5 carbon sugar ( deoxyribose
CILIA ,

location
:
cell surface nitrogen base , phosphate )

per cell INFORMATION

: OF
characteristic many FLOW GENETIC

function ; move materials across cell 's surface •

also called central Dogma DNA → RNA → AA → PR

(3) stages :
FLAGELLA •
occurs in three

location : cell surface -

DNA Replication

characteristic ! 1 per cell -

Transcription -

replicated DNA will become RNA

function cell Sperm

Translation RNA will produce
/ translated to Amino
-

:
-

move ex .

MICROVILLI acids and will become the

location : cell surface proteins

into
characteristic : shorter than cilia • how from DNA becomes protein

DNA REPLICATION
I

function : increase surface are a

CYTOSKELETON GENE EXPRESSION

Cq cell 's framework

FUNCTIONS •
information in DNA directs protein synthesis

to made of proteins
•
provide support •
proteins provide code for
gene expression

TYPES OF CYTOSKELETON hold organelles in regulate chemical reactions

•
place •
enzymes

change shape
to and translation
• MICROTUBULES •
enables cell •
uses transcription

largest diameter
TRANSCRIPTION
provide structural support which DNA is
"
read
"

by
-

process
•

-
form cilia and
flagella •
occurs in ribosomes
I

•
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS •
produces mRNA

of 3 nucleotide bases that code for a

→ set
-
medium diameter •
mRNA contains codons particular amino acid

maintain cell shape TRANSLATION

MICROFILAMENTS by mRNA is converted into amino acids ( polypeptides )
• •
process

-
smallest diameter •
produces proteins
bases carried
3 nucleotide by tRNA
ppr
-
involved in cell movement • codons pair with anticodon

WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY

•
cell 's characteristics are determined by the
type of
proteins produced
'

•
proteins function is determined by genetics

• information in DNA provides the cell with a code for its cellular

processes
 CELL DIVISION
6. what is it ?

-
formation of 2
daughter cells from a
single parent cell

uses mitosis and meiosis

each cell ( except sperm a

egg) contains 46 chromosomes ( diploid )

and contain 23 chromosomes

sperm egg
-

MITOSIS
•
occurs in all cells except sex cells

forms cells
• 2
daughter

COMPONENTS OF MITOSIS

identical
• Chromatid : 2 strands of chromosomes that are
genetically

• centromere
: where 2 chromatids are connected

of microtubule
organelle composed 9 triplets of
•
centrioles : small

STAGES IN MITOSIS

1.) Interphase
-
time between cell divisions

-
DNA is in strands

-
DNA replication occurs

2.) prophase

- chromatin condenses into chromosomes

-
centrioles move to opposite ends

3.) Metaphase

-
chromosomes align

4.) Anaphase

-
chromatid separate to form 2 sets of chromosomes

toward centrioles
-
chromosomes move

5.) Telophase

-
chromosomes disperse

-
nuclear envelopes and nucleoli form

divides to form cells

-

cytoplasm 2

/
 Tissues
G. what is it ?

his,tohÉg£
of cells with similar structure and
group
-

function plus extracellular substance ( matrix )

of tissues
study
-

4 TYPES OF TISSUES

i. Epithelial

2. Connective

3. Muscular

4. Nervous

EPITHELIAL TISSUES
Location : cover
body ( internal and external )

ex .
Skin , kidney trachea ,
, glands ,
etc .

(BOOK ) CHARACTERISTICS

nonvascular
mostly composed
'
5.
of cells
'

of
surfaces capable
body
6.
2. covers

3- distinct cell surfaces regeneration

4. cell and matrix connection

characteristics :

µ Mostly composed of cells

• cells close together ( very little extracellular matrix )

form most
glands
•

have free / apical surface

•

Basal surface

( ↳

attached
found at the

to the
base

basement
of the cell

membrane

Tattahesepitheiaells to

tissue
the
underlying

FUNCTIONS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES

i. Protect ( ex . Skin )
2. Act as a barrier ( ex . Skin keeps bacteria out )