with special emphasis on planning, design

and implementation of farmer hill Systems

In~tituteof Enginee;ing, Pulcno\

Tri bhu~
van University, Kathrnanau, Nep
The Ford Foulndation, New De

anua y :
andimplementation of farmer hill systems
Hill Irrigation Engineering
with special emphasis on planning, design

Compiled arld edited by :Basil S. Jacob

 Foreword
The Institute of Engineering, Pulchowk Campus is committed to the training of young engineers in
several fields of engineering. The main emphasis of the engineering education provided by this campus
lies in preparing the new generation of engineers to adapt to Nepal's unique remote conditions. This
book forms the basis for a elective course in Hill Irrigation Engineering designed to expose students
to the actual and difficult remote conditions they will need to face at work. In particular, it was
written to fill a long felt need to train young engineers in correct design and implementation of farmers
hill irrigation systems. With well over 35,000 Farmer's irrigation systems in the remote hill and
mountain areas of Nepal, and the current momentum in Nepal to leave Farmer Managed Irrigation
Systems (FMIS) under farmers' control and in turning over Agency Managed Irrigation Systems
(AMIS) to farmers, Nepal will need more Engineers trained in hill irrigation to develop and sustain the
agricultural productivity of its hilly regions which today provides only 45% of the population's
subsistence cereal requirements. This book emphasizes the importance for the hture generation of
engineers to work closely with the farmers in finding solutions to farmqs' irrigation problems. It
should also help the engineer's to come into the design process with a set of ideas closer to what the
farmers need and not to be bound entirely by the traditional design approach but to also think about
building on farmers' knowledge and about developing new designs that are suitable for remote hill
environments.

Dr.~S.B. Mathe
Dean
Pulchowk Campus

Computer Typesetting & Printed By :

Desktop Professional Systems
Kamaladi Comer, Putali Sadak
Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel : 4- 16508

Cover By :
Rabindra B. Pradhan
 Preface
It is truism, but it bears repeating that all irrigation systems are not created equal. Irrigation takes
place in highly differentiated and specialized environments around the world. The problems of
watering the desert are very different than those of river deltas or vast plains. Hill and mountain
conditions present particularly severe challenges to the irrigator -- problems of landslides, canal
leakages, shifting rivers, long canals for small irrigated areas, high percolation losses in fields, to name
w just a few.
Yet despite all these obstacles, it is precisely in hill environments that we find examples of some of the
most sustainable irrigation systems in the world. Farmers in hill irrigation systems in Bali, Indonesia;
Ilcos Norte, Phillipines; Nepal and Bhutan; the Andes, and many other areas are renowned for the
ingenuity of their terraced fields, irrigation structures, and water management practices. Some of these
systems have been in continuous operation for hundreds of years.
Now population growth, environmental change and the need to expand agricultural production for
national needs are new endogenous and exogenous factors pressing for improved hill irrigation.
Unfortunately, the rich lode of indigenous knowledge in the hills has not always been hlly utilized in
planning new systems or assisting existing ones. Most irrigation engineers are trained in design
parameters that have been developed to deal with conditions in the plains. Uncritically transplanting
these design into the hills all too often results in miniaturized, but sub-optimal structures Lowland
f design objectives, materials, construction techniques, and operation and the maintenance parameters
are often inappropriate for the mountains. In extreme cases these "plains designs" even degrade hill
environments. And despite the fact that hill irrigation is present in many countries, these mistakes are
repeated year after year because the real attention of the irrigation departments in most countries
remains firmly fixed on the large systems in the lowlands. In fact, it is usually the most junior and
inexperienced engineer who is given the task of improving irrigation in the most difficult and remote
environments.
Nepal is notable exception to this situation With a significant percentage of its irrigation located in
the hills, a variety of farmer-financed and government-assisted systems, and a long history of
experimentation, Nepal provides a rich set of experiences in appropriate irrigation design in these
challenging environments.
' 19 This textbook is a pioneering effort to compile examples of best practices in hill irrigation design. The
Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University is to be commended for taking the initiative to produce
this valuable textbook and for starting an undergraduate course on hill irrigation. The text
incorporates both designs drawn directly form farmer experiences as well as effective and efficient
combinations of farmer knowledge and formal civil engineering techniques However, as each
irrigation system has its own personality, its own fingerprint, ultimately design solutions must be
custom-made. The experiences drawn together here by Mr. Basil Jacob and his colleagues at the IoE
directly provide the engineer with a valuable set of techniques and products that will enable her or him
to effectively communicate with farmers to arrive at mutually acceptable and affordable designs.
Of course, this is only a beginning. Irrigation engineering is a highly empirical discipline and many
more examples from the hills need to be complied and analyzed to be able to induce more
generalizable propositions and formulae. Still, this textbook illustrates what has been found to work
and helps serve the needs of not only Nepal but of many countries whose hill irrigation is in need of
4 improvement.

John Ambler
Acknowledgments List of Chapters
Page
Chapter I : Introduction to hill irrigation systems in Nepal i
This book was jointly initiated by Dr. JohnInstitute
Dean, Ambler,ofDeputy Representative,
Engineering, PulchowkFord Foundation,
Campus, New
Tribhuvan
Delhi Oflice, Chapter 2: Environmental aspects of hill irrigation 15
University, Dr. Dr. Sriram. B. Mathe,
Valera and Dr. Ujjwal Pradhan of the International Irrigation Management Guidelines to correct hill irrigation design
Alfredo Chapter 3: 45
Institute, Nepal Office, to fill the long felt need to train young engineers in correct design and Planning irrigation development
Chapter 4: 55
implementation of hill irrigation projects. It is the product of the cumulative efforts undertaken by Irrigation project planning and implementation
Chapter 5:
several individuals and institutions including the Department of Irrigation of of farmer's hill irrigation projects 63
HMG/Nepal in a series of
Chapter 6: Assessment of water availability 75
discussions, lectures, and workshop deliberations. The experiences and insights shared during these
Chapter 7: Crop water and irrigation water requirement 88
fora were conducive to enhancing the substance and form of the various chapters of the book. The
Chapter 8: Alternative method of irrigation suitable for hilly areas 110
contents of the text is based on recommendations made by the participiints of the Curriculum
Chapter 9: Canal headworks 130
Development Workshop held at the Institute of Engineering, Pulct~owkCarnpus on 8 and 9, April
Chapter 10: Sediment control structures 161
1993.
Chapter 11 Canals 186
Dr. John Ambler, Mr. Nasiruddin Ansari, Mr. Top B. Rasnyat, Mr. Basil Jacob, Mr. Padma. S. Joshi,
Chapter 12: The distribution system 209
Mr. Uma Kant Jha, Mr. Ratneshwar L. Kam, Dr. Krishna. P. Kayastha, Dr. Ujjwal Pradhan,
Chapter 13: Canal escape structures for hill irrigation projects 229
Mr. Durga P. Sangraula and Dr. Khem Raj Sharma made contributions to the text, which was
compiled and edited by Mr. Basil Jacob. Chapter 14: Drop structures 23 5
is of the text. Chapter 15: Drainage crossing structures 258
Dr. David J. Molden, Dr. 'Alfredo Valera and Dr. John Ambler
Chapter 16: River behavior and river bank protection works 28 1
Dr. Srirarn B. Mathe, Dean, Institute of Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, Mr. ~ a n Prasad ~ a Upreti,
Chapter 17: Gabion structures for remote hill areas 296
Campus Chief, Pulchowk Campus, Dr. Mukund P. S. Pradhan, Head of the Department of Civil
Chapter 18: Engineers and irrigators : Managing hill irrigation in Nepal 310
Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, Mr. Shoba Kant Dev, Program Officer, BE Course and Mr. Subha
Narayan Pathak, Research and Training Unit, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus
provided continuous support tmd assistance in the preparation of this book. Mr. Gulaf Sakya, List of Figures
Mr. Rajen Lama and Mr. Pramesh Dongc)I undertook the painstaking job of typing, formatting and art
work of the text. Chapter I: Introduction to hill irrigation sysfemsin Nepal
Figure 1.1: Schematic relationship of elevation, climate, zone, vegetation
and land use limits for Nepal
Figure 1.2a: Land form, vegetation and agriculture in the Terai physiographic
region
Figure 1.2b: Land form, vegetation and agriculture in the Siwalik physiographic
region
Figure 1 . 2 ~ : Land form, vegetation and agriculture in the middle mountain
physiographic region
":@re 1.2d: Land form, vegetation and agriculture in the high mountain
physiographic region
gure 1.2e: Land form, vegetation and agriculture in the high himalaya
physiographic region
Figure 1.3a: Paddy yield are higher in the hills with I d see& for rainfed
and irrigatedf m i n g
Figure 1.3b: Paddy yield are higher in the hills with improved seeds
for rrrinfed and irrigated farming
Figure 1 . 3 ~ : Introduction of improved seeds bring more benefit
to hiN rainfed fanning
Figure 1.3d: Introduction of improved seeds bring more benefit
to hiN irrigated,farming
Figure 1.3e: Paddy yields in the hills increase with the provision of
irrigation facilities as rapidly as terai yields
Chapter 2: Envirorrmentnl aspects of hill irrigatio?? Chapter 6: Assessment of water availability
Figure 2.1 : Geology of Nepal 17 Figure 6.1 : Hydrograph of a river catchment influenced by snowmelt
Figure 2.3: Schematic representation of tropical weathering profiles 17 Figure 6.2: Hydrograph of a small river catchment not influenced by snowmelt
Figure 2.2: Cyclic development of a river valley during mountain Figure 6.3: Monsoon precipitation isolines(mm)
building movements 18 Figure 6.4: Hydrological regions of Nepal
Figure 2.4: Process of soil erosion 21 Figure 6.5: Mean monthly hydrograph for MIP region 3
Figure 2.5: Stages in the surface development of gullies on a hill side 23 Figure 6.6: Mean monthly hydrograph for MIP region 1
Figure 2.6: Types of land movement 23
Figure 2.7: Mountain zone classification25 Chapter 8: Altertrative method of irrigation suitablefor hilly areas
Figure 2.8: Balance cut and fill to reduce risk of surface erosion Figure 8.1: Typical components of a portable sprinkler system: Not all
inzone3 A I B 29 components will be needed for small farmer's systems
Figure 2.9: Use of toe revetment walls to reduce risk of landslips Figure 8.2: Examples of quick connecting couplers
in land unit 3 A 1B 30 Figure 8.3: A double nozzle sprinkler
Figure 2.10: Correct and incorrect design and construction of canal sections Figure 8.4: Effect of sprinkler spacing on application rate
in land unit 4B 31 Figure 8.5: Layout of main, distribution and lateral lines for rotational water
Figure 2.1 1: Main causes of instability in land units 4C/D and method for distribution
dealing with such instability problems 31 Figure 8.6a: Pressure loss in soft ploythene pipe
Figure 2.12: Temporary irrigation channels in land units 4C I D using Figure 8.6b: Pressure loss in hard ploythene pipe
corrugated iron sheets and HDP pipes 32 Figure 8.7: Soil moisture patterns for trickle irrigation. (a) Medium and heavy
Figure 2.13: Escape structure for use with HDP pipes 32 I soils (b) Sandy soils. Zones of salt accumulation and restricted
Figure 2.14: Using revetment I retaining walls to stabilize over steep slopes ! potential soil-root volume
when trimming to shallower slope angles is not possible in land Figure 8.8: Types of drippers (a) In-line long path single exit dripper
unit 4D 33 (b) In-line long path multiple exit dripper (c) Flushing type dripper
Figure 2.15: Types of river protection works 34 (d) Orifice type dripper
Figure 2.16: Gabion revetment I retaining walls to support steep scarp faces in Figure 8.9: Lateral and dripper locations for orchards: (a) Single lateral for
land unit SB 36 each row of trees. (b) Two laterals for each row of trees.
Vegetative techniques: B m h layering and Bmsh matting 38 (c)Multiple drippers
Sotirce: A Participatory Approach to Environment Protection Measures, ILO/HMG Figure 8.10: Spacing of laterals and drippers for field crops
Vegetative techniques: Vegetated Palisade and Live stacking 39 Figure 8.11: Spacing of laterals and drippers for vegetables
Sotrrce: A Participatory Approach to Environment Protection Measures, ILO/HA.IG Figure 8.12: Layout of main, distribution and lateral lines for rotational
Vegetative techniques: Brzrsh wattles (Slopefascines) and Pioneer t
water distribution
plantation 40
Source: A Participatory Approach to Environment Protection Measures, ILOIHMG
41 Chapter 9: Canal headworks
Vegetative techniques: Grass /shrub plantation and Jute netting Figure 9.1:
Source: A Participatory Approach to Environment Protection Measures, ILO/HMG River processes
Vegetative techniques: Sodding and Seeding 42 Figure 9.2: A confined valley
Source: A Participatory Approach to Environment Protection Measures, ILOIHMG Figure 9.3: A constrained valley
Vegetative techniques: Vegetated Dry Masonly Wall /Rip Rap Figure 9.4: An unconstrained valley
and Vegetated Gabiorr 43 Figure 9.5: Character of rivers in plan
Source: A Participatory Approach to Environment Protection Measures, ILO/HMG Figure 9. 6: Causes of local scour
Vegetative techniques: Branch (living) Layering of Gzrllies 44 Figure 9.7: Flow round a bend .
Sotrrce: A Participatory Approach to Environment Protection Measures, ILOlHAllG Figure 9.8: Discharge through an orifice
Figure 9.9: Side intake with sediment trap
Chapter 5: Irrigation project planning and intplementation offarmer's hill Figure 9.10: Double orifice intake
irrigation projects Figure 9.1 1: Double orifice intake design symbol nomenclature
Figure 5.1: Different stages of sub-project planning and implementation 65 Figure 9.12: Flow over a broad crested weir
Figure 9.13: Layout of bottom rack intake
Figure 9.14: Flow condition in bottom trench
Figure 9.15: Bottom rack geometry

iii
 Chapier 10: Sedintet~tcontrol strrlctrlres Figure 12.5:
Figure 10.1: Seasonal variation of sediment load due to mass wasting Figure 12.6:
Figure 10.2: Seasonal variation of sediment load due to surface erosion Figure 12.7
caused by rainfall runoff Figure 12.8
Figure 10.3: Scoop type sampler used in shallow bed rivers used in deep water Figure 12.9
Figure 10.4: Digging sampler used in deep water Figure 12.10: Junior and senior water rights in a typical farmer constructed
Figure 10.5 Clam-shell bed material sampler for coarse bed material and managed hill irrigation system
Figure 10.6: Basket sampler used in gravel bed rivers for sampling bed load
Figure 10.7: Helley-Smith basket sampler used in sand bed rivers for Chapter 13: Canal escape strlrctt~res
for hill irrigation projects
sampling bed load Figure 13.1: Escape spillway with gate designed for manual operation
Figure 10.8: Arnhem type bed load sampler (plan view) Figure 13.2: Escape spillway with a low spill crest plugged with mud
Figure 10.9 Suspended sediment sampling equipment Figure 13.3: Escape spillway with a raised spill crest and gate designed for
Figure 10.10: An artificial pitched island part automation H

Figure 10.11: Bottom and submerged guide vanes Figure 13.4: A constructed escape channel to divert water safely
Figure 10.12: Divide wall and undersluice for control of sediment away from the canal
Figure 10.13: A sediment ejector
Figure 10.14: A vortex tube sediment ejector Chapter 14: Drop structt~res
Figure 10.15: A gravel trap requiring manual cleaning 174 Figure 14.1: Definition sketch (vertical drop)
Figure 10.16: A gravel for continuous sluicing 1 75 Figure 14.2: Flow chart showing the major design steps in the calcualtion
Figure 10.17: Typical features of a settling basin 177 of the length of drop, the length ofjump and the downstream
Figure 10.18: Typical arrangement of settling basin with a frontal flush gate 178 sill height of a vertical drop structure
Figure 10.19: Nomogram for determining the required surface area of the Figure 14.3: Nomograms for the design of vertical drop structures
settling basin 182 Figure 14.4: Definition sketch (vertical drop: analytical method)
Figure 10.20: Nomogram for determining the minimum depth of the stilling Figure 14.5: Definition sketch (stilling basin: analytical method)
basin to prevent re-scouring of the sediment particles from Figure 14.6: Cascade drop structure
the floor of the basin during normal operation 183 Figure 14.7: Choosing the correct depth to length ratio of the step
Figure 10.21: Nomogram for determining the scouring velocity in sand traps 184 'of a cascade drop structure to match the existing ground slope
Figure 14.8: Chute drop with stilling basin
Chapter I I Cnr1als Figure 14.9: Chute drop with overflow weir
Figure 11.1: A schematic canal la you^ Figure 14.10: Definition sketch (chute drop)
Figure 11.2: Example canal design of a secondary canal (PIS 1) of Figure 11.1 Figure 14.11 : Pipe drop with simple box outlet (low velocity)
Figure 11.3: Example canal design of the primary canal of Figure 11.1 Figure 14.12: Pipe drop with baffled outlet (high velocity)
Figure 1 1.4: Ponding method of seepage measurement Figure 14.13: Pipe drop with baffled outlet
Figure 11.5: Recommended cross section for irrigation canals on stable hill slopes Figure 14.14: Design parameters of baffle type basins for pipedrop structures
Figure 11.6: Recommended cross section for irrigation canals on unstable Figure 14.15: Use of small drop structures to control erosion
hill slopes Figure 14.16: Use of small drop structures to control water level in the canal
Figure 11.7: Canal section in rock Figure 14.17: Areas of drop structures vulnerable to cavity erosion
Figure 11.8: Half tunnel section '
Figure 11.9a: Effects of rock structure on stability of rock faces and Chapter I S : Drainage crossii~gstrrrcirrres
recommended excavation techniques Figure 15.1 The most appropriate type of cross drainage structure depends
Figure 11.9b: Cross sections for irrigation canals in rock on the location
Figure 11.10: Vegetated Gabion Figure 15.2: Loose fitting end joints for suspended pipe crossings
Figure 15.3a: Super passage built on non erosive rocky bed
Chapter 12: The distribution Jystenl Figure 15.3b: Super passage built on non erosive rocky bed
Figure 12.1: Idealized representation of an irrigation system 210 Figure 1 5 . 3 ~ : Super passage built on erosive bed-requires protection
Figure 12.2: An actual canal layout of a large hill irrigation system in a Figure 15.4: Breach section of level crossing
remote hilly district of Nepal 21 1 Figure 15.5: Orifice control structure to limit flood entry
Figure 12.3: Layout patterns appropriate to hill irrigation 212 Figure 15.6: Friction loss in pipes flowing full ( K=0.003)
Figure 12.4: 219
Chapter 16: River behavior and river bankprotection works Chapter 9: Cnnnl headworks
Figure 16.1: An idealized water shed showing zones of erosion, transport Photograph 9.1: A temporary farmer built diversion weir
and deposition Photograph 9.2: Masonry side intake built between large boulders
Figure 16.2: Lateral shifting in a meandering channel and sporadic shifting Photograph 9.3: Masonry side intake built behind gabion protection
in a braided channel Photograph 9.4: Side intake located on the bank of the main river course
Figure 16.3: River channel patterns Photograph 9.5: Side intake located away from the main river course
Figure 16.4: Point bars
Figure 16.5: A braided river - Chapter 10: Sediment control stnfctztres
Figure 16.6: Riprap and gabion revetments Photograph 10.1 : A settling basin appropriate for hill irrigation systems
Figure 16.7: Paving of the scour hole Photograph 10.2: Settling basin with a side flush gate and head regulator
Figure 16.8: Thickness of stone aprons Photograph 10.3: Settling basin with a frontal flush gate and head regulator
Figure 16.9: Types of spurs
Figure 16.10. Design guidelines for spurs Chapter I I Cmls
Figure 16.1 1 : Example of combined use of spurs and revetments Photograph 1 1 . 1 : Good cut and fill balance along a cana alignment
Figure 16.12: Relationship between required net surface width and design flow Photograph 1 1.2: Bad soil disposal destroying existing vegetation on the down hill
slope of the canal
Chapter 17: Gabion stnrcfuresfor remote hill areas Photograph 11.3: Bad soil disposal affecting high value irrigable land below canal
Figure 17.1 : Combinded use of gabion with live branches Photograph 11.4: A flumed canal
Figure 17.2 Combined use of hexagonal and square mesh Photograph 1 1 . 5 : Canal built on a masonary retaining wall
Figure 17.3 Double twist hexagonal mesh .c Photograph 1 1.6: Open bench cut on rock with outer masonary wall
Figure 17.4: Horizontal wire trusses and diaphragms Photograph 11.7: Half tunnel construction
Figure 17.5 Combined use of small and large stones Photograph 1 1.8: A canal covered with RCC slabs to prevent wash down
Figure 17.6: A mattress gabion should be filled with smooth rounded debris entring the canal
river boulders to allow movement and enable the apron to Photograph 11.9: Erosion on a freshly cut hill slopes above the canna1
mold itself to the form of the ground Photograph 11.10: Contour plantation of vetiver grass to control surface erosion
Figure 17.7: The use of revetment wall for minimising excavation of embankment slope below canal
Figure 17.8: The use of a retaining wall to minimise excavation
Figure 17. 9: Combined use of retaining and revetment walls Chapter 12: The disfribirtion system
Figure 17.10: The use of retaining walls for reducing the quantity of earth Photograph 12.1 : A turnout consisting of head and cross regulator,operated
required for filling and maintained by the irrigation agency
Gabion specific weight Vs. Rock specific weight . i Photograph 12.2: A traditional flow dividing structure
Photograph 12.3: Flow division using side weirs
Chapter IS: Eng.neers and irrigators :Managing hill irrigation in Nepal Photograph 12.4: A non flexible flow dividing structure damaged by farmers
Figure 18.1: Irrigation system activities matrix Photograph 12.5: A distribution box operated and maintained by farmers
Figure 18.2: Agency stimuli for local resources mobilization and possible Photograph 12.6: A small vertical drop sturcture
resultant benefits for farmers Photograph 12.7: A chute drop structure
Photograph 12.8: A cascade drop structure
List of Photographs Photograph 12.9: A stone paved canal
Photograph 12.10: A slate lined canal
Chapter 2: Ei~vironmenfalaspects of hill irrigation Photograph 12.1 1 : Cross regulator cum drop structures to control
Photograph 2.1: Downhill erosion caused by overtopping of canal water water level in a branch canal for efficient water distribution
Photograph 2.2: Rill erosion of a hill side due to deforestation Photograph 12.12: A farm outlet with a modified arrangement for flexible flow
Photograph 2.3: Typical circular slide control using strips of vertical wooden planks
Photograph 2.4: Typical debris slide from a circular slope failure -
Photograph 2.5: Rubble drains for improving drainage of a hill side Chnpler 13: Canal escape sfnrcttrresfor hill irrigation projects
Photograph 2.6: Bamboo piles 1 sand bag revetment Photograph 13.1: Escape spillway designed to spill water in excess
of the design flow capacity of the canal
Photograph 13.2: Escape spillway designed to divert all or part of
thc water from the canal
Photograph 13.3: Escape spillway designed for automatic spilling 23 1 Chapter 2: Environntental aspects of hill -irrigation
Photograph 13.4: A gated escape in a remote location: A system bound to fail 234 Table 2.1 : Types of land movement
Table 2.2: Mountain zone classification
Chapter 14: Drop structures
Photograph 14.1: A vertical drop structure in a lined canal 236 Chapter 4: Planning irrigation development
Photograph 14.2: A cascade drop structure in stone masonry 236 Table 4.1 : Geographic distribution of economically active farmers
Photograph 14.3: A series of chute drop structures 238 and related workers as a percentage of the total population. (1971) 56
Photograph 14.4: A drop structure showing signs of erosion damage of the concrete Table 4.2: Target production levels to achieve basic need program 57
floor and masonry walls 238 Table 4.3: Remaining irrigable areas in the mountain, hill and terai
Photograph 14.5: Cascade drops allow gradual changes in the direction of flow 248 regions of Nepal 58
Photograph 14.6 : The upstream end of the drop structure located on the top of Table 4.4: Supply-demand situation for additional irrigable area in the
a stable rock outcrop. The water drops through a height of about mountain, hill and terai regions of Nepal 59
5 meters flowing over the steep rocky face and is collected at the Table 4.5: Grain yields are higher in the mountain regions of Nepal (tlha) 61
base using a chamber built in strong masonry. The water is then Table 4.6: Formal institutions and the irrigation subsector in Nepal 61
led into the downstream channel through a submerged weir 256 Table 4.7: Target and achievement in the irrigation subsector from 1957 to1990 62

Chapter 15: Drainage crossing structures Chapier 6: Assessment of water availability

Photograph 15.1: A reinforced concrete aqueduct crossing a gully at grade Table 6.1: Estimation of flow available for diversion and reliability of estimates 77
level of the canal Table 6. 2: WECS prediction equations for long-term average flows 80
Photograph 15.2: A farmer built level crossing with dry stone outer wall and Table 6.3a : MIP Non-dimensional regional hydrographs : mean monthly
orifice control to prevent flood water entry flow (m3/s) 81
Photograph 15.3 A super passage in dry stone masonry with RCC cover slabs Table 6.3b: MIP Non-dimensional regional hydrographs: 80% reliable
Photograph 15.4: Stone weirs for erosion control of gulleys flow (m3/s) 81
Photograph 15. 5: Traditional wooden aqueduct
Photograph 15.6: HDP pipe aqueduct supported on a wooden bridge Chapter 7: Crop water and irrigation n~afer requirement
Photograph 15.7: HDP pipe aqueduct suspended on steel cable Table 7.1 : Crop coefficient (kc) 90
Photograph.lS.8: Reinforced concrete single span aqueduct Table 7.2: Proforma for estimating Penman Reference Crop 92-93
Photograph 15.9: Reinforced concrete multi span aqueduct Evapotranspiration
Phtograph 15.10: Single span steel pipe aqueduct Table 7.3: Penman ETo for agro-meterological stations in Nepal 94
Photograph 15.1 1 HDP Pipe aqueduct supported below deck Table 7.4: Penman c-factors 96
Photograph 15.12: Outflanking of super passage resulting Table 7.5: Consumptive use for wheat using Blaney and Criddle method 97
in silt and flood water entry into canal Table 7.6 Average percolation for different soils (mdday) 97
Photograph 15.13: Undermining of foundation of super passage Table 7.7: Monthly rainfall data (mm) 99
Photograph 15.14: A shallow siphon Table 7.8: Analysis on monthly data 100
Table 7.9: Mean and 80% reliable rainfall of meteorological stations in Nepal 103-106
Chapter 17: Gabion structuresfor remote hill areas Table 7.10: Monthly and half monthly values of Evapotranspiration and 80%
Photograph 17.1 : Gabion retaining wall and dry stone revetment wall to stablize Reliable Rainfall 100
and reduce risk of landmass failure 303 Table 7.1 l(a): Irrigation water requirement: Percolation losses 3 mmlday, field
Photograph 17.2 : Gabion revetment to prevent toe cutting of hill slope by river 303 efficiency upland crop 75% 107
Table 7.1 1(b): Irrigation water requirement: Percolation IosseslO mmlday,
List of Tables field efficiency upland crop 70% 108
Table 7.1l(c): Irrigation water requirement : Percolation lossess 16 mdday,
Chapter I: Introdt~ctionto hill irrigation *ems in Nepal field efficiency of land crop 65% 109
Table 1.1: Geographic distribution of agency, joint and farmer managed Table 7.12: Effect of system losses and efficiencies on maximum gross irrigation
irrigation system in Nepal 10 requirement (I/s/ha) 102
Table 1.2: A comparison of paddy yield in the hill and terai regions for
rainfed and irrigated farming with local and improved seed varieties
Crop yielrls (Kg/hn) 10

viii
Chapter 8: Alternative method of irrigafioll suitablefor hi& areas Chapter 1: Introduction to hill irrigation systems in Nepal
Table 8.1: Performance table for a single nozzle sprinkler
Table 8.2: Available water for typical soils A brief description of the physiography, climate, land systems and vegetation is presented below to
Typical rooting depth of crops (m) describe the environmental setting affecting irrigation and agriculture in hilly Nepal.
Table 8.3:
Table 8.4: Sprin&r application efficiencies
Table 8.5: Water intake rates for typical soils Physiogr-aphic regions of Nepal
Table 8.6: C-factors The gr~upingof similar patterns of land forms, based on bedrock and surface geology, has led to the
Table 8.7: Lateral length of a dripline as a function of pressure, dripper recognition of five physiographic regions (see Figure 2.1):
spacing, ground slope and maximum flow rate difference along * Terai,
the lateral Siwaliks,
Middle Mountains,
Chapter 9: Canal hendworks High Mountains, and
Table 9.1: Recommended velocity and head loss across gravel traps , High Himalayas.

Chapter 10: Sediment control strtrcttrres The Terai, consists of gently sloping, recently deposited alluvium. The Siwaliks consist of north
Table 10.1 : Flow velocity through gravel trap dipping interbedded tertiary mud stones, silt stones, sand stones and conglomerates. The steep slopes
and weakly consolidated layered bedrock of the Siwalik region tend to promote severe surface erosion
Chapter I1 Cannls in spite of thick vegetative cover. The Middle Mountains consists of complex phyllites, schists,
Recommended side slopes (V:H) for canal embankments quartzites, granites and limestones of different ages. Phyllites are often deeply weathered into red soils
Table 11.1:
Canal free board of fine texture. Schists, which are more resistant to weathering, produce a soil that is stony and coarse
Table 11.2:
Table 11.3: Seepage gradients for different soil types textured. Conifer forests are commdnly associated with quartzites. The High Mountains have
Table 11.4 : Recommended canal lining materials and their applications metamorphosed phyllites, schists, gneisses, and quartzites. These rocks in the high mountains are
A comparison between the engineer's and farmer's canal more resistant to weathering and therefore the soil cover on the high mountains is generally shallow.
Table 11.5:
construction techniques The High Himalayas consists of gneisses, limestones and shales of different ages. Physical weathering
Table 11.6: A comparison between the engineer's and farmers' canal predominates in this region. The soils in this region are stony.
building techniques
C.'/inmte
Chapter 12: The distribtrtio?lsystem Climate is usually defined by mean annual air temperature and mean annual rainfall.
Table 12.1: Alternative hill irrigation layouts Nepal's climate is extremely varied, ranging from seasonably humid sub-tropical to semi-arid alphine.
Table 12.2: Selection of head regular types based on design criteria Elevation topography and aspect combine to affect local changes in rainfall, wind and temperature.
These conditions affect weathering and soil formation, vegetation growth, agriculture and hence
Chapter 14: Drop smtctrrres surface erosion. In Nepal, the main factor governing climatic variations is elevation. Figure 1.1 shows
Table 14.1: Relationship between structure width and overall slope a schematic relationship of elevation, climate, zone, vegetation and land use limits for Nepal. Nepal's
sub-tropical monsoon climate is dominated by the Asian south-west monsoon blowing in from the Bay
Chapter 15: Drainage crossing stntcfttres of Bengal, bringing abundant rain from June until September. The form of the Indian sub-continent
Table1 5.1: Cross drainage structure choice land mass alters the wind direction, so that it actually approaches Nepal from the south-east. The
duration of the monsoon and amount of rain varies across Nepal, the mid and far western regions
Chapter 17: Gabion sinrc/r~res
for remote hill areas being generally drier than the eastern central regions. The monsoon itself is often preceded by
Table 17.1: Speed of con>tructionof gabion walls thunder storms during April and May which, although lasting for no more than a few hours, can be
Table 17.2: - of zinc per unit surface of uncoated
Minimum weight very heavy. The climate therefore shows a very marked dry season lasting from mid-October until
wire (gm / m2) May, during which time severe drought is experienced by vegetation.
Table 17.3 Recommended combination of wire sizes for gabion weaving
Table 17.4 : Recommended mesh opening Precipitation can vary from 500 to 1000 mm in the High Mountains to well in excess of 3500 mm in
Table 17.5: Types of rock used for filling the Western region. Rainfall intensity can also be extremely high; 24 hour totals as high as 60 mm
have been recorded. When the monsoon arrives the water quantity in the soil quickly rises to field
Chapter 18: Engineers atid irrigators :Managing hiN irrigntion in Nepal capacity. well in excess of plant growth requirements. At this time evapotranspiration is suppressed.
Table 18.1: Normal professional problems, solutions and neglected despite temperatures over 20 degrees Celsius because the relative humidity is very high (70 - 95 %).
needs or opportunities
Figure 1.1: sellematic of elevation, climate, zone, vegetation a n d land llse limits
for Nepal

Although it can rain continuously for days at a time, the monsoon is often characterized by periods of
rain lasting for only a few hours, broken by dry spells of similar lenph. If the sky clears between the
showers the sun becomes extremely hot and evaporates surface water very rapidly, sufficient to bake a
soft crust on exposed soil surfaces. Another characteristic of the monsoon rain is that it is often very
intense. Peak intensities of 100 mm per hour are common although only of a few minutes duration at
most. Rain of this intensity is very erosive specially if it follows a period of normal rain during which
the soil has become well wetted. The burst of rain fall saturates the upper pan of the soil profile,
which can liquefy and slide down hill in destructive earth or mud flow.

Land systems vegetation and agriculture

Vegetation and agriculture varies in detail from one physiographic region to another. ligures 1 2 a to
1.2e show in tabular form the variation across the different regions.

Funning systems
Farming in Nepal, although varying in detail from one physiographic region to another, is character-
ized by the general integration of crop production with livestock raising, by the use of local
Figure 1 . 2 ~ :Land form, vegetation and agriculture in the middle mountain physiographic
region

terraca* ctlltlvatlon -200' rn.

(upper UmU a

-1000 rn.
(upper Hrnlt of
cbuble rlce)

r Alluvial pl;~insand
fans. (Deposif ional)

river terraces
9a RI\er channel

I Ob D~ssected
Sand! .Traglncnl;~I

Loam!
Variable
Well
Well
Well
Well
Barren
Barren
Barren
Maize - mustard
Maize - mustard

Moderate to Irrigated terraced

sloping nlountainous well cultivation of rice and
terrain. wheat, or non irrigated
terraced cultivation of
maize and mustard.
Steeply to very Loamv skeletal Well Degraded forest: Pine or
steeply sloping
mountainous
terrain..
4daptedfronr Kenting Earth Sciences Ltd. (1 98.5)
F Figure 1.2e: Land form, vegetation and agriculture in the high himalaya physiographic region
Figure 1.2d: Land form, vegetation and agriculture in the high mountain physiographic
region.
- SOUTH
Monsoon

- SOUTH
Able8 3600m

Rock
h
.-n -a d
- wall
- /
Shallow tlll I

1 Blue pine
forest /+
B l u e pine;.
Gneisses +
Monsoon grazlng
-- - , ,

Tlll
Ico
and anow o n
slopes

toreat
I
'Irrigated
terraces / (Shallow c o ~ l u v l u m
o v e r bedrock
- 5000m
(Upper llrnlt
of g r a z l n g )

+ Gneisses
t

+
Post P
cut canyon -V +

[ Laridfornl I Land chnracter~strcs ( Donrrnanr textrrre I Drnrnnge I Ci~,qeiai~on

/ Ayr~crrltaw 1
I ~ l l u \ . i a plains
l and 13a.
13b.
Active alluvial plain
Recent alluvial plain
Loamy
Loamy 1 bouldegr
Variable
Moderate Irrigated rice
Alluvial colluvial
and morainal
1Ga. Glacio alluvial plains Loamy skeletal Poor Monsoon grazing
fans. 16b. Morainal deposits Loamy skeletal Iniperfect Monsoo~igrazing
13c.Fans Loa~ny/ bouldery Well Irrigated rice depositional 1Gc. Alluvial colluvial fans Loanly skeletal Moderate Monsoon grazing
-13d. Ancient alluvial Loamy / bouldery Moderate Irrigated rice surfaces. 1Gd. Colluvial slopes (talus) Fragmental loa~lly Well IvIonsoon grazing
terrace Steeply to v e ~ y 17a. Shallo~vtill. collu\~ium Fragmental loam,.
- Well
--
Past glaciated 14a. Moderate to steep slope Loamy skeletal Moderate to \\,ell Irrigated terraces: maize steeply sloping 17b. Rock Rapid
~ ~ i o u n t a ~ lterrain
ous - wheat mountainous terrain.
Bluc pine forest Ad<iptedfionrKentrng Earth Scrences Ltd. (1983)
belowv uppcr liinit of 14b. Steep to very steep Loaniy skeletal Moderate to well
arable agriculturc. slope
Past glaciated 15a. Moderate to steep slope Loaniy skeletal Moderate to \\!ell Mollsoon grazing
mountanous terrain !5b. V c q steep slope Loam): skeletal Modcrate to well Abies forest
I above upper liniit of I I I I I
1 arable agriculture. I - I - J
h'ent~ngEnrth Screncr.~Ltd. ( 1%KT)
.4d~7/1ledfro1,1

forests to provide some farm inputs, and by the importance of non-farm activities to generate
supplementary cash incomes. Four principal types of farming systems can be identified in Nepal.
* the main terai farming system,
--A-
* the dun-v_aey
---.-- farming sys_t_em,
* the middle-mountaim farming system,
* the --farming system.
- high mountains __-- -
The maln terai farming system
This is a paddy based farming system on heavy soils of the terai plain; some is rainfed and some is
irrigated. Rainfed farming consists of a monsoon crop of paddy, sometimes followed by a winter crop
of wheat on residual moisture, sometimes by a relay crop of pulses, and sometimes without any
fbllow-on at all. Under irrigation, the most intensive farming is'triple cropping two crops of paddy
followed by a winter crop of wheat! double cropping is much &re common. Sugarcane, jute, 3and
large (upto to
tobacco are important cash crops in some localized areas. Land
-_____ holdings are relatively
._ -
4 3 . Cattle and buffalo are used for traction (land preparation and transport) and for milk
production. A large proportion of fodder production comes from crop residues and the farms are
relatively independent of forest and public grazing land, soil fertility suffers where cow dung and crop
residues are burned instead of fuel wood As much as 25% of the paddy crop are marketed The main
terai farming- system
- is practiced on-45% of the cultivated area in the country, about one half of this
-<-
area is cultivated under rainfed conditions.
The dun valley (siwaliks)farming system
The dun valley farming system is based on maize cultivation on the valleys and the lower slopes of the
Siwalik physiographic region which have recently been deforested and settled. The soils are lighter
and more porous than the main terai; on the slopes they are very easily eroded. Farming is
predominantly rainfed. The main crop of maize is sometimes followed by winter crop of mustard or
millet. Land holdings are smaller than in the terai ( usually less than 2 ha.); buffaloes are used for land
preparation and the farms depend more than those on the terai for common pastures for grazing and
on forest for leaf litter and other organic matter, Because the nearby forest have been cut down.
pasture, fbelwood and forest residues are scarce. In consequence the fertility of the farm soil is
declining rapidly, and for this reason the dun valley farming system is not sustainable in its present
form. This farming system occupies 8% of the cultivated area of the country.
The nziddle mo~ntains~furming
systelll
The middle mountains farming system occupies most of the arable mountainous areas of Nepal,
predominantly in the middle mountainous physiographic region but also in some higher parts of the
siwaliks and small isolated pockets of low land thar can be found in the high mountainous
physiographic region, In the middle mountains farming system, farmers cultivate three principal land
types: valley floors, tars (raised old river terraces), and hill slopes. In the middle mountains
physiographic region all three land types are included; in the siwaliks only the hill slopes and tars.
Cropping is maize-based where only rainfed agriculture is possible (about 80% of the area) and
paddy-based where irrigation infrastructure has been built (the remaining 20% of the area); a winter
crop of wheat normally follows the maize or paddy. Irrigation is practiced in valley bottoms, on some
of the tars, and on the hill slopes only where they have been converted into bench terraces. Holdings
are small, commonly less than 0.5 ha. and often divided into four or more parcels. There is little cash
cropping. Bullocks are used for land preparation, cows and female buffaloes are milked Use of forest
and public grazing is heavy: for one hectare of land cultivated in this farming system. from two to five
hectares of degraded 'forest and grazing are required to provide forest residues for compost and to
maintain the livestock population. Owing to the very high pressure on forest and grazing land, this
farming system cannot be considered sustainable in its present form. Enhancement of the productive
capacity of the forest is required, along with the adoption of agricultural practices that permit more
effective use to be made of forest ~roducts.
Within the middle mountains farming systems there is a variation between farms situated at elevations
less than lOOOm and those situated above this elevation. Below 1000 m, the choice of crops is wider
and triple cropping is possible on irrigated land At elevations over 1000 m, the cropping alternatives
are Gwer @ie principal crops at higher elevations are maize, millet, barley and potato) and triple
cropping is impossible. The middle mountains farming system occupies about 38% of the cultivated
area of the country.
The high mountains and high himalayas
- -farming svstem V ,
The high mountains/himalayas farming system occupies the cultivated areas in the high mountains and
high himalayas physiographic regions, which are generally too high for paddy to be grown. It is
essentially a live stock farming system based on yaks, chaurus (yaklcattle crosses), sheep, and horses.
The livestock provide milk and wool, and can be used as pack animals; the livestock graze on pastures
which are often far from homestead and they follow the pasture up and down the slopes according to
the seasons. The main land types are valley bottoms. tars and hill slopes. Main crops are winter barley,
winter wheat, potatoes, buck wheat, and finger millet, all grown in su&mer at low altitudes, maize is
a l s ~ w nAbove. 3000 m, only one crop can be grown per year Below 3000 m, paddy or miize can
be rotated witH wheat or barley in a very tight cropping pattern on the few irrigated bottom lands. On
very few isolated patches of land which are situated below 1000m, farming systems typical of the
middle mountains can be practiced The fields are small, with as much as eight parcels per farm and
the total cultivated area averages less than one hectare per farm. Less the 15% of this area is irrigated.
This farming system uses large areas of forest for fuelwood and fodder and open pasture land for
grazing. Small amounts of compost and manure are collected from large areas and are concentrated
on small cultivable areas. This farming system occupies about 8% of the cultivated area of the
country.
Types qf irrigation systems in the hid areas o f Neaal
Irrigation systems in Nepal, can be broadly categorized into two groups according to where the
responsibility for management lies: those that are agency managed and farmer managed systems. In
the farmer managed systems, the farmers are responsible for all management activities including water
acquisition from the source to delivery to the plant in the field. In agency-managed systems, public
servants are assigned many of the management tasks with varying levels of farmer participation. in
practice however, the latter is usually a joint system operated by the agency and the farmers. Table
1 1 , below shows the geographic distribution of the three different types of irrigation systems in
Nepal. However it must be noted that, in spite of low area of coverage in the hills and mountains,
FMIS are greater in number in the hills and mountains than in the Terai because the hill systems are
generally smaller in size. It is estimated that there are about 1700 farmer managed irrigation units in
the Terai and over 15,000 similar units in the hill and mountain areas .
Tradition of
. .fanner managed irrigation . Y Y ~ S / ~ I I I . Yand i/s econonlic ~n~pact
~nNepal
Nepalese farmers have recognized the importance of water resources for centuries and have been
constructing irrigation systems at their own initiative to intensify agricultural production Irrigation
development in Nepal, dates back to the 17th. ceiitury. Irrigation development in Nepal remained in
the hands of people for many years. This tradition gave rise to the farmer managed irrigation system
Table 1.1: Geographic distribution of agency, joint and farmer managed irrigation system in
Figure 1.3a: Paddy yield are higher in the hills with local seeds for rainfd and irrigated
Nepal
forming
Zones Rainfed farming (ha) lkrigatedfarming (ha)
I
Ayerlcy managed Joint mapraged I Farmer managed
Yield (kg/ha) I
Mountains 183,000 15,000 29,000
Hills 859,000 15,000 28,000 153,000
Terai 638,000 252,000 16 1,000 308,000

19Rainfed local 86187

(FMIS) scattered all over the country, Even today, FMIS contribute significantly at household and 8Irrigated local 86/87
national level towards the production of staple food: At the household level, survival of many families
in densely populated hill areas depend on the increased production~madepossible by the FMIS At the
national level, at least 45% of the population's subsistence cereal requirements is being met by the
increase in food production made possible by the FMIS.
The irrigation bureaucracy that was established in 1952 realized the importance and potential of hill
FMIS only in the year 1981. Today the government of Nepal is committed to improving, enhancing
and expanding FMIS systems, particularly the hill FMIS, by providing appropriate assistance to
improve the physical system and the management capability of the hill farmer.

Potentzal for irrigation development in the hill areas of Nepal Figure 1.3b: Paddy yield are higher i n the hills with improrpetl seeds for rainfid and irrigdetl
The potential to increase the overall cultivated area is limited in the hills. However, there is still room farming
for (1) increasing the output from rainfed cultivation. through improved agricultural support
programmes, (2) converting rainfed areas to irrigated land to provide more assurance of water, and
(3) increasing output from existing irrigation programmes through improved irrigation management
and agricultural programmes. Due to small land holding size, favorable climate and soil, and intense
cultivation practices the agricultural productivity of hills are higher than in the terai Table 1.2,
illustrates the potential for high productivity and for fucher increasing the agricultural output.

Table 1.2: A comparison of paddy yield in the hill and terai regions for rainfed and irrigated
farming with local and improved seed varieties Crop yieldr (@/ha)
aRainfed Imporved 86/87
B1rrigated Improved 86/87
I 1 Rainfid 1 Rainfed 1 R a i-n w 1 Rainfed I Irrigated
.
1 Irrigated I Irrjgated 1 Irrigated
Local Local Improved Improved Local Local Improved Improved
85/86 86/87 85/86 86/8 7 85/86 86/87 85/86 86/8 7
Terai paddy 1 898 1789 2084 2019 2089 2074 243 1 2565
Hill paddy 1639 2076 2390 242 1 17% 2282 3 146 3221 Terai
Source: Master plan for irrigation development. WECSDOI Nepal.

I
I

The following positive points in favour of the hills are also evident from Table 1.2 above.
*
\/i 9.P
Paddy yields are generally higher in the hills (see Figures 1.3a and b) systems
* Introduction of improved seeds bring more benefit to hill rainfed farming (see Figtire k3c)
* Introduction of improved seeds bring more benefit to hill irrigated farming (see Figure 1.3d) ? &all .systems
* Paddy yields in the hills increase with the provision of irrigation facilities as rapidly as in the ?
p Except In nver valleys (tan) the irrigated area of most hill irrigation systems in Nepal lie on the hill
f
terai (see Figure 1.3e) slopes. Hence these systems are small. To a large extent the hill topography dictates the size of the
command area. Steep mountain and rock slopes, deep cross drains, and unstgble hill sides impose
:4 boundaries limiting the expansion of command area Compared to irrigation systems in the plains,
 Figure 1 . 3 ~ :Introduction of improved seeds bring more benefit to hill rainfed fclr~zing and its is also difficult, particularly when the catchment area is small and stream sources are
fed by rainfall.

2,500
Figure 1.3e: Paddy yields in the hills increase with
the provision of irrigation facilities as
rapidly as terai yields
Increase in yield in the Hills = 29%

3 400 r I 1 Intakes of FMIS are usually simple side

I.......................... 1, I, intakes located on river banks. Several
Hills 33% increase intakes may be located along one stream or
......"..".... "'
river source. The oldest system will usually
have its intake located at a higher elevation.
If new intakes are to be constructed, they can
2,565 be constructed only below the existing
Local Improved intake, not higher. A diversion dam made of
river boulders, stones and branches of trees
diverts the river flow towards the intake.
Figure 1 3d: Introduction of improved seeds bring more benefit to hill irrigateclJRrring Usually the diversion dams are repaired by
1

'
1.so0
Rainfed
fi Irrigated
the farmers annually after every monsoon
flood and before irrigation
3,400 Base year 86/87: Impro\.ed seed
3,200 3,183
Increase in yield in the Hills = 56%
3,000
T e n when secondary stream* and rivers are usedr'as the irrigation dater source,'relatively long canals
are often required to reach the first fields in the command area. Cross drainage and landslide zones
make it technically challenging and costly to construct reiiable canals with low maintenance
requirenlents. Fortunately, the low discharge requirement for small command areas makes it possible
e to sometimes use pipe to cross or bypass unstable areas. The primary canal is usually three to four
kilometers long. Some are even longer. The canal passes through rock stretches and landslide zones
along mountain sides and often along steep slopes. Some systems may also have rock tunnels
Increase in yield in the Terai = 20% constructed by local artisans called "agris". The gradient of the canal is often high so that smaller
1,8001
Local Improved canal sections are used thus improving hill slope stability and reducing seepage losses

, ~ r a l n a g e MI'/~BII dh_aj
systems in the mountains are relatively small and create a serious constraint to economic viability. Excess canal water or flood a major issue in hill svstetnn.In most. natural
High construction costs resulting from difficult access and technical problems associated with unstable drains are used and-there-is little danger of water loA@ Since there is sufficient slope, drainage
------- --
mountain terrain lead to high cost per unit of irrigated area Con~lnandarea of hill irrigation systems fo- irrigation water) are con~e~ientlydtrected back into the lower canal where farmers
-
can vary from half hectare to one hundred hectares. downstream use it. Sometimes excess flow is also dumped into a natural drain. However, low-lying
areas at the base near river bed do encounter water logging.

I
Though there is frequently abundant water in the large rivers draininy glaciers and snow melt in high
mountains. it is seldom accessible for irrigation without pumping Larger rivers tend to be deeply
C~OQPIHS
pat ten, (old c h o p pa &-oJy
Isolated~ommunitiesin the remote hilly re s of Nepal have out of necessity concentrated on growing
I incised and require inordinately long feeder canals for gravity delivery of the water supply to irrigable
' subsistence food crops. Due to difficult remote area, isolated farmers communities are not encouraged
land. The multitude of cross drains and unstable hill slopes limit possibilities of tapping the larger. to adopt new cropping pattern for want of market access. A shift from subsistence cropping to market
more reliable water sources Almost all farmer managed irrigation systems in the hills tap water from oriented cropping may take several years especially in the more remote areas Due to poor agricultural
i
i small streams and river tributaries The availability of water for irrigation is therefore very seasonal
I
I! 12
support services improved seed varieties and agricultural techniques are often not available to the Environmental aspects of hill irrigation
farmers. Chapter 2:
i ,-'
r ah?/ A'F,::;.~ Nepal's mountain slopes, paflicularly
s -kf (see Figure 2.1) are undergoing
/
Frequent floods and high bed loads rapid change due to river cutting, weathering. and soil erosion. The rate of weathering and soil
Growing population pressures have resulte removal of-farest_anhvegetationcoverfrom the
erosion is very intense in the middle mountains because of the subtropical climate and intense rainfall
hill slopes. As vegetation is reduced rainfall runoff is more rapid, increasing the frequency of severe (2000 t o 2500 mm per annum falling in 3 to 4 months). This area is also widely cultivated using-
floods. Erosion also increases and the eroded material is moved by floods, causing damage to i ~ g a t e dterraces and heavily deforested due to population pressures. Poor water management, -
irrigation structures (particularly intakes) and clogging canals. cultural practices and forest management in this area have led to hrther decline of the hill slopes. The
above naturafirocesses and man's influences have led to landslides and degradation of hirslopes
affecting the sustainability and durability of irrigation canals and structures built on these hill slopes. If
the present rate of deterioration of hill slopes is allowed to continue soon there will be sharp reduction
of irrigated land in the hills.
~t is not possible t o control or reverse natural changes occurring on the young hill slopes of the
Himalayan mountains. Decay will occur at a natural rate. However, it is possible by appropriate
choice of management, design and construction practices to reduce man's influence on the rate of
decay of hill slopes. Irrigation engineers will need to give more consideration to environmental
changes taking place on hill slopes to design appropriate structures and use appropriate construction
methods t o reduce the risk of failure. In particular the designers will need t o identify problem and
possible problem areas along the canal alignment and in the irrigated areas to design appropriate
solutions.
The identification and the solution to environmental problems will require the close cooperation of
farmer users. Most environmental problems can be effectively tackled by vegetative (bio-engineering)
measures although some inert engineering structures will be needed at the early construction stage
until the vegetation takes effect. In the long term, preventive bio-engineering measures would be more
effective, sustainable and cheaper than remedial works. These measures will often need the continued
maintenance commitment of the farmer users.
An understanding of the natural environmental processes occurring on the Himalayan hill slopes is
necessary to identifjr possible environmental problems and to design appropriate solutions. A brief
account of the natural processes are given below.

Mountain building and river cutting

The Himalayan mountains of Nepal are one of the worlds most active young fold mountains. They are
I still being formed as the Indian crustal plate continues to move against and under the Tibetan crustal
plate to the north Earthquakes provide the evidence for this continuing activity representing sudden
releases in the stress within the crustal layers Mountain building'movements are characterized by
alternating (geological) periods of high activity when the land rises relatively quickly, and low activity
when relatively little movement takes place In active phase the mountain rivers cut down-wards to
attain new base levels and erosion dominates In quieter phases rock weathering causes mineralogical
changes and soil formation. As the mountains rise, the mountain rivers cut down forming deep V-
shaped valleys (Figure 2 2a) The sides of these valleys are undercut by river action, the rocks are
being weathered which weakens them and eventually turns them to soil These weaker materials can
no longer stand at the same steep slope angles as the original rock These slopes then slide down
when triggered by excessive rainfall or earthquakes (Figure 2 2b). If river levels remain static for a
: long period (many thousand of years) called low activity period the slope angles will be reduced to
gentler grades and the whole landscape will become more stable Even when the debris eventually
stabilizes, part of it continues to be delivered into stream and river channels downstream so increasing
their erosive energy and consequently their ability to erode laterally (Figure 2 2c) and deposit
alluvium The history of Himalayan slope processes is one of a continuous succession of periods of
rapid downcutting, alternating with static periods when a certain amount of adjustment towards a Figure 2.1 : Geology of Nepal
more stable state is achieved. Thus the process described above may be repeated (Figure 2.2d) during
geological years.

Weathering
Weathering is a process bjr which rocks disintegrate into soil. The temperate climate (mean
temperatures 15-20 degree Celsius), high mean annual rainfall (greater the 2000 mm), large diurnal
variations in temperature and vast areas with poor vegetative cover of the middle mountains of Nepal
contribute to the rapid weathering of its hill slopes. The chemical decomposition in the area is at least
twice as fast as those in th.e cooler areas that is at higher elevations in the high mountains. Weathering
begins on the exposed surface and zones adjacent to joints and fissures and proceeds inwards. Initially
the surface zone decomposes, together with those zones adjacent to joints and fissures. As weathering
continues the fresh strong rock changes to weak rock and eventually to a residual soil. Between the
parent rock and the soil are transitional layers of increasingly weathered material of decreasing
strength (see Figure 2.3). The strength of the rock is drastically reduced by weathering and the
weathered layer shears when part of the slope is over steepened. It is the strength of the transitional Middle M ~ u n l ~ , ~ ~
weathered layers which often controls the depth of landslides, particularly debris slides on steep _ -_ - -- - ------
.--
_ _ _ _ _ . _

slopes.
1isiwa!iks
Terai

Erosion
Soil erosion is a two-phase process consisting of detachment of the individual par-ticles from the soil
mass and their transport by water (or wind). Erosion due to water is dominant in areas where rainfall
cannot infiltrate the soil, but flows over the surface carrying with it loose particles of soil. The rate Figure 2.3 Schematic representation of tropical weathering profiles
and type of erosion of mountain slopes are influenced by the slope angle, slope length and the slope
form. The angle of slope is an important factor governing the ef'ficacy of splash erosion; as the slope
angle steepens more soil is splashed downslope. The length of the mountain slope influences the
severity of erosion, particularly rill and gully erosion. When the length of the mountain slope is long
sufficient water accumulates and the flow becomes channeled into rills and gullies. The slope form of Humuf " ~ D S O ' I . .
IV
Residual
$
.-.,
.
-- -
. ... :
---,.--.T-

.. .... .,- . .- .:...,. .---

?
,~
--- - - --
..... ...,'.-.:,
. .,. .. . ......:
,. ' . - . / ' ,. ' .... .. . ., .+,
.#' ,
,

All rcck rnalenal conveiied lo sol: mass shclure

the mountain, can speed up (or retard), concentrate (or spread out) the overland flow of water / '

,./.;.:
soil .:. . .. ,, . , ' .;,. ::.,.:. . . . & valerial labffi deslroyed.
thereby influencing the overall pattern of erosion on the hill slope. . Sign~ficanlchange n volume
V
All rock material d&rnpsed and / o r disinlegraled to soil.
Inrplica/ions of natziral geological pmceses for hill irrigation schemes Onginal mass shclure s l ~ llargely
l inlacl
Mountain building, river cutting, weathering and soil erosion have implications for design,
coilstniction and operation and maintenance of irrigation schemes. The time and location of More Ihan 3% ol rod malenal decomposed and !or disinlegraled lo soil
earthquakes associated with the nlountain building process is difficult to predict. Further~noreit would Fresh / discoloured rock presenl as discontinuous framework or corestones
be ilnpossible to design canals and canal structures to resist damage due to earthquakes. At best, when
putting heavy investment in hill irrigation infrastructure, known active earthquake prone areas can be Less lhan SOX or rock malenal decomposed and I or disinlegraled b soil.
avoided to reduce the risk of failure due to eal-thquake damage. Fresh / discoloured rcck presenl as conlinuous lramework or coreslones.
Besides triggering land slides that damage canal sections and portions of irrigable area, river cutting
can aflect intakes in several ways. Meandering rivers can leave intakes high and dry, degrading rivers Oi&raCon indicate3 wedhering ol rcck malerial and disconlinuity surfaces.
can also make intakes useless. Aggrading rivers can cover intakes several meters under river bed All rocks maland may be discolourad by wealhecing and may be weaker
Vlan in ils fresh wrdllon
making water extraction impossible. All this could happen in just one monsoon or a few years after
the constluction of the intake unless proper attention is given to the selection of intake locations. Discoloralon ndicales weatherng ol rcck malenal and disconlinuity
Thick weathered layers of soil on mountain slopes are potentially unstable and can be easily triggered
No visible sign 01 rcck malenal wealhering
into niotion by:

* vibrations caused by earth quakes,

+ vibrations caused by explosives used in rock blasting for canal con st^-uction,
Figure 2.2: Cyclic development of a river valley during mountain building movements
GEOLOGICAL TIME
(millions of years)
a AHer a period of uplifl a water-
course develops into a river
channel which actively
downcuts and forms a steep-
sided valley.
Zone 4
\\ k'b/,/,/ ' /
b During a quieter period, the val-
iey sides degrade to shallower
\
\.
' 4 k/,/;/
\
\;'z.s.5'
and more stable slopes as(
landsliding occurs after roc1
weat hering
-\ 4
-/;'nB C Therivermylakrdlyerodethe
floor of the valley and deposit
alluvium on the valley floor.
d Afler a new period of uplift, the
river again begins to downcut
and form a new steepsided
valley. The more stable. slopes
(Zone 3) are lefl at a higher
elevation above the more active,
Zone 3 (Zone 4) slopes. Parts of the OM
-.---- . - . - alluvium may remain as terrace
deposits
. . -
. Since rain splash erosion acts uniformly over the land surface its effects are seen only where stones or
I NATURAL PROCESSES
I
1I * ' loading due to large and heavy irrigation structures such as masonry or concrete canal
lining and structures,
* inappropriate construction methods and construction sequences,
* over excavation of hill slopes,
* excessive soil erosion,
* rapid rise water in the soil due to intense rainfall, canal water seepage or excessive
irrigation of uphill terraces,
* bank erosion due to river cutting (toe erosion).
Because weathered hill slopes are a source of potential risk, irrigation engineers will need to identify
potentially unstable hill slopes and use appropriate design and construction techniques to reduce the
risk of failure. A technique called the " Mountain Zone Classification", described later in the text , can
be used to identify potentially unstable areas along a hill canal alignment.
Erosion of hill slopes can affect canals built on these slopes in several ways depending on the severity
of surface erosion across the alignment. Open irrigation canals built on such hill slopes can quickly
choke with sedimentary material made up of
washed down soil and debris. Choking of canals Photograph 2 1 : Downhill erosion caused by
can lead to overtopping of the canal banks, failure overtopoin~of canal water
of canal and destruction of the hill slope due to
severe gullying (see Photograph 2.1).
When irrigation canals are built on hill slopes
where surface erosion has advanced to a stage
where rill and gullies have already formed, there
is greater risk of canal failure due to deepening of
the rills and gullies. Immediate treatment of the
affected hill slope and measures to prevent hrther
deterioration must be undertaken as apart of the
canal construction exercise.
Processes o f soil erosion
Soil erosion of hill slopes can occur in many
forms; rain splash erosion, rill erosion, gully
erosion and piping erosion.
Rain splash is the most important detaching agent
-because the force of the falling rain drop. As a
result of the raindrops striking the bare soil
surface, soil particles are thrown through the air
e _ - --
over distances
I-_ -- - of several centimeters. The
---.
raindrop impact and-dlsperslon oTsoi1 particles
-__I
also has the effect of compacting and sealing the
soil surface into a surface crust (having much less
permeability than the underlying soil) which in
turn reduces infiltration capacity and thereby promotes greater surface runoff Rain splash erosion
becomes a more effective process as the slope steepens and wind speed strengthens. Strong winds
impart a horizontal force to the falling raindrops so that when the drop hits the surface there is a
greater directional effect of splashing of soil particles.
tree roots selectively protect the underlying soil and splash pedestals or soil pillars are formed (Figure
2.4a). Such features frequently indicate the severity of erosion.
 Overland flow occurs on hill sides during prolonged rain when surface depression storage and soil Figure 2.4: Process of soil erosion
moisture storage are exceeded. Overland flow will also occur on hill sides during short but intense
rain storms when surface depression storage and the soil infiltration capacity are exceeded. The flow a. raln~plasheroslon and
overland flow (1 to 100 mm) ... b. rill eroslon (0.1 to 1.0 m) ...
is rarely in the form of a sheet of water of uniform depth but more commonly is an intense network of
braided water courses with no pronounced channels. The flow is broken up by large stones and
cobbles and by the vegetation cover, often swirling around tufts of grass and small shrubs. The
amount of soil loss resulting from erosion by overland flow varies with the velocity and the turbulence
of flow. Equally important is the spatial extent of the flow. The flow results from the intensity of the
rainfall being greater than the infiltration capacity of the soil and is distributed over the hill slopes in
... is h e more or less unifon
the following pattern, erosion of the whole surf- ... is the accentuationof nab-
* top of slope - zone without flow - belt of no erosion of a fmld. The roots of plank, ral dopessions caused by
surface run-off. While normat
* critical distance - sufficient water accumulates - flow begins t e e rwls and fence posts are
increasioglyqosed; s p k h adlivahoftm hides thedam-
* hrther downslope - depth of flow increases - flow becomes channeled into rills pedestals and soil pillars are age. much fertile soil is sul
lost
common
The interaction of rain splash and overland flow is important, each process acting separately is less
...
efficient at moving soil particles than when the processes are acting together. Overland flow acts with
the detaching power of raindrops to erode soil particles and transfer them downslope. I c. streamback eroslon d. gully eroslon (1 to 20 rn) ...
,

Overland flow and rill erosion are difficult to differentiate because both processes affect the same .part
of the hill slope Rills are temporary features. they are channels of narrow width and shallow depth
and can be obliterated by ploughing or weathering of the surface. Those from one storm are often
obliterated before the next storm of sufficient intensity to cause rilling, when the channels may form an ... converts deep. fast-llowing
steams into wide and slug ... causes deep fussures in
entirely fresh network Most rill systems are discontinuous in that they have no connection with the gish meandering. water- otherwise cultivable land. If
main river system. courses wih extensive mud leftunchedted, gulliesealtheir
bank. I t can cause serious way progressively back into
The concentration of flow increase the rill erosion power down slope and the channels deepen and the hill and makes access
widen and migrate both upslope and downslope (Figure 2.4b). Rill flow can transport large grains of impassable.
soil and accounts for the bulk of sediment removal from a hillside (Photograph 2 2). Photograph 2.2: Rill erosion of a hill side due to deforestation
Gi~llysare relatively permanent steep sided water courses which
-- -. experience temporary flows during
. rainstorms.~ornparedto stable river channels which have a relatively smooth concave-upwards
profile (Figure 2 . 4 ~ gullies
) are characterized by a headcut and various steps or knick points along
their course. These rapid changes in slope alternate with sections of very gentle gradient, either
straizht or slightly convex in longitudinal profile. G u b s also have ~ .------.a. - greater depth_gnd.smdk
relatively
- width,
.--
carry l a r g r sediment loads -and display very errafic behavior (Figure 2.4d). Gullies are almost
_--- erosion
-~.__L_---

always associated%accelerated . and therefore

.. _ _ with landscape inst-aility. The main cause of
._-----

gi~llyformation is too m u 3 water brought about by deforestation, i.e. burning of the vegetation and
overgrazinS resulting in greater runoff Gullies do not d,evelop from large rills. The sequence of gully
formation is shown in Figure - 2.5. Gullies are also initiated where linear landslides leave deep, steep-
sided scars and through ground surface subsidence caused as a result of piping erosion

The formation of continuous pipes or underground channels is most common in soils that when dly
take up water very sloivly and reluctantly but once saturated have no cohesion and flow like mud 1he
pipes may occur beneath the crusts and commonly appear on the side of gullies with outlets in the
gully wall These soils are usually found where there is some severe imbalance such as _excesswe_- g
s o d i s a n d c o n ~ p ! e > ~ ~ l a t i oe.g
n the Pokhara Valley Piping occurs when surface water
inqtrates through the soil s ~ ~ r f a m vdownward e s until it comes to a less permeable layer If
there is an outlet so that the water can flow laterally through the soil over the less permeable layer
then the fine particles of the more porous soil may be washed out. The lateral flow then increases, and
the pipe is enlarged, sometimes leading to roof collapse and the formation of large depressions on the
soil surface, so that an underground tunnel becomes a surface gully
 The term landslide is commonly used to denote the downward and outward movements of weathered
. Figure 2.5: Stages in the surface
development of gullies on a hill side
w
Figure 2.6:
-Types -of t
soil or rock slopes along surfaces of separation by falling, sliding, and flowing at a faster rate

I
I m e s of land movement
Removal of soil
Land movement can be classified as: \ by overland flow
* falls,
L
* topples,
* rotational slides,
* translational slides,
* spreads, and
* flows.
Overland

Table 2.1 below shows the type of movement that can occur in the different slope materials
Depression
Types of land movement forming
Table 2.1:

Type o f movement Type of material

Bedrock I Coarse debris I Fine debris Overland

Falls . Rock fall Debris fall Earth fall

Topples Rock topple Debris topple Earth topple
Earth slump I developing
Rotational slides Debris slump
Earth slide DEBRIS
SLIDE
Translational slides Rock slide Debris slide
Spreads Rock spread Debris spread Earth spread
Earth flow Scouring at
Flows Rock flow Debris flow base of headcut 'lope
erosion by surface
undermining
and collapse
Incised
Falls: Falls are abrupt movements of slope materials that become detached from steep slopes or gully floor
cliffs. Movements occur by free fall or a series of leaps and bounds down the steep slopes. The i
relatively free character and lack of a slide plane differentiates the rock fall and rockslide. Depending
upon the type of slope materials involved, it may be a rock fall, soil fall, debris fall, earth fall, boulder ,
L ~ -___-_----
a l %
G
s!
fall etc.
--- -- ----__
Topples: A topple is a block of rock that tilts or rotates forward on a pivot or hinge and then --- -- - -Gully floor

separates from the main mass falling on the slope and subsequently bouncing or rolling down the
slope.

Rotational slides: Rotational slides occur on slopes of homogeneous clay or shale and soil slopes.
Translational slides: Translational slides are mass movements on a more or less planar surface. They
The slide movement is more or less rotational about an axis that is parallel to the contour of the slope.
The movement of the material downslope is along a concave-upward slip surface The scarp at the occur along a weak plane parallel to the ground surface and usually involves sliding of the weathered
head may be almost vertical, while the toe bulges upwards and sometimes flows out These slides mass over a strong or less weathered rock. Slide materials may range from loose unconsolidated soils
to slabs of rock.
occur with a distinct surface of rupture or zone of weakness separating the weathered slide material
from the more stable underlying materials, Often the failure breaks up into a number of smaller slips
and if conditions are very wet, the material may move in a slump or earth flow. Once rotational failure Block slides: Block slides are translational slides in which the moving mass consists of a single unit
starts it may continue to work back up the hill slide and the whole valley side from ridge top to river of rock block that moves downslope.
floor may be affected (see Photographs 2.3 and 2.4).
I
1 Spreads: The failure in this case is caused by liquefaction, the process whereby saturated. loose
cohesionless sediments are transformed into a liquefied state. Rapid ground motions such as
~hotograph2.4' Typical debris slide from a circular slope failure
!
lk
earthquakes usually trigger a failure. I
Creep flows: A creep is an imperceptibly slow, steady, downward movement of slope forming rock
or soil. The movement is essentially viscous enough to produce permanent deformation but too small
to produce failures as in landslides, A creep is indicated by curved tree trunks, bent fences or retaining
walls. tilted poles, and small soil ripples or ridges.

Photograph 2.3: Typical circular slide

Mountain zone classification

When considering the ~li_p-esign, construction, rehabilitation and maintenance of irrigation

-
systems in the Hills of Nepal it is important to recognize where land s l i d i ~
or soil erosion is occurring
and to distinguish betweendifferent types of slope failures and erosion processes.
The terrain through
Figure 2.7: Mountain zone classification
11.w 3
KEY I
Debris flow: Debris flow is a form of rapid mass movement involving loose soil, rock and organic
materials along with entrained air and water to form a slurry that flows downslope An extremely .
rapid debris flow is called a debris avalanche.

Earth flows: Earth flows have a characteristic bowl-like depression at the head where the slope
material becomes liquefied and flows out. he flow is usually channelised on the slope and spreads out
at the toe. The flow generally occurs in fine-grained materials or clayey rocks under saturated
conditions.

Mud flows: Mud flows are a type of earth flow consisting of materials containing about 50% of
sand, silt, and, clay-sized particles that are well saturated and flow rapidly.
 Mountain zone processes
which the canals would pass can be classified into mountain zones and these in turn can be In Figure 2.2, the way in which the main zones develop is illustrated. The landscape forming process
differentiated into several typical land units based on criteria of slope stability / instability. ~ l slopes
l tends to develop in a series of cycles. AAer a period of earthquake activity and mountain uplifi the
within a land unit display similar characteristics a"d require similar engineering and vegetative design fivers and watercourses erode the landscape by cutting down and forming narrow incised valleys. The
inputs for environmental protection measures. Therefore, by identifying these land units it is possible steep sides of these valleys are very unstable and consequently land sliding is widespread, These
to formulate a framework of design, construction, rehabilitation and maintenance of irrigation steeper active valley sides are Mountain Zone 4. In periods of very low earthquake activity and no
schemes
-- which will reduce the risk of land . - . and soil erosion. Figure 2,7, illustrates a mountain
- .sliding
the downcutting action of the rivers reduces but landslide activity continues until the side slopes
zone classification which is described in Table 2 . 1 . to the valleys become shallow and more stable These are Mountain Zone 3.
A deposit of alluvium may be formed by the river on the valley floor. This is Mountain Zone 5 . When
Table 2.2: Mountain zone classification a new period of activity begins, the river again cuts down and forms a new narrow incised valley with
1 ~nstablesides. The deposit of alluvium may remain on the hillsides above the new river level and this
1 Zone I Land unit I Description is called a river terrace deposit. Above the steep sides of the new valley are the more gradual slopes
formed during the earlier quieter period, these will be partly composed of colluvium (old landslides
High Mountain bare rocks, covered with snow.
1&2 debris) md partly in-situ weathered materials
3 3A Ancient Erosional Terrace Covered with in situ weathered .
~enerallycanals will be more stable in Zone 3 and less stable in Zone 4 as far'as landslide activity is
profile of soil up to 3m thick. Slope angle generally < 35"
Degraded concerned. In Zone 5 erosion protection becomes an important consideration.
Relatively stable. Often farmer terraced. Surface water erosion
Middle slopes ~ 6 different
e types of materials that are encountered in each of the zones and land units are.described
< 35" high. in more detail below.
3B(4D) Degraded Colluvium. Transponed slope debris or landslide
debris comprising gravel, cobbles, boulders bound in siltlclay
matrix. Slope angle < 35".
Mountain zone 3
. . Relatively stable. Often farmer
Zone 3 comprises Ancient Degraded Slopes now located high above the present river valleys. These
terraced. Variable permeability.
Bare Rock Slopes. Steep slope angles often > 60". Stability are relatively stable zones having undergone a long geological period 'of degradation..The near surface
4 4A materials are being chemically weathered to red soils at a greater rate than their removal by erosion
dependent on orientation of discontinuities, i . e bedding / joints.
Active Lower and consequently the present slopes are generally at angles of less than 35" (Land Unit 3A). These
Slopes > 3 5" Rock slopes with shallow (< 2m) loose debris cover. Slope areas are usually farmer terraced but they are only locally irrigated from nearby spring sources or from
4B the upper reaches of rivers by small farmer canals. In some areas (Land Unit 3B) colluvium may be
angle 45"- 60". Shallow instability and debris slides. Mass i present, also at slope angles of less than 35" This is generally stable but care in drainage design may
instability as 4A.
Active Colluvium. Thick landslide debris often with toe being be needed to prevent saturation in wet periods and re initiation of mass 1 soil movement.
4C
eroded seasonally by river. Slope angle > 35O. L ~ U ~ Y
Mountain zone 4
r(poradlneh1v unstable.
Colluvium. See 3 8 but less stable. Zone 4 comprises the Active Lower Slopes immediately above the existing river channel and its
4D (3B) nearest terraces. The slopes are steep, always greater than 35" and, because they have been formed by
Higher terraces. Oldest terraces often heavily dissected by
5 5A the most recent phase of river cutting, are in the process of active degradation. They comprise steep,
drainage gullies. Thick weathering profile up to 3m. Slope angle
Recent Side bare rock faces generally steeper than 60" (Land Unit 4A); steep slopes of between 40" and 60" (Land
generally 0" - 20" Generally stable but can be highly erodable if
Terraces and Unit 4B) in which the rock is covered by weathered rock materials and debris; a range of failed slope
surface residual soil cover is penetrated.
Valley Floor forms including mounds of landslide debris at angles steeper than 35" that are progressively unstable
slope < 20" Terrace Scarp Faces. Steep, often sub-vertical Actively (Land Unit 4C); and similar debris that has now degraded to less than 35" and is marginally stable
5B (Land Unit 4D). Particularly careful engineering design is required in Zone 4 and continual
I I I degrading usually as sudden slumps. Highly erodable forming I maintenance will be necessary.
cones of loose debris.
5C Low Terraces. Usually above normal flood levels, but
Mountain zone 5
susceptible to periodic high floods Soil cover generally < 30 I
Zone 5 comprises the present river channel and its flood terraces, together with up to several levels of
cm. Highly permeable and erodable. Slope angle 0" - 10".
Bottom Flood Plain. Gravel / Cobble banks, highly mobile and terrace formed in the recent past, the highest of which can be up to 150 m above present river level
5D I
These terraces are all composed of coarse gravels, cobbles and boulders with sand
covered by annual flood levels. No established soil cover. Highly I
The highest and oldest terrace has undergone the longest period of weathering and may have
1 I permeable and erodable degraded and been uplifted so that the typical flat top fronted by a steep scarp slope may now be
replaced by a gently sloping surface (0 - 20") (Land Unit 5A) The upper level of the terrace has often
weathered to a red clay up to 3m in thickness. This becomes thinner on the lower and more recent
terraces.
These terraces are fronted by steep slopes of partially cemented, gravels, cobbles and boulders which
can be highly erodable and unstable (Land Unit 5B). Very active erosion of these frontal slopes occurs
where water courses flow over the terrace edge.
The more recent river terraces (Land Unit 5C) are too young for much weathering to have occurred
and generally consist of very permeable grey-brown sands, gravels, cobbles and boulders. They are a
few metres above river level but can be inundated in exceptional floods. Within the river channel,
gravel banks occur which may be covered each yegr in times of high flood (Land Unit 5D)

Implications for hill irrigation schemes

Most canal alignments in the Hills of Nepal are located within Zones 3, 4, and 5. Typically the main
canal alignment to the command area of hill irrigation schemes is located in Zones 3 and 4, while the
alignment of secondary canals is usually found in Zone 5. The main points to emphasize are the highly
active landscape forming processes, the relative steepness of the terrain and the mobility of the river
systems. In this environment landslides and soil erosion are taking place at high rates. No matter how
well the canal is designed there will always be a high maintenance commitment due to the continuing
activity of these geological processes.
The adoption and recognition of a zonal classification of landscape is important because the choice pf
optimum alignment, canal cross section and the type of geotechnical engineering design necessary in
terms of earthworks, slope support, slope erosion protection, and drainage can be directly related to for new cut areas:
the land unit in which the canal is situated. * grass and shrub plantation. or
seedino n r
Appropria~eirrigation design in the d@erent mounzcin zones iU plantation, or
As described above mountain slopes are undergoing constant change, some mountain zones are
undergoing rapid change in comparison to the other zones, Therefore irrigation designers will need to
In areas where land slips have occured or are imminent, toe revetment walls and possible covered
identify the process and speed of change of the mountair. slopes to design appropriate irrigation
canals and structures that can survive these changes. Below are some engineering and vegetative canal sections (see Figure 2.9) will be required. All inert engineering measures such as revetment /
techniques that are recommended in the different mountain zones, retaining walls built in this land unit must be well supplemented with bio-engineering measures
prescribed above.
Keconzmended engineering and vegelative measures for land units 3A / B.
Land units 3A / B are generally covered with shallow layer (of upto 3 meters) of in situ weathered
Recommended engineering and vegetative measuresfor land unit 4B
soil. Surface erosion in this land unit is very high. Therefore, when excavating for canal construction, Land unit 4B is characterized by a thin mantle of weathered rock lying on top of sounder rock. This
fresh hill cuts and exposed slopes of spoil embankments must be quickly covered with top soil so that layer of weathered rock may be less than three meters deep. This shallow layer can be triggered easily
vegetation can be re-established to prevent surface erosion. Spoil from canal excavation will need to into a sliding motion by inappropriate design and construction of irrigation canals. For stability, the
be carehlly disposed so that soil erosion is not initiated Canals in this unit must have balanced cut base of the canal must be founded on solid rock. Over excavation in this land unit can trigger land
and fill sections to avoid too much excavation and exposure of erodible layers (see Figure 2.8). slides, hence narrow rectangular canal sections are preferred in this land unit (see Figure 210). For
more stability up slope and down slope toe revetment I retaining walls may be needed to be built
Shallow landslides and landslips are likely to occur in this land unit above and below the canal -Because to
adjacent the canal.
the area is highly unstable timely vegetative measures such those recommended below must
alignment. When adequate berms are not provided even shallow landslips can block canals causing
be taken during the time of canal construction, to prevent the occurrence of landslides.
overtopping leading to erosion of downhill slopes, Appropriate vegetative measures for controlling
surface erosion and reducing the risk of minor land slips and landslides in this land unit are:
For spoil and new fill areas:
* brush layering, or
* brush matting, or
* live stacking with seeding, or
* live stacking with grass and shrub plantation
 Figure 2.10: Correct and incorrect design and construction of canal sections in land unit 4~
Figure 2.9: Use of toe revetment walls to reduce risk of
landslips in land unit 3 A 1 B
/ WRONG , a RIGHT @

An unstable canal because malor part

ofthe canal's base is on loose soil A more stable canal because major part of its
base is on firm rock; less earth excavation
These techniques include: because the canal section is narrow; adequate
For newly cut slopes on soil: re-vegetation
* brush layering, or
* live stacking with grass and shrub plantation, or
* jute netting with grass seeding, or Figure 2.1 1 : Main causes of instability in land units 4C/D and method for dealing with such
* jute netting with grass and shrub plantation , or instability problems
* sodding.
for eroded or natural slopes: Active ? Stable ?
* live stacking with pioneer plantation, or I
I
* vegetated dry stone masonry walls. Oversteep slope Seepage from Seepage from Toe erosion -
above and below canal or springs. by river.
the canal. paddy.
Recommended engineering and vegetative measures .for land unit 4C / D I I I I
Land units 4C I D are characterized by actively degrading and highly unstable soil layers and any C
disturbance to the slope will result in Lrther land slides. Bio-engineering treatment of areas in land Cut hill slope to L away
units 4C I D will depend on the particular factods causing instability. The main causes of instability in shallow slope angle
Diver water 3- path
Divert river
from affected zone and/or provide
these land units are: or provide heavy
* over steep slopes, retaining walls.
or provide strong river bank
* adequate drainage. protection.
excessive seepage, and
* continuous toe erosion due to rlver cutting. L
I \

Figure 2.1 1 describes how problems arising from the above factors can be solved. tngineering Re-vegetate all fresh cuts and fresh spoils in
measure for reducing the risk of slope failure in this land unit will depend on the particular factods neighborhood areas with appropriate vegetation.
which are causing instability. These measures include: I
* temD0rar-y irrigation channels, J

* toe ievetment-1 retaining walls, Build temporary irrigation channels with re-usable HDP
* surface drains, pipes, clay pipes, etc. and monitor the situation closely.
* river bank protection works,
* spurs +
Protect and re-vegetate areas which I
have inadequate protection.
I
 be cleared, platform for temporary canals cut and structures as described above must be constructed,
Temporary channels Bio-engineering measures must be relied upon for lasting solutions.
Because the hill slopes of land units 4C / D are highly unstable, due to one or more of the reasons
shown in Figure 2.11, temporary channels need to be built in these areas. These channel sections need Toe-revetment / retaining - walls
to be small and leak proof because leakage of canal water in this zone can trigger landslides. when existing slopes cannot be trimmed to shallower slope angles, because it would involve large
Temooraw and impermeable HDP pipe, corrugated iron sheets or hollowed-out oil drums etc. are excawtions or loss of valuable land, then a series of toe-revetment / retaining walls need to be
recoimended in this area (see Figure 2.12) provided to stabilize the slopes (see Figure 2.14). Adequate pioneer plantations must also be provided
in this area to increase the stability of the slope.
Fieure
" 2.12: Temporary irrigation channels in land units 4C / D using corrugated iron sheets
and k l ) pipes
~
Drains
1 A rapid rise in the water table of a hill slope in land unit 4C / D can induce land slides by weakening
the soil strength. The risk of land slides due to the rapid build-up of the water table inside a hill slope
comnacled t,aW lo
in land units 4C 1 D can be minimized by providing adequate drainage. Sub-surface drainage through
deep holes drilled on the face of the hill slopes are ideal, but may be dificult to provide in remote hill
areas. Alternatively, surface drains and complementary vegetative measures can be provided on such
Galvantsea
areas. Surface rubble drains in "trench" and "herring-bone" layout, as shown in Photograph 2.5 can
sheels l a ~ d
lengthw~se ;--7----HDP plpes prevent the rapid build-up of the water table. These drains should be used in combination with
be used lor bank
appropriate vegetative techniques such as:
'.
* grass and shrub plantation, or
* bush layering, or
C o m p c l e a bench * live stacking.

Long~ludtnalbarnbbos
(red by rattan lo pllks
Figure 2 14: Using revetment / retaining walls to stabilize over steep slopes when trimming to
shallower slope angles is not possible in land unit 4D

Figure 2.13: Escape structure for use with HDP pipes

The temporary channels should include

design break structures which control
spill-water when the pipes move
downslope with subsequent land slides.
Spill-water should pour over solid
rock or boulders or down natural
drainage lines and not over the
landslide zone. Figure 2.13 shows a
break structure for use with HDP
pipes. The working arrangement of
this structure is as follows: 1). The
earthen irrigation channel converges
into a box section; 2). HDP pipe with
Stloog and h e n 9 ~ v c t m e ~ l t h e t a i ~ uwalls C1 Sm verticill intervals
n g a t cvcly 10-
single clamp, clamped lightly so that
and a1 eve{? change in g~-c)und slope
HDP pipe will pull off at times of
landsliding; 3). Canal water escapes
down the chute and is diverted away
from the landslide area.
In areas where landslide has occurred
or is imminent, all loose material must
 photograph 2.6: Bamboo piles / sand bag revetment

River bank protection works Revetments

ibank
h e bottom
erosion, slopes of landon
Depending units
the 4C which
/D the
need, are in of
severit) contact with "vertheflows
the situation, Canofbethe
nature subject to
andriver
the Bank revetments using bamboo piles,
bamboo straps and sand bags are
,tee,ness of the nrer bank, river bank protection measures listed in Figure 2 15, Can be adopted.
appropriate for rivers with mild slopes,
o..hhlP drains for improving drainage of a hill side and sandy beds suitable for driving in
bamboo piles (see photograph 2.6).
Bank revetments using rip-rap are
more suitable when the bank slopes are
not steeper than 40 degrees. Heavy
stones and adequate aprons projecting
into the river bed should be provided
for effectiveness. Live wood and
aquatic weeds can be planted in the
joints between the stones placed on the
slopes to bind the stpcture together
thereby turning, discrete blocks into a
well-anchored mass.
cmolon Dank revetments are appropriate on steeper bank slopes. Live,wood and aquatic vegetation, as
described above, will consolidate the gabion masonry into a well-anchored and solid mass more
effective against the river currents. The plant species used with river bank protection works must be
ableto tolerate periodic flooding and water logging.

Spurs
Figure 2.15: Types- UI
,r
,...
r;.rnr
I
nrntection
r-- - - -
works Spurs are used to deflect the main flow path of a river away from an eroding bank or to align the
approach flow upstream towards the infrastructure such as an intake. Care should be taken to ensure
that spurs do not deflect the main flow too much and cause scouring and erosion of valuable land on
TYPE REVETMENT SPURS the opposite river bank.
LAYOUT \
Recommended engzneerzng and vegetatzve measures for land unit 5B
T
Lana unit. . 5~
I - - consists of terrace scarp faces which are often sub-vertical and actively degrading,
?.

usually as sudden slumps forming cones of loose debris. The land is highly unstable and active with
landslides. Whenever possible it is best to avoid constructing canal in this zone. However, when
construction is required, gabion revetment walls combined with vegetative measures can reduce the
risk of landslides. Trimming back is generally not possible, so gabion retaining walls should be used
as support for the steeper scarp faces (see Figure 2 16). For scarp faces down slope of the irrigation
channel that are not disturbed, both slope and canal should be protected with gabion revetment walls.
The scarp faces are highly permeable and erodible, hence no seepage from the canal must be allowed
t0"cause soil erosion or slumping. Appropriate vegetative techniques such as grass seeding, or grass
.and shrub plantation can help to reinforce the bare faces of this land unit. Likewise , vegetative
DEFINA TION Artificial surfacing of from bank to
Elongated deflected
projection Irfigation headworks - gabions reinforce the retaining walls. If the land slide has already occurred or is imminent, all loose
banks and bed
current and bed load soil material must be cleared, a new embankment rebuilt with well-compacted layers of soil behind
gabion revetments, and temporary channels constructed using HDP pipes. All new cut and fill slopes
MAIN PURPOSE Reduce river bank
erosion ~mprove river bank
protection Guide
Similar flow
irrigation
designtowards
intake
to spurs must be re-vegetated with grass seeding or grass and shrub plantation.
Two types : Permeable
Materials usually stone and impermeable
COMENTS
(rip rap), concrete panels
or gabion baskets
Figure 2.16: Gabion revetment / retaining walls to support steep scarp faces in land Irrigation engineen should secure the invovement of the beneficiaries from the
unit 5B the project so that a continued commitment for tiiture maintenance of the project is assured.
stages of
irrigation engineers should not limit their surrey to purely engineering aspects of the
but should involve persons I agencies from other disciplines such as soil consenation forestv
agriculture, etc., necessary to minimize the adverse impact of the irrigation project.

\/ Where wssible trim to stable

s l o p less than 34 degrees higation mgineers should use appropriate design standards and designs to maximize the use of
local materiais and skills SO that operation and maintenance of completed p q e c t s are
the farmers' scope.
Oabiuu x e v e t m d wdl

Box 9ection canal, HDP pipe or

Environrt~enlalitnpucl cr.s.scss~nent
It has now been widely recognized that irrigation construction and poor irrigation practices can afTett
the hill environment, Poorly designed, badly constructed and inadequately maintained hill irrigation
projects with no regard to environmental protection and conservation can lead to wastage of irrigation
water and increase land degradation through landslides, gully and surface erosion etc.. The
environmental impact of constrr~ctionand operation of all project, big and small, new and old, will
therefore need to be carefiillv examined. Particularly, in farmer managed irrigation systems, the users
will need to be informed of any possible adverse effects of the project.
Nepal has drawn up specific guidelines under a National conservation Strategy (NCS) for the
environmental assessment of all development projects including irrigation. To comply with the NCS
all irrigation projects will be required to provide a Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
statement. The EIA statement should:
* identify beneficial and adverse environmental impacts,
* examine the signitica~lceof the environmental implications of the project,
* assess whet1it.1-thc act verse environmental impacts can be mitigated, and
* recommend ~~re\!entivc and curative measures.
For large irrigation projects a detailed Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a statutory
requirement. However. f o ~ s~nallscale liill irrigation projects which are farmer managed an Initial
Environmental Examinatiou (IEE) and a statement will be sufficient.

The imp1icution.c;of'lllc 1:/.1 ~~crlz~il-cn~ent

* Irrigation policy iliakers sliould provide sufficient financial and technical assistance to ensure
that all farnier managed irrigation projects are sustainable.
* Irrigation engineers should not be concerned only with irrigation construction but be more
concerned with psoi~idingtechnical and financial assistance to farmer users in operation and
maintenance of the p~-c$ect
* Design, estimation and construction of irrigation schemes should incorporate environmental
protection measures.
 Vegetative techniques: VegetatedPalfsade and Live stacking
Vegetative techniques: Brush layering and Brush matting So~ource:A Particrpatory./fpprooch 10 Envrr-onnlenrProtuclion h~easrires,ILO/HMG
Sotoitrce: A Partrcipntor)r .Ipproach (0 En,,lronmenl Prolectron Aleastires, ILO/WG

Fundion: Species: Function: Species:

lnslantaneous and effectwe slabrl~sal~on
of slew Vegeted PalisadeConsl~cton Living checkdam for gullies with w i d e tbodE
Brush Layer
stows Re~nforcedearth afler conslruclron,deep ~ o o means
d agalnstbu~kera&. h e i p to repalr
and 611 the oullres
Gad for s k , narrow gullies
I I
~mmediateeffect
Ssau
Sketch
Construciion Steps:
1 . D+gholes wilh c r d r Lahare Ppat
mcllnat~on,beglnntng at loe of slope 2 prepare IN^ slacks dameler 5 ern, length 1 5 Kavro
Bushes.
2 Brush layer 6 pkced cross-w~seone fourth of -2 m
Asuro Sajman
each branch should extendwet the edge of [he 3 Sladts are h e n Into sal side by side Bamboos
Ntlkanda Sirnat~
lerrace 4 They are Iredwtlh local rcpe a wire whrch s
Stud Bhaya
3 The lower dilch 6 filled wllh malertal from the aochwed m the SI& of the gully
dllch above, elc Any other spenes recommended by farmel
and mncerned professionak
Layout:
The brush layers shwM have an inchnabon
towards Ihe horizontal g h t of a h ( 10"

min. 0.50m
+ -1mm-X-
Drain

Construction Period:
During dwmanl season
Just before m m c ~
Material:
Branches of rwt'hg plankhrees
(about 20 pieces per metre with all side branches)

Function: Species:
1 Construction Period:

Name:
During damant season if gully is wet
Jtist befue monsoon if gulk a dy
( & i Jestha)
n
Material:
-
-
Long straight slems of lrees that root easily
minimum dameter 5 n,
5-20piece wc metre
Wveorrqx

Function:
-
Remarks:

Surface p r o t e c i i of unvegetaled areas. conserves LNe Stacktng Species:

ush Malting A Wick and effectwe measure of secure a

i--
moisture, keeps soil and seeds (if sown) In place. vegelalive cover. Slabdisationof soil only after
lnslanlaneousprolection and subsequent vegelatlon roo1tt-g of Ihe plants
Roolingplants' -
Trees
Strnali Titepati Stsau Golatncht
Sketch PhaleX klnsh
Asuro Ndkanda
Construction Steps: Construction S t e p : Lahare Ppal Khlrro
1 Place branches paralU or crmswfie from Dead plants t . Prepare hole with iron bar (crow bar) Kavro
bollom to lop. Any (In combmnalm wtlh grass seed~ng) 2 Planl cultmng righi side up as deep as possbk Dab%&
2 Nexl layer should w e r i abcut 30 cm 3 Tamp Ihe soil around Ihe cutting. The cutting
3 Fix branches w~thpegs and wlre or rope. Any other spec= recommendedby must be firm in the ground90 that 11cannot be &sks
farmers and concerned professionals readiy moved or pulled oul. Asuro Sapwan
0
N~lkanda S~mal~
Stud Bhaya

Am/ o k r speces rearmme& by

fanners and concerned professwak

Material:
. &arches of roolmg plants. long
and ilralght Length = 2 m Remarks:
1 Construdion Period:
Material:
Durmna dotmanl season - 10.30 branches per metre Combtnabon w~lhgrass seeding preferable During dormant s e a m
- Long, straight steins of trees and brushes (ha(
Brush rnallrng before stari ol monsoon(Jesth) Pegs L=O 5 m Ip per metre Tree species Falgun, Chailra
roo1easik (approx lm/m2)
Cutllng of Branches 2 weeks before, w~thslorage of Wire rope or local bindng materlal Keep cufllngs in mMSl place for hvo weeks
Bush spews. Before start of moosoon (Jesth) . ,c
, bar to pepare
branches ~nmolst shady place Dead branches ~fcombined wllh grassseedlng
Vegetative techniques: brush wattles (Slopefascines) and Pioneer plantation Vegetative techniques: Grass / shrub plantation and Jute netting
Source: A Parhcipatory Approach to Envrronttzent Protection Measures, IW/HMG Source: A Partrcrpntory Approach to Environnient Protection Measures, ILO/HMG

Name: Function: Species:

unct~on:
~banks
~ ~andscoulour
lhedges ab
i hl~nes
~ slabl~ses
~ b sol1 and prevents
Brush Wattles (Slope Fasclnes) Stabiliaton and drainage of backcuts and slldes at
surface.
HddF badc sediments, also useful for bank - 7 overland Row and h~llerosm They also prevent
sdtatm of the canal
Grasses

'
Sketch: proleclin. Bushes. S h b s Nap~er(cuttings)
Fasl and slmple protecliin Establ~shesa miuos~te Amllsso (rooted slips)
for other plants Asuro Sapwan V e t ~ e r(rooted slips)
Nilkanda S~mali
Construction Steps:
Construction Steps: 1 Take plant from nursery, spl111IInlo bushes with Shrubs
Bihaya
1 Excavat~onof small terrace 1R dameter of 3 plants Ketluke (rooted slips)
bundle. 2 Cut the Iqoff (abut 20 cm from the base) Alalnch~(rooted slips)
Live slacks frY a d m q pegs
2 Prepare endless bundles (fasclnes) and pbce 11 3 Plant the bushes w~tha spacing of 20 cm on the
into terrace edges or on the ridges Any other specles recommended by
Phaledo D a m
3 Add stake through bundle farmers and concerned professl~lals
Lahare Pipal Gola~nch~
4 Cwer wattle with soil, tamp firmly.
Kavro Kh~no

--:.:i
Layout:
. ,
.. ... .. .. .. . . Parallel rows at an angle of 10Dlowards the
honzmtal.

=.---*z.=.-
:.- --2.-.-
-.--.-
---
endless las5"e

Material: Construction Period: Material:

Construction Period: - Cutting of long, straight and RexrMe plants which Any time when waler IS avaibble 5(1Bushes
bush conla~ns
of grassapprox 3 s~ngleplants)
per metre
Dunng dormant season root easily with al least 5 branches for one bun& Remarks:
Just before Monsoon (Jeslh) - Wire to prepare bundle 1 5 - 2 mm
- Pegs (stakes) L = 50 cm, every metre dead or live J
-
stacks
To be combined with:
Name: Function:
Name: Function: Species: Guick surface ptotection jute net ptotecls s d ,
Jute
i PNeHlng
Pioneer Plantatm The mulch~nghe@ the pbnts to grow faster by -L.
owes them some hum~dtyand shadow Canle
regulating the moisture not step on lute net

I
Slabilises slope and and prwides fuel, fodder. Jute matenal decays to c o m v l
fruits. Tree Seedlings (From nursery give Sketch:
3 Lwe stacks as anchoring, I e pegs Of
preference to farmers interest)
Sketch: Sajiwan
Slmali
Construction steps: FoWer m s : other
Bihaya
1. D i g t h e p i l s 3 0 ~ 3 0 ~ 3 0 c m Bahhar Cilrus Ritlha
2. Remwe plastic tube from seedling Kulrnero Tuni
3. Planl seedling. Koirab Okhar
4. Cover with soil and mulch and tamp gently (Sol Khanyu Sisau
peferaMy topsoil or forest soil) etc Tea 4 Overlapping at least 10 cm
Coffee
Ala~ndi

Remarks:
Construction Period: Material:
Construction period: - Jute net 'Sporl Saver' 5CX) glm'
Material: Remarks: In combination with grass seeding.
At beg~nn~ng of vegetation perlod - 1-2 rootedpbnts per m2(from nursery) Falgun - Jesth Widm 1.2m Length. 1 h
(Asar - Shrawan) - Mulching malenal such as awnpost. In combinati with IN^ slacking, - Lwe stacks for natllng 3 peces per melre

- chopped grass Fabun. Chaitra dead stacks

Vegetative techniques: Sodding and Seeding
sotirce: A Partrcipatory A p p r o a c h to Environment Protection Measures. I L O I H M G
Vegetative techniques: Vegetated Dry Masonry Wall /Rip Rap and I,i.gctated Gabion
Soltrce: A Partrcrpatory A p p r o a c h to Envrronment Protection Measures, ILOIHA4G

Function:
Slabtlisalion of small, st- and cniical slopes.
specially along small walemays a on cut and fill
sides of inigalioncanals
P Species:

( Any local grass cover matnly -1

Name:
Vegelated Dry ktasonry WalVRp Rap Function:
Punctual and Itnear s@nloatm of skpes and loe
polecttm Due to vegelatm, dy m m r y
Spec~es:

beaKnes mote Rexlble, plants relnfotce the fill

Sketch
behlnd the wall and help b l e d n g Ihe wall Inlo the Bushes S m s
Sketch:
surrwndngs Gxd da~nagelhrough wall by the
pbnts Son and hard s t o w can be used Asuro Bha~a
Ntlkar& Sajiwan
C o n d ~ d i o nSteps: SIU~I Slmall
1 L N staklng
~ u plantlng of rooted ptanb may be
Construction Steps: done h n n g c m t r u c l m of masonry wall. 1f Any other spectes recommended by
1 Cul sods In a well vegetaled area, slore 11no1 mstructtm takes pbce m the proper season farmers or concerned p o f e s s m l s
longer lhan 4 weeks 2 F~llIhe ~ n l e r s h smth the ava~laMesal
2 Place 11on Ihe skpe 3 Cuttings should be long enough lo r e s tnlo ~ sal
3 'Na~l' 11down wllh pegs I a poctryl of the backhU ansab d small rocks

. . . . . . - Live UacM-
Spadw 2-5 per m'

Construction Period: Material: Remarks:

Any time ~fwater is availaMe
- Square pleces of approx 30 x 30 cm of natural Difficult to obtain sufficient matenal.
grass or ckwer,at least 8 cm thlck (*riding lherefoteonly appllcaMe on very Remarks:
Combuction Period: Material:
on root system) w~thsome soil small areas - Stones, boulden f a the dry masmy wan
bring dormant seam
- Pegs L = 50 cm. 9-11 pdm2 - Live slacking, long straight stems of bushes (no
Justbefwe Monsoon (Baiikh, k t h )
lrees) lhat ml easily
Name: Function: Spedes:
Seeding (grass, herbs. trees) GrassSeedingis used for surface protectm of
1 Species:
-

bare slcpes, it helps lo p w i d e a good microclimate Name:

and s ~ J f a s l m natural
s re-establ~shmenl of Vegetated Gebion Punctual and linear stabilisatim of slopff, toes and
vegelatwn. Grasses: nver banks The flexkl~tyand effectiveness of the
On good soils, gentle slopes. Setaria Dtna~t g & m will be consderabty lmprwed by lhls
Sketch:
Am lisso Molass~s mbinalion with living matenal 1 Bushes. S N s . I
Construction Steps: Sketch
LegumeWs Asuro &haya
1 S~tepreparattm
Rahar Clwer N~lkanda Sapwan
2 Manurdmposl q@~catryl Construction Steps:
Desmdum Stylo SIUII S~mall
3 The seeds are sown broadcasl 1 Conslructm of gabm.
Kettuke
4 To prevent heavy seeds horn rolling down the 2. Pbcing of cutttngs between two adlacent
slope small gr&es are made w~th~an ~ncllnalm gzbons u into gabm during comlrucllon (2-5 Any olher species recommended by
of abut 35% towards the horizonla1 Trees: farmers u concerned profess~onals
slems per mq
~lmbu
5 Spac~ngof the grooves about 3. Cutilng should be long enough lo reach lnlo
10 cm soil i\t the back of the gabon
Any other species r m m e n d e d by
6 Seed~ngfrom boltom to top
farmers and ancerned professtonals

planb

Grooves I

Construction Period: Material: Remarks:

Dur~ngvegelatkn per& . 10-50g seeds per m' In mbtnallon wtth brushmall~ngand
Falgun - Jeslh If ava~lablemanure and compost lute nenlng Material: Remarks:
or end of monsoon (8hadra) Dunng dormant season - Gabom as used everywhere
Just befote Monsoon (Basakh. Jesth) - Long straght stems of brushes (notrees)
that rcot easib
Vegetative techniques: Branch (living) Layering of Gullies
Soltrce: A Porticipotory Approach to Environment Protection Measures. ILO/HMG
Chapter 3: Guidelines to correct hill irrigation design

Function: Irrigation design involves more than the technical design of irrigation structures. Wider aspects of
Name: Sped-:
Branch Layering of Gullies (living) Rehabihtation of gentle gullies with penodc runoff , irrigation schemes such as
and few debis. * scheme objectives,
S M l i s a h of small gullies that have to be filled ~p.
Good bng-term effect. Due to wet d t i in gully, * agricultural consideration,
good vegetalm cover aflef a short time.
8ushes:
* managerial and institutional arrangements,
sketch
Bihaya Nilkanda * ~ o c i aarrangements,
l
Comtruction Sh?p~:
1. Living b-anches are placed cross-wise inb
Simali
Asuro
Sajian
Tilepati
* finiincial arrangements, and
*
the gully, butt ends down and held togetter * e a e e r i n g solutions
with strong pegs
2. Rodts and soils areplaced on every leyer to need to be taken into account and reflected in the design of an irrigation system.
improve the mting.
3. The whole layer should not be thicker than
0.5 m. Scheme objectives
The overall objective of hill irrigation development is to improve agricultural production, and within this
wider aim there will be a number of general and scheme specific objectives. Scheme specific objectives
need to be set jointly by farmers and the co-operating irrigation agency and agreed by both parties so that
all persons involved in the planning, design, implementation and management of the scheme have a clear
idea of what they are trying to achieve.
--
General oaectives might include:
* increasing crop production in the project area,
* diversification of crops,
* improving social welfare of the community,
* achieving self sufficiency in food grain production,
Materia):
Construction Period:
- Liv~ngbranches of trees and brushes that roo1 easily
Remarks: * reducing food ,imports into the project area,
During dormant season
- in wet gullies just before monsoon - Pegs of king or dead material * increasing food production to sell in neighboring villages,
- in dry gullies (Jesth)
- Rocks and earth material to cover buttends of
branches
* promoting farmer/community involvement in operation and maintenance of irrigation
schemes t o reduce government spending on 0 & M,
* promoting on farm employment opportunities within the project area to reduce out
migration.
Specific project objectives might include:
* strengthening farmers' institutions to manage irrigation systems and handing over of
schemes t o farmers,
* strengthening agricultural extension support to the project,
* improving agricultural and water management practices in the project area to increase
production,
* ensuring equitable and timely water supplies to farmers,
* improving reliability of water supplies to promote farmer confidence and encourage
adoption of better varieties and higher levels of farm inputs,
* increasing command area,
* increasing cultivation intensity.
Each objective will have associated with it a set of targets which define in quantitative terms, what has to
be achieved. These targets might include levels of service to be provided by the co-operating irrigation
agency, level of co-operation from the farmers, level of investment from both parties, command areas to
be developed within a particular time frame etc.

At the planning stage, it may be difficultto set detailed targets until the constraints of farmers and the co-
operating irrigation agency are fully understood. Once clear objectives and targets have been set, it is
easier to establish strategies and solutions for achieving these objectives. For example, if equitability of
water supply is an objective of the scheme, then possible solutions for achieving this might be one or
more of the following:
4
reaching agreement on water rights of individual farmers or farmer groups in the project
area,
4
provision of suitable control and measurement devices,
4
strengthening of scheme management's powers to control illegal or irregular water
abstractions. -
Similarly, improving reliability of supply might involve one or more of the following :
4
negotiating with upstream and downstream user of the water source to obtain more water
for the project,
4
providing water storage facilities (if feasible),
4
improving abstraction facilities at head works,
4
introducing supplementary water sources from cross drainage streams or springs.
Once solutions are agreed in response to the established objectives targets need to be set and
responsibilities assigned. Responsibilities would be assigned based on the nature of the work, the
capability and relative advantage of a particular group to carry out the job. e.g. project area farmers can
effectively negotiate with upstream and downstream users ,of the source to obtain more water, 3.1~0
project farmers can effectively negotiate among themselves to agree on water rights, the co-operating
irrigation agency can be more effective in bringing farmers in contact with other agricultural support
agencies such as ADB/N of agricultural credit facilities, Agricultural Inputs corporation for fertilizers and
improved seeds, Department of Agriculture for agricultural extension support, etc. The agency can also
provide or arrange training to fanners in better water manageme$ and agricultural practices.
In terms of the design of specific schemes, objectives, targets and priorities have clear implications for the
planning and design of the irrigation infrastructure. In particular:
i) The types of crops farmers wish to grow and the emphasis on multipk cropping have
implications for the choices of cropping patterns and hence for water requirements and
canal system capacities.
ii) To encourage farmers to adopt improved seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, etc. in
irrigated areas, they must be assured that the water supply will be reliable. This has
implications for the adoption of solutions to the water supply problem. Firstly, it may be
preferable to supply more reliably to smaller areas than to irrigate egtensively. Secondly,
more emphasis may need to be placed on providing more competent headwork's, although
these will clearly have cost implications and affect project economics.
iii) Emphasis on minimizing project costs to proportionately reduce the cost burden to the
farmers has implications for the choice of technology. The aim of minimizing costs has to
be set against that of ensuring reliability of suppliks, to encourage farmers to adopt
improved practices.
Similarly, the specific scheme objectives have an impact on the design of the irrigation infrastructure. For
example, if a scheme is farmer operated or is to be handed over to farmers on completion, it is important
to ensure that the technology provided can be managed by them, and does not impose an unsustainable
cost burden on them in term of operation and maintenance.
In summary,
i) \ Objectives for individual schemes should be set at an early stage of project planning. They /
should be set in accordance with the goals of the farmers and be compatible with the
national development objectives for agriculture.
ii) As the constraints of the farmers and the co-operating irrigation agency become better
known, quantitative targets need to be reset or adjusted.
iii) The scheme objective and targets need to be clearly communicated to all parties involved
in the planning, design, implementation and management of the scheme so that they have a
common and clear idea of what they are trying to achieve, and are able to frame solutions
and strategies for scheme development which properly reflect the objectives.
iv) Over ambitious objectives and targets must not be set. This will result in disappointed
farmers who may withdraw their co-operation and support to the agency. Farmer co-
operation and support is very necessary to implement irrigation development in the hill
areas.
Agricultural
_ .-_- -- considerations
-
While the provision of an effective irrigation infrastructure is a pre-requisite of enhanced crop production,
the construction of a canal system is not sufficient in itself In order for a scheme's production objectives
to be achieved, attention must be given to providing the farrners with the inputs and techniques required.
An effective agricultural extension service and adequate availability of improved seed and agro-chemicals
are important contributors to achieving increased agricultural production.
An increase in agricultural production can be achieved only through improvements in agricultural
practices, and hence yields, rather than by providing more irrigation systems (although the latter have a
major impact). As such, the design of irrigation systems needs to take full account of the agricultural
situation prevailing in and planned for the project area. The principal concern is with crop water needs.
Other considerations are :
1. Soils
~ u i t a b w s o i l and
s their compatibility with the crops and irrigation methods proposed.
* Light soils may be poorly suited to growing rice and attempting to provide an irrigation
system which has the capacity to serve this situation is unlikely to prove economic.
4
The method of irrigation (basins, furrows, sprinklers, etc.) is clearly related to the soil
type, as is the size of irrigation unit. The use of sprinklers on light soils for growing
vegetables or other high value crops.appears an attractive proposition in some hill areas
where high enough pressures can be achieved through gravity supply and there is good
access to markets.
4
The impact of growing one type of crop on the soils and the need for crop diversification
to maintain soil nutrient levels.
4
Farmers having land in the command area poorly suited for rice growing must be
encouraged to grow other suitable crops which they can barter for rice under an
agreement with the water user group.
2- Access
* Access to the scheme is important, in terms of provision of inputs and marketing of
produce Production in excess of the local requirement will need to be marketed Where a
potential exists for marketing any assistance the co-operating agency can provide to the
farmers for marketing their produce in the neighboring villages must be examined
3 - Future crop
-- diversification
-
* The possibility of crop diversification in the future which may affect the design of the
distribution system, particularly the provision of on-farm distribution channels
4 -Agro-processing facilities and water supplies for household use
* Provision of facilities for agro-processing of food needs to be considered, if such facilities
are not available in the village The irrigation design must include arrangements for power
for water mills, water supplies for household use such as cleaning, washing, cattle etc
Managerial and institutional constraints
A strong. cohesive farmer group is a prerequisite for the success of irrigation projects. In existing FMIS
this farmer group may be formally or informally organized and have varying managerial and institutional
capabilities to manage, operate and maintain irrigation projects. In new project areas, organized farmer
groups may not be present.
The level of managerial and institutional capability of farmers will vary from project to project and will
depend on:
* the history of irrigation in this project,
* the technical and social complexities of the project,-
* the number of years the institutions have been active,
* the nature of social and technical problems the institutions have helped solve.
Improvements to the distribution network of irrigation systems must take into consideration the existing
level of managerial skill (to manage water delivery) and institutional strength (to formulate and impose
rules and sanctions) of the farmers to effectively put to use the proposed design improvements for
efficient 0 & M of the project. This also applies to new project areas. Farmers' managerial skills and
institutions can be improved and strengthened by training Peer to peer training and group tours to
irrigation systems to see irrigation distribution networks and discuss with other farmers how they solve
their water distribution problems can be greatly beneficial to farmers and engineers alike.
When farmers lack managerial and institutional capabilities and cannot be effectively trained within the
available time period, distribution systems and control structures need to be minimized and simplified.
The operation of the system should be as "automatic" as possible with minimal gate adjustments and
measurements.
A form of proportional water division can be used to achieve this, However, the penalty for designing
around these limitations is that water is often wasted and application intervals and volumes are sub-
optimal A large number of safety outlets (escapes) and disposal channels are likely to be needed to
safeguard against canal breaches due to faulty canal operation. This will increase the cost.
The choice of design (of the distribution system, canal and control structures) may impose demands on
the farmers, which may be lacking in existing schemes or which may present an unreasonable proposition
for a new scheme.
The management of hill irrigation systems is usually the responsibility of the Water User Groups (WUG's)
and Associations (WUA's). It will be essential to develop WUG's and WUA's so that they can have a say
in the planning of the scheme and can make full use of the design (in new systems), or design
improvements (in existing FMIS).
Social arrangements
Existing social arrangements such as:
* junior and senior water rights,
* ethnic groups,
* village boundaries, will influence the design of FMIS projects particularly the distribution
network. Existing social boundaries of land (both irrigated and rainfed) based on junior and senior water
rights, ethnicity and village boundaries will need to be respected when proposing new or modifying
existing distribution networks. In the interest of the project, hydraulic efficiency of water distribution may
be sacrificed by building longer distribution canals that follow irregular social boundaries to reduce future
conflict among farmers. Maintenance of these groupings will influence the shapes and sizes of irrigation
units and the locations, sizes and numbers of outlet and control structures.
Social customs of farmers can influence design. (1). Farmers prefer to have irrigation schedules whereby
they irrigate at the same time each week, this has implications for the design of the distribution systems at
micro-level (rotation of field supplies) and at macro-level (rotation of "blocks" during times of water
shortage). (2) Farmers dislike irrigating at night: Although farmers dislike working at night, they accept
that this is necessary. If this were not the case, the design of the irrigation networks would be significantly
different. (3) Farmers would like to have flexibility in the irrigation schedule: Providing farmers with a
"free" or "make-up" day each week (i.e 6 irrigation dayslweek) has operational advantages in that
activities such as sediment flushing, structural maintenance and supply shortfalls can be more easily
accommodated, but implies an increase in canal system capacity and hence cost.
These types of issues need careful consideration during scheme planning and design, and although there
are cost implications in incorporating the arrangements indicated, the chances of scheme success may be
significantly enhanced by accepting these social pressures.
Financial arrangements
Finance:
Financial considerations have several implications for the planning and designing of hill irrigation
schemes.
i) Farmers must have a clear understanding of the financing and what is required of them.
E.g. if the budget is'limitedm that only part of the farmer objectives can be met they must
be given a clear understanding of the budget allotment before they can set realistic
priorities and determine their own contributions.
ii) The choice of technology may be restricted by financial limitations, particularly those
where the farmers provide a direct cash input for construction, and those where the
farmers are expected to fully contribute to the operation and maintenance of the
completed schemes. In essence, the scheme must be affordable by the farmers.
Either case (capital or running cost) may place constraints on the technoloav
-- chosen. Thus
at an early stage of scheme planning upper limits on capital cost and resources needed for
operation and maintenance (particularly the capability of the farmers to pool the required
resources) need to be established. Past records of other operating FMIS can serve as
guidelines to estimate 0 & M requirements. Most designs are prepared without a real feel

for how the costs are tu&ing out until the final costings are made, at which point the
designs often have to be "trimmed" to try and achieve financial restrictions. There is little
that can be done to change this, other than to use experienced designers who have a good
"feel" for the costs associated with FMIS development.
iii) Farmers must be encouraged to set up and implement a cost recovery system for regular
maintenance and minor repairs. When labor for maintenance and minor repair is getting
scarce in hill areas the cost recovery system can help farmers pay for outside labor. Very
often this system would be based on the volume of water supplied to each farmer.
Therefore appropriate measurement devices or measuring techniques need to be
investigated.
Clearly all these factors need consideration during planning and design. In addition, the "design" of the
scheme in its wider sense needs to take account of financial aspects such as:
* can farmers provide the total financial contribution for the construction of the project
within the time frame set by the co-operating agency ? If not, what are other alternatives?
* what if the farmers are genuinely poor and cannot afford to coniribute financially but can
only provide limited labor (due to small number of population) ?
Farmer participation in engineering design
Farmers are not trained engineers and should not be responsible for overall technical design decisions.
ow ever,
they can be effective collaborators with the agency staff in the design process. Because of their
intimate familiarity with the local conditions, farmers can help designers avoid costly mistakes For
grmers to participate effectively inthe design prqoess they need to be organized so they can present their
case in an articulate manner. Social organizers are frequently used to assist farmers in this process. If
farmers are to be actively involved in the design process they need to have a voice in selecting among
design alternatives. This is particularly true of the farmers are to take responsib,ility for future
maintenance. There must be clear dialogue between the designer and the farmer. More of the design work
must be made and fina1ized.h the field so that joint decisions about design choice can be made and the
problem of design not "fitting" the local situation can be overcome. Designs not fittlng the local situation
are modified (and sometimes damaged in 'the process) by the farmers. Farmers need to know what is
being designed to help designers make a technical decision. The designers therefore will need to explain
clearly to the farmers the functions and the cost and future maintenance implications of a particular
design choice. When dealing with farmers who find it difficult to understand the design details, group
tours to irrigation systems that are in operation to see and discuss with other farmers the benefits and
limitations of each type of structure would be beneficial.
Field basmddesign
Y flexible designs using reusable construction materials in unstable hill slopes, etc. The pursuance of high
Engineers must spend more time in the field if designs are to be improved m . d i F ~ a r m e r s
cannot be involved in the design process if it does not take place in the field. Decision regarding where to
pTace structures andwhat types of structures to build need to be made with the farmers while in the field.
x t this time designers can see the actual physical conditions and the farmer can see a n d p n d to
d e s l g n e r s z m e r s to learn
&m each other. To achieve field based design, governments and agencies must reduce formal design
requirements for FMlS and simplifi bureaucratic procedures. Ofietaining walls etc,
changes during construction to accommodate better information aval,, particularly cement mortar masonry
overcome rigid bureaucratic procedures to make these changes and O Ato be~undertaken
~ ~ by the
~ farmers,
~
not get the required suppon to make these changes. Procedural constra15ported materials minimized, so.
authorities to make even minor design improvements and changes in the and materials The tor
detailed topographic survey and scaled engineering drawings, when the 1 0 % usefitl.jp~
~ ~ of structure to
...
be built do not warrant such detail, limit what the engineer can accomplish. ~n fixed and limited time
available for the design work, it is the time for interaction with farmers that is usually cut out.
Bureaucratic procedures therefore need to be simplified to allow more flexibility to make the essential
design changes during construction.
Canal design
Unstable hill slopes cannot support large canal sections. Large canal sections to irrigate large command
areas or combined command areas are therefore unsuitable in the hills. Combining irrigable areas of
adjacent schemes lying down-slope of a given system is not only suitable from an engineering standpoint
(high risk of canal and system failure) but also from a social viewpoint (social conflict can lead to failure
of the system, water conflicts may ari$e during times of low flow). A distribution system consisting of
two or three parallel contour canals divides the overall command area into small commands making
management of rotational water distribution possible. Also irrigation water can be efficiently used
because the lower channels can pickup a significant portion of the surface and subsurface flow from the
higher lands. Along the primary canal of hill irrigation system there is usually a large margin of head
difference between the level of the canal at the intike and the start of the command area, and
conservation of head along the canal is generally not an issue. Given this flexibility it may be possible to
adopt steep bed slopes (in areas not prone to canal erosion) in order to design narrow canal sections.
Narrow canal sections will require less construction materials for lining (to reduce risk of canal erosion or
seepage) and building canal supporting structures such as retaining and revetm'ent walls. Narrow canals
will also reduce hill cutting that can de stabilize .hill slopes. Accordingly the overall cost of canal
construction can be reduced by adopting small canal sections.
-Engineering design standards
Farmers primarily use locally available materials such as earth, stone and forest products, to build their
irrigqtion systems. Engineers in the past viewed earthen canals and unsophisticated structures as
inefficient and unacceptable. As a result irrigation agencies often emphasized construction of new systems
aiming to maximize the use of available land and water resources, leading to the adoption of higher
design standards (structural and operational). The adoption of high unrealistic structural standards can
often lead to wastage particularly when these structures are placed in hill environments that are subject to
landslides, rock falls, erosion damage and earthquakes: This must not be confused with providing
minimum structural safety sandards, without which structures built in the hills cannot last. For example,
minimum foundation depth for retaining w a k adequate iength of abutment or wing walls in drainage
c % 3 m g 3 f d e q u ~
operation design standards to increase the efficiency in hill irrigation schemes can lead to complicated
irrigation schedules and control structures which often lead to faulty opqration eventually resulting in low
efficiencies. The question of appropriate design standard is more critical in rehabilitation of farmer's
irrigation projects. Usually only parts of the project are upgraded for cost or other technical reasons.
 b
well will not be upgraded. Whether to repair these parts to a very
dtible with the remaining parts of the project, or to repair it using a
; remainineparts of the project are questions that need to be jointly
;o-operating Irrigation agency.
Canal lumg-
The three main reasons for considering the 'use of canal lining are (1) to reduce seepage and (2) to
improve the stability of the canal banks, which are founded in sandy soils, or where in-seepage is a
problem, (3) to prevent canal erosion in steep section of the canal alignment.
The most common forms of canal lining used in Nepal are:
* Stones 1 slates
* Stone masonry
* Concrete
* *
Experimental alternatives such as dunglclay and soil cement.
In the hills, when stones and slate are locally available stone lining and state lining is the obvious choice.
Depending on the severity of the problem stone mason& or concrete can also be used. Clay and soil-
cement are two other cost effective and environmentally friendly lining techniques that are well suited for
remote hilly districts. Generally canal lining should only be employed in short lengths in critical areas
where major seepage, bank stability or seepage problems have been identified. In lined canals, the lining
is the critical cost. Hence canals are generally designed to give a minimum wetted perimeter which results
in a B/D ratio of the order of one.
'Construction materials
The use of appropriate construction materials can have a significant impact on a scheme's cost and on the
farmers' ability to maintain the scheme. Farmers' schemes have traditionally used only locally available
materials such as karth, stone and vegetation, and the farmers are adept at making use of these. Examples.
of structures on such schemes which use these materials are hollowed out trees used as aqueducts, and
dry stone walling to support a canal or as minor slide prevention. The use o f a notched log as a division
structure is also common. The introduction of government assistance to a scheme usually implies the use
of materials from outside the scheme area, particularly cement for masonry, brickwork or concrete,
reinforcing steel, pipes and gates. Government built schemes always make use of some of these materials
to enable the construction of permanent strustures such as headwork's, cross-drainage works, regulating
structures, falls, etc.
The continued use of locally available materials on new schemes or improvements to existing schemes is
clearly of considerable importance, and this becomes more so as schemes are located hrther from road
access. Transport costs of materials rise very quickly when they have to be carried by porters and the use
of heavy items such as cement and steel must clearly be minimized if costs are to be kept relatively low.
However, in order to carry out improvements to farmers' schemes or build reliable and efficient new
schemes, some use of these types of materials is essential. Almost any structure that is to have a
reasonable life will require cement, gabion wire or other similar materials. The aim should therefore be to:
* minimize the use of materials which have to be transported to the scheme by only building
essential structures that require the use of such materials,
* to combine the use of imported materials with local materials. E.g. the combined use of
bio and conventional engineering construction in retaining walls etc.
* train the local farmers in the use of these materials, particularly cement mortar masonry
and gabions, where they are used, to enable minor repairs to be undertaken by the farmers.
While the use of local materials should be encouraged and transported materials minimized, some
consideration should also be given to the use of improved technologies and materials. The combination of
traditional materials and techniques with modern materials may lead to some useful innovations. The main
concerns will be availability of the materials, ease of use and repairs, low cost and effectiveness. The
principal concern is the ability of the farmers to repair and maintain structures built with modern
materials.
Deali
Fhe main problem areas in irrigation canals built on hill slopes are:
* slopes prone to-land slides_
* active&d.s&d.es-.
"-
-__
r
-slopes
-
suffering serious_ soil_ erosion.
--.-.--------- . __.,_
The practical solution in land slide prone areas lies in (1) t & d e m a t i m crf t h e potentid land slide area,
(2) protection of the s l g through
~ appropriate measuj-es-(bio-engineering or a combination of bio and
conventional engineering structures), and (3) the choice of appropriate canal sections which will not
L-
aggravate the problem Rigid canal sections that can break due to slight movement of the hill slope
(spilling canal water over the problem area) are not sultable In this area
The practical solution for dealing with land slides depend on the severity of the land slide and whether the
land slide is still active Stabilization of the land slide may or may not be possible If stabilization is
possible (in the case of major land slides expert advice may need to be sought to answer this question) the
solution lies in (1) removing all loose sliding material, (2) protection of the slope using appropriate
vegetative techniques and (3) the choice of appropriate canal sections to carry irrigation water over the
land slide zone Sometimes land sides are triggered by river bank erosion Strong spurs and bank
revetments will be needed to divert the river flow away from the affected bank Small rivers are easier to
control than large ones Until bank erosion control has been satisfactorily achieved, rigid canal
construction on the affected up-slope should not be attempted Flexible canals using re-usable
construction materials such as HDP pipes are recommended in such areas
These may be replaced later with rigid sections when the slope has stabilized If rigid structures are built
in this area prior to river bank erosion control and slope stabilization the responsibility for maintaining the
canal (every time it breaks due to land slide caused by bank erosion) will shift to the irrigation agency On
the other hand if flexible HDP pipes are used in this area farmers can rebuild the broken canal by
recovering the HDP pipes and re-jointing them
The practical solution when faced with canal construction across degraded h~llslopes are (1) assessment
of the seriousness of the surface erosion and the type of erosion (2) soil conservation and slope
protection through appropriate measures, and (3) choice of appropriate canal section that will not
aggravate the problem
Cyorrect diugnosis o f the cause o f i r r i p ~ pr.nh1~m.c;
n
Irrigation technicians are more inclined to look solely at the physical component of an irrigation system to
correct irrigation problems, because it is here that technology is most readily applied. The physical
component, is just one part of an irrigation system. Depending on how you classify an irrigation system,
the other components may consists of cropping, economic, social - organizational, and management
systems. These interrelated mutually dependent components together represent an operating irrigation
system in its entirety. A problem or issue in any one corpponent can affect the efficiencyand performance
of the irrigation system. Efforts will therefore need to $e made to isolate the system's problems (technical,
social, economic or managerial) their magnitudes and causes before possible solutions can be formulated.
In order to quickly get on with the matter of solving the problem, irrigation technicians, spend little time
in isolating a problem and its root cause. A relatively small time spent in carehlly isolating and defining
the problem can be extremely valuable both in illuminating possible simple solutions and in ensuring that a
great deal of effort is not spent only to find that the difficulty still exists - perhaps in greater magnitude.
Need
- - to address the cazise of an irrrgatron pro hlem
Focusing attention on correcting the symptoms of a probkm rather than the probable cause can result in
wasted effort. For example, if a farmer canal is experiencing excessive water losses due to seepage,
leakage or both, and if you are an engineer, you might correct the symptom of water losses by lining the
canal with masonry or concrete However, an underlying and yet undiscovered cause of the excessive
leakage could be poor or haphazard canal maintenance Poor and haphazard canal maintenance, in turn,
might be just another symptom and not the primary cause The primary cause may be the poor
organizational structure leading to ineffective maintenance procedures in spite of sincere hard effort of
the farmers. A more effective solution would be to help farmers organize their maintenance activities
Chapter 4: Planning irrigation development
Introduction
-
Planning
- is essential in every sphere of development, including irrigation development. Plans give -a
sense of direction and put time frames on developmeflt activitie~.They help to control expenditure
and provide a basis for the evaluation of progress and achievement.
The long term planning
Economic growth in an agricultural sector can be slow- because it is influenced by the growth of
*
several other related sectors. It is therefore necessagj to set long term strategies foyirrigation
&velo ment and to constantfy monitor the effect of a given strate- economy. These
strategies can t en be trans- short term investment programs depending on the availability of
resources (and implemented typically over five -yearperiods). A long term strategy is often based on
several assumptions about the fbture. As time moves on, these assumptions may not turn out to be
valid. When the assumptions made at the time of formulation of a long term plan are no longer valid
or when national priorities change with time the long term strategy will need to be reviewed and
adjusted accordingly. ~ l s ao given long term strategy may not be the best strategy, because it may
not be workable or may take longer than expected to achieve the desired goalls. Therefore a constant
review of progress and achievement is necessary during the-implementation of a plan. A good long
-
term plan provides a basis for charting the course for irrigation development. To be effective the plan
must hlfill the following objectives :
* it must provide a long term strategy for the d e v w of the irrigation sector that is
consistent with the availabilitv of land, water and investment resources, and with the
development policies of the government,
* it must provide a basis for t h - g
--
~ r e w a r D
c m t e n t with the long term strategy , based on identification and ranking of
i n v e s t m m of urgent needs and of the
implementation capabilities of government institutions, and
* it must provide a sound database and wlanning methodology to facilitate regular
updating, to incorporate new data as they become available, to reflect changing policies
and priorities, and to reflect actual progress achieved in the irrigation sector.
A long term plan for irrigation development must :
* recognize the need for development in the irrigation and agricultural sector,
* identifjr the available potential for irriiation development with respect to geographical
areas and propose suitable strategies,
* identi@ suitable types of irrigation development that can bring lasting positive results,
* .
-
seek to correct regional imbalances in irrigation development,
* propose strategies to overcome institutional limitations and constraints to irrigation
development.
Need for development in the irrigation and agricultural sectors
In Nepal, where agriculture generates over 50% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employs
over 39% of the national population in direct agricultural related activities public and private
investment in agriculture and irrigation can bring desirable economic benefit for the country as a
whole. Since farmers constitute nearly 39% of the population
- . an increase in their income levels is
much to be desired: the main purpose of development is to raise the income of the majority of the
people, particularly that of the poor. Investment in irrigation and agriculture will provide more
 r Table 4.2: Target production levels to achieve basic need program
employment opportunities and increase income of farmers and farm related workers.
Average Prod~~ction Target Production
Table 4.1: Geographic distribution of economically active farmers and related workers as a (1984-1988) (2000)
percentage of the total p o p u l a t i o ~(1971) Million-tonnes Million-tonnes
Eastern Central Western Far Western Nepal Paddy 2.72 5.09
Maize 0.87 1.75
Wheat 0.64 1.62
Mzlle t 0.14 0.15
Mountain 45.15 50.87 44.80 50.69 49.13
Barley 0.02 0.04
Hill 40.83 39.15 47.76 41.41 42.55
Pulses 0.14 0.25
1 Terai 31.83 31.51 37.72 36.13 , 33.16
Potatoes 0.43 0.87
1 Nepal 36.90 36.76 45.13 41.77 39.63
Source: Nepal Atlas of Economic Development, National Council for Science & Technology, Kathmandu, Nepal.
mountain and terai zones of Nepal. Important tasks for the irrigation planner are :
An increase in farm income, due to the right causes, help not only the farmers but also the rest of the * to determine the level of irrigation development that has taken place till now in the
economy. In countries ~here~development policies mainly make the rich richer, the market for local different zones,
manufacture is limited, since the rich spend much of their surplus on luxury imports and foreign travel. * to identifjr potential geographical areas for future development, and
By contrast an increase in farm income widens the market for local manufacture, and so stimulates ? * to suggest types of irrigation development suitable for the different geographical areas.
industrialization. If the increase in farm income is due to. the increased productivity in growing food
for the home market, some of this increase in productivity can be shared with the industrial workers A reliable and accurate database such as the one shown in Table 4.3 below is essential for making
by means of lower food prices. If farm productivity is constant, this pressure can damage the sound decisions.
economy, since it creates the demand for food while the supply of food is constant. An increase in
farm income also increases the resources available for development. Farmers save and invest more; This database is usehl in planning activities to compare the availability of additional irrigable land
borrow less from other sectors; or invest more in other sectors. They can also be taxed more heavily, with the demand for additional irrigable land in the different geographical areas taking into
the proceeds being used either to finance public services, or to finance increased capital, formation. consideration the target production levels to achieve the Basic Needs Program objective by the year
Thus from a purely economic view point, there is a great heed for a sound development policy for the 2000AD. Table 4.4 analyses the supply-demand situation for additional irrigable area in the different
development \of the irrigation and agriculture sectors of Nepal. geographical areas of Nepal. A comparison of column 5 with column 8 of this table can lead to the
following conclusion. "On a national level, there does appear to be suficient agricultural land to
Basic needs program (BNP) increase food production significantly. The potential to expand overall cultivated areas is limited,
In addition to the economic view point described above, the demand for increased food production, as however to the forested parts of the terai ." What therefore is the suitable strategy for achieving the
quantified by the Basic Needs Programme (BNP) of HMG Nepal, exerts a greater demand for the BNP target without endangering the forest areas of the .terai ? Given the productivity gains that
development of the irrigation and agriculture sectors in Nepal. The BNP which was developed as a should be possible, particularly in the mountain regions of Nepal (see Table 4.5), with various forms
result of proclamation, defines objectives for the provision of food, clothing, shelter, healthcare, of structural and non-structural development programmes a recommended strategy for meeting the
education and security to all the people of Nepal by the year 2000 AD. This is an example where a targets of the basic Needs Programme (BNP) would be as follows :
IVational Priority influences the need for development investment in the irrigation sector. Food is a
major element in the B N P The BNP has set a target of providing a minimum daily requirement o f * For hills and mountains
2250 calories per capita per day at the national level, the per capita requirement is estimated to be * increasing of output from rainfed cultivation through improved agricultural support
2340 calories in the hill and mountain regions, and 2140 calories in the terai regions. The BNP programmes,
emphasizes increasing access to the required levels of caloric intake through the consumption of food * increasing output from existing irrigation projects through improved irrigation
sources such as rice, maize, wheat, millet, barley and potatoes. When this is translated into national management and agricultural programmes,
production targets taking into consideration the projected population for the year 2000 AD, national
food production of all food crops need to be practically doubled as shown in the Table 4.2 below. * For terai
* increase output from rainfed areas, limited forest areas, and existing farmer managed
Potential and strategies for irrigation development irrigation systems (FMIS) through investment in irrigation infrastructures and
Varying degrees of availability of suitable irrigable land, adequate water (from rain or river sources) accompanying irrigation management and agricultural programmes.
and other resources have led to different levels of agricultural development in the different hill:
 Table 4.3: Remaining irrigable areas in the mountain, hill and terai regions of Nepql Table 4.4: Supply-demand situation for additional irrigable area in the mountain, hill and
terai regions of Nepal.
Agricultural Land Me at Present (Net ha) Potential Irrigated Land Me (Net ha)
Rainkd Areas Total Irrigable Total
'/ Total Irrigable Non Total
Cultivated Agricultural Agricultural lrrigable
Remaining
lrrigable
Food Demand Area Required
(ha)
Land Resources (Net ha)
Supply of Irrigable Agricultural Land
Mid
Irrigated Non Area A Area Area Area Area
1980's 2000AD
Area IrrigaMe irrigable Total
1 2 3 I Produc- Require- Short (4 t/ha) (6 t/ha) Total
Eastern Terai 263,000 172,000 4,000 176,000 tion ment fall Addnl. Total Addnl. Cultivated
Hills 37,000 35,000 173,000 208,000 ('000 t) ('000 t) ('000 t) Irrigated Irrigable lrrigable Rainfed Area
Mountains 7,000 8,000 50,000 58,000 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Ess tern Region
Central Terai Hiiis & muntains 395 596
Hills Terd 761 1,462
Mountains
Central Region
Western Terai Hills & muntains 521 1,099 578 146,000 9 7 , 0 0 0 61,000 67,000 128,000 171,000 299,000
Hills Terai 1,066 1,409 343 86,000 56,000 2 1 2 , 0 0 0 202,000 414,000 3,000 417,000
Mountains
Western Region
Mid Western Terai Hills & Mountains
Hills Terai
Mountains
Mid Western Regien
Far M'es tern Terai 63,000 42,000 3,000 45,000 108,000 105,000 128,000 233,000 170,000
Hills & Mountains
Hills 17,000 19,000 65,000 84,000 101,000 36,000 0 36,000 19,080
Terai
Mountains 7,000 9,000 32,000 41,000 48,000 16,000 0 16,000 9,000

Far Western Region

Total Terai 725,000 613,000 21,000 634,000 1,359,000 1,338,000 406,000 1,744.000 1,019,000
Hills & Mountains
Hills 179,000 189,000 687,000 876,000 1,055,000 368,000 5,000 373,000 194,000
Ter ai
Mountains 29,000 31,000 167,000 198,000 227,000 60,000 1,000 61,000 32,000

Grand Total 933,000 833,000 875,000 1,708,000 2,641,000 1,766,000 412,000 2,178,000 1,245,000 National Totals
Hills & MDuntains
Terai - Districts
Source: Irrigation Master Plan, PDSP. - Extra
1 So~crcedata 2 Irrigable agricultural area - Irrigated area - Total
3 Total rainfed area - Irrigable agricttltwal area 4 Total cultivated area - Irrigated area
5 Source data 6 Source data Grand Total
7 Sozrrce data 8 Irrigable agric~rltrrral+ Irrigable non-agricultural
9 Total irrigable area - Irrigated area
Source: Master Plan Document, PDSP.
Column 7front table 1.3
Types of irrigation developnzent Column 8 equal column 9 minus column 7
Column 9 from table 4.3
There exists a wide range of development options to achieve increased agricultural production and Coluntn 10 equal colutnn 11 tizinus colunzn 9
economic benefits from irrigated agriculture. Benefits can be realized by introducing agricultural and Colutttn 11frotti table 4.3
irrigation management programmes, as well as by constructing an irrigation project to convert an area
from rainfed to irrigated conditions. Nepal's irrigation investment programmes to date have
emphasized construction of large new irrigation projects in the terai, small and medium new irrigation
projects in hill and mountain districts, and assistance to FMIS in all areas in the country. Greater
emphasis is now being placed on irrigation management and agricultural support programmes, on low
cost demand driven assistance to FMIS, and on demand driven development of shallow tube wells.
These shifts in emphasis reflect the realization that provision of "hardware" alone will not generate the
desired level of benefits from irrigation investments. The "software" side of irrigation investment has
been recognized as being equally important-especially the need for active participation of beneficiaries
in all phases of irrigation development, from planning to operation.
The types of future irrigation development in Nepal's present context are as follows : Table 4.5: Grain yields are higher in the mountain regions of Nepal (tlha)

LOIVcost, a) Irrigation management imprornents to existing

high - small Do1 managed and farmer managed projects Low cost, high yielding investment.
yielding
investment
b) Ground water irrigation in the terai using
- shallow tube wells Low cost,high yielding investment.

c) Small irrigation projects in hill and mountain

districts
- rehabilitation projects Low cost, high yielding investment.
I
- new projects High cost, low yielding investment
d) Small surface irrigation projects in the terai
- rehabilitation projects Low cost, high yielding investment.
So~~r'ce: Ir-rigation Master' Plan, PDSP
- new projects High cost, low yielding investment -
R f . = Rainfirl: Irt-. = Irrigated: It?ip. Itripro~>ed
seetl: Local. =Local .reed
High cost, e) Large irrigation projects in the terai
Table 4.6: Formal institutions and the irrigation subsector in Nepal
low - single purpose (run of river) projects Lon7 cost, high yielding investment.
yielding
investment - multi purpose projects (with storage reservoirs) High cost, low yielding investment 1 * Farmer Institutions of Farmer Managed Irrigation Systems (FMIS), which are voluntary
The task of the irrigation planner is to match the appropriate type if irrigation development suitable to associations of farmers' who organize themselves to build irrigation infrastructures, and to
the specific requirements of the different geographical areas taking into consideration how well the manage them in accordance with formal or informal rules or procedures The importance of
area can respond to the input. these institutions (FMIS) to the present and hture productivity of a large part of
Nepal's irrigated area has been recognized in recent years, and most government instituti~ns
Regional imbalances in development are now oriented towards supporting them directly or indirectly
* The Department of Irrigation (DoI), which is responsible for the planning, design and
In every country some regions are richer than others and some are developing more than others. To
construction of new irrigation schemes, and for the management of some existing schemes
make a plan that gave equal emphasis to all regions would be quite uneconomic. In the first place * The Department of Agriculture (DoA), which is responsible for providing agricultural
different areas have different agriculture and irrigation potentials: Some may have suficient water
resources but no suitable land for irrigation, while some others may have suitable land but not services
* The National Agricultural Research Service Centre (NARSC), which is responsible for
sufficient water. On h e other hand, the agriculturally rich areas are not necessarily the ones with the
best prospects. Some of the poorer areas may be poorer only because they have been neglected, and it administering all agricultural research activities
* The Agricultural Development Bank of Nepal (ADBIN), which is responsible to providing
is possible that if now helped they will develop rapidly to justifL economically the diversion of
resources to their needs. This may be particularly true of hill and mountain regions that are more *
agricultural credit to farmers and the community surface irrigation program
The ~ ~ d c u l t u r aInputs
l
,
Corporation (AIC), which is responsible for importing and
fertile than the terai regions and capable of producing higher yields under the right conditions (see
Table 4.5). While it is true that regional imbalances cannot be avoided in development planning distributing agricultural inputs, operating at both wholesale and retail levels
excessive imbalances must be corrected in the future. Under the present conditions where selected hill * The Food Corporation of Nepal (FCN), which is responsible for implementing
and mountain regions have suficient water resources and are capable of producing higher grain yields HMG's food grain policy through buying and selling food grains to stabilize prices and
relieve food'shortages
compared to the terai areas, there is still good scope for correcting regional imbalances

Overcoming institzltional /inlitations to irr~gationdevelopment
Usually, in countries with a long history of irrigation development, several government institutions
are involved in the irrigation subsector with each institution having a defined role to play in the
development of the subsector (see Table 4.6) However, due to lack of capacity and other factors
many of these institutions may now be operating well below efficient levels and without adequate co-
ordination. Lack of inter sectoral coordination between government institutions engaged in agriculture
or irrigation development can stall the development process To overcome this situation, irrigation
planners must review the past performance of these institutions in relation to their mandates, technical
and administrative capacities and other factors that limit their performance in order to recommend
solutions.
Probable solutions may consist o f :
* re-defining roles, for example the larger projects to be handled by one institution and
the small, simple projects to be handled by another institution. the choice of institution
depending on the type of expertise available with the institution,
 * internal administrative a d j u s t m d s within an institution to improve its organizational Irrigation project planning and implementation of
Chapter 5:
effectiveness,
* policy adjustments to improve the co-ordination between institutions,
farmer's hill irrigation projects
* new policies to provide backstopping to institutions that require a legal backing to
hnction effectively. The predominantly top down approach followed in the recent past years by irrigation agencies has
resulted in few benefits, selection of inappropriate projects and the erosion of self reliance among the
Changing emphasis on irrigation development over the past sixJive year plans hill farming population Irrigation designers often planned and implemented farmers hill irrigation
After the revolution of 195 1 in Nepal, central planning concepts were introduced with the objective of projects without due respect to farmers goals and farmers constraints. Project planning and
organizing and guiding Nepal's development process. The First Five Year Plan which was introduced implementation was erroneously thought to be the Engineer's domain and construction work the job
in 1957, incorporated a broad range of development targets, within which irrigation played a relatively of the contractor. Sometimes this resulted in the alienation of the majority farmer users, the
modest part. This was understandable, as state intervention in the development of irrigation construction of irrigation infrastructures and the setting up of farmer institutions not hlly compatible
infrastructure had been relatively unimportant, and ?he development of basic infrastructures (especially with the majority farmers aspirations. Fortunately many agencies have now realized their mistakes and
roads) was regarded as the highest priority area ef investment. Subsequent plans accorded increasing are turning towards a participatory approach towards project planning and implementation.
priority to irrigation, with an initial emphasis on medium and large scale irrigation projects, followed "Participation" is the key to the inclusion of human resources, traditional knowledge and skill of the
by development of programmes to assist small farmer managed projects. farmers, the "likes" and "dislikes" of the farmers, and most of all t S g n e s s u of thefarmers
leading to sense of belonging with the project. The participatory approach to project planning and
Priw t o the sixth Five Year Plan, irrigation development programmes did not emphasize integration implementation can take long even in the most uniform of social farmer groups, it may take a
with agriculture. The sixth plan explicitly addressed the need to integrate agricultural and irrigation minimum of two years or more. Also the participatory approach can involve higher risks and increased
programmes, and emphasized co-ordination among various organizations in general and between costs. For example,
* project start-up can be delayed by negotiating with people,
agriculture and irrigation in particular. One of the important features of the sixth plan's irrigation i
*
policy was its emphasis on equity considerations, to improve the welfare of small farmers. increased agency staff will be required to support participatory development,
* there is a strong possibility of opposition from influential persons who oppose the
Table 4.7: project for local political or other social reasons,
Target and achievementjn the irrigation subsector from 1957 to1990 * involvement in project identification and assessment may give rise to increased farmer
1 Five Year Plarl 1 Target (ha) 1 Achievement (ha) *
expectations,
uncertain success due to the experimental nature of the participatory methodology,
* over-involvement of less experienced persons in decision making are some of the risks
First Plan (1957-62) 20,785 11,428 *
involved in the process.
Second Plan (1962-65) 32,544 1,035 1 However, there are a number of substantive arguments why the participatory process should be an
Third plan (1 965-70) 50,684 52,860 I essential ingredient in the irrigation development process. These are :
Fourth Plan (1970-75) 253,711 37,733 * greater effectiveness due to more accurate and representative information about the
Fifth Plan (1 975-80) 230,220 95,425 actual need of the farmers, their capabilities; more reliable feedback on the impact of
Sixth Plan (1 980-85) 233,482 172,198 interventions,
Seventh Plan (1 985-90) 235,000 98,705 ** * adaptation of interventions to meet local conditions so that scare resources can be
Source: Irrigation Master Plan Docrwicnt.
* Includes 6228 ha completed before thejirstfive vem-plan employed more efficiently,
**Achievement to end of FY 1988/89.
* improved access to the public finds, agricultural extension services, training etc.
through local organizations and institutions,
Note the significant shortfall of development progress targets, particularly since 1970 when very * larger coverage of the beneficiary group beyond the rural elite to include the poor
ambitious targets have been set. The failure to allocate budget allocations to targets aggravated by farmers.
organizational, management and construction capacity are some of the important factors causing the * effective tapping of local information that can otherwise be costly to obtain or learn.
shortfall. Local farmers have more technical expertise than is usually recognized,
* mobilization of local resources to augment government resources, so breaking the
dependency syndrome and promoting self awareness and confidence,
* increasing confidence of farmers to share the responsibility for new innovations and
continued operation and maintenance of the irrigation infrastructure
Because of the lasting results that participatory approach can bring to the farming community and the
nation as a whole, engineers should endeavor to involve the farming community in all stages of the
project despite the unusually long period of involvement (even for small projects) and the risks
involved. After all, the risk of failure using the "top-down" approach can be even greater
 Figure 5.1: Different stages of su b-project planning and implementation
This chapter gives an overview of the ~ a r t i c i ~ a t o rapproach
y to irrigation project planning and
implementation with special emphasis on farher managed hill irrigation systems.
f he four stages in theparticipatory approach are :
* ', the information stage, 1
the negotiation stage,
the implementation stage, a Approval of
* l rriga tion Agency

These stages and the related activities are shown in Figure 5.1. The important aspect shown in this
figure is that almost all activities are jointly carried out by the farmer and the irrigation agency. Proper
dialogue between the farmer and the designer during all stages of the process is necessary to ensure
the project is correctly formulated taking into the farmers goals, their level of technical and managerial
skills, the financial capacity of the farmers to contribute towards the initial cost and, operate and
maintain the system. stage

Information stage: During the information stage agency irrigation staff will
* dissimate government imgation policy,
* receive and review project requests from farmers,
* compile shortlist of favorable irrigation projects based on project requests,
* carry o u t reconnaissance surveys of all short listed projects,
* conduct feasibility studies of most viable projects, and
* recommend chosen projects for detailed design and cost estimates.
Negotiation stage: During the negotiation stage agency irrigation staff carry will
* carry out engineering surveys,
* formulate projects and agree conclusions with farmer beneficiaries,
* prepare design and cost estimates,
4 draw up annual budgets and workplans for feasible projects to secure government
hnding,
* draw up agreements with farmers for cost sharing, resource mobilization and
demarcation of responsibility, and
* Negotiation stage
prepare a work plan incorporating the farmer inputs,
* agree on correct timing for implementing construction activities- and training of Jequests_for assistance
farmers. A project request is a prerequisite for any form of government assistance with construction or
-. .. ,-.~
-
-.
Implementation stage: During the implementation stage agency irrigation staff will - _ -of
improvement
L ---. farmer's
- i r r i p a t i o ~ s ~ ~ ~ h e ~ ~ ~ ~ & i ~ ~ made ~ ~ ~ ~on& as specified
t ' h u sformat
t~be
*
----'

assist farmers to mobilize local resources, by the elected

* award construction contracts for semi-skilled and unskilled construction packages to
local construction groups (in consultation with the farmers),
* supervise all construction works (with support from the farmers),
4
assist farmers t o train local construction workers to participate in construction
activities,
* assist farmers to train hture maintenance workers,
* train farmers in operation and maintenance, and water management.
Appreciation stage: During the appreciation stage agency irrigation staff will
* assist farmers to operate and maintain the completed scheme,
* assist farmers to set up knding mechanisms to maintain their systems,
* provide financial support for major repairs such as landslide and flood damages.
- - representatives
--. of all concerned f a ~ r s - u s u T ~ y C a E d T ~ e ~ ~ a r~rrigation
~m .
. r n k r Association
roject requestsmustcomply with g o E ~ n t ~ o m ~ e ~ ~ ? T S h 3 ' U 7 dmade 6 e aware
of curre.nfgovernment irrigation development policies s 6 a s to increase the chance of a sub-project's
selection and decrease the chance of disappointment caused by rejection of a sub-project's rejection.
Government irrigation policies can change with time depending on the changing emphasis
I governments place on hill irrigation development. A general policy concerning government assistance
to farmers can be summarized as follows. ''Small to medium hill irrigation projects will be
implemented with the participation of user's groups and the construction costs of such projects will be
l?intly shared by the-gqvernment and the user's groups in keeping with the provisions made in the
Irrigation Policy-The maintenance and operation, and management of the irrigation project will be the
, Gsponsibility of the user group:.
-
1o enable requests to be scrutinized properly the requests forms must be accurate and comprehensi~e
as possible and must contain_ --- the followine. mni-
* location of project,
 * type of assistance requirz,
* statement of willingness to co-operate and share project costs,
* present problems in agriculture,
* farmers' effort in overcoming problems,
* type of present irrigation facilities,
* present users' organizations,
* water source,
* potential command area / irrigated area,
* land holding pattern,
* farming systems,
* financial resources of farmers,
* household listing and signatures of beneficiary farmers.
-" Type 04 soil
Screening of requests
Because the farmers may not be kUy aware of the details of government irrigation policy their initial
project request may not be complete in terms of compliance with the current policy. Thus a project
worthy of government assistance may get rejected because of the ignorance of the farmers. Where the
farmers have made a strong commitment to co-operate and share project costs, the requests need to
be jointly reviewed by the farmers and the irrigation agency and modified to comply with the current
government policy. Sometimes there will be numerous project requests that a District Irrigation
Engineer cannot handle due to lack of staff. In such cases an bbjective-based ranking system will need
to be developed to prioritize the projects to be investigatedf Alternatively a rapid-appraisal of all
projects that satisfy the basic requirements set out in the request form may be carried out to screen
sub-projects for further study.
Reconnazssance survey
Once a short list of potential sub-project has been made reconnaissance surveys need to be carried
out. The objective of this survey would be to get first hand information about the project and the
farmers. Also the details given in the project request form will need to be reconfirmed during this
survey During this survey, as many farmers from the command area will need to be consulted and all
major problem areas inspected to fully assess the technical difficulties faced by the farmers. Typically,
the following investigations 1 details will be needed to decide whether to go ahead with the feasibility
study
* availability of water: For new projects the availability of water (particularly during
low river flows) must match the proposed command area and the cropping pattern. For
existing FMIS, the water availability must match the total area including the proposed
expansion and cropping pattern
* water right conflicts: Inter systemwater rggh-tconflicts will need-~b-~lyed by the
f a r m e r ~ r i o to
r the submission of the request for assistance In the case of proposed
new irrigation schemes, upstream and downstream users will be reluctant to allow new
system to draw water from the source especially if the source carries low flow during
the winter months If water right conflicts exist or are foreseen, engineers can help
farmers resolve the conflict by assisting in flow and command area measurements
However no irrigation project should be approved pending a solution to an existing
water right conflict. The same arguments also apply to existing FMIS where farmers
want to expand command area or diversify crop production
*
-maior
" technical ~roblemssuch as landslides and environmental --__ degradation:
- .u> -
-.
--
mainly
-.---
-
applies
- to new projects. Major landslides and environmentfiroblems wlll only
get aggravated- by const_nrctin~irrigation canals in the area, Therefore new
k a n a ~ ~ r o jconstruction
~ct
7 - -
should not be attempted in areas where such problems exist.
Attempting to build canals in major landslide areas and unstable degraded hill slopes
will only result in the shifting of responsibility for the continued upkeep and
maintenance of the canal to the irrigation agency. In the case of existing FMIS, farmers
may have especially asked for assistance to solve major engineering problems The
reconnaissance team (accompanied by the farmer representatives) should visit all
problem areas identified by the farmers to asses the nature of the problem Depending
on the type of problem the team can either suggest solutions that can be implemented
by the farmers themselves with little external assistance or (if the engineering is beyond
the capability of the farmers) propose solutions that will later be implemented with
agency funding when the project is taken up for rehabilitation The proposed solution
must of course be durable, economically feasible and must not shift the responsibility for
continued upkeep and maintenance to the agency
* the interest of the farmers: If farmers are not genuinely interested in the project, it is
best to invest the money in another area where farmers genuinely need assistance.
* major social conflict among farmer groups: A cohesive farmer group is essential for
the success of a project. Major social conflicts can reduce the chance of success of new
irrigation projects and improvements alike
* the farmers goals: Sometimes farmers aspirations can be unrealistic and impossible to
achieve due technical and financial constraints. In such cases, depending on the
availability of funds farmers can be asked to prioritize their needs and determine their
own contribution.
Government staff must plan to spend adequate time (a minimum of two full days) and be informal and
patient with the farmers during the reconnaissance surveys. They can easily observe the visible day
time features and day time activities of the farmers, but are unlikely to look at crucial social facts and
arrangements ( patron-client relationships, factions, informal organizations, indebtedness etc.). Cyclic
and periodic events and trends may never get uncovered unless the reconnaissance team spends
adequate time in the project area. Ideally the survey team should consist of an engineer and a rural
1
sociologist. The farmers may need a social worker or a school teacher who can int pret their
problems to the reconnaissance team. The outcome of the reconnaissance survey must be .t
communicated as soon as possible to the concerned farmers so that if the project is selected for
further investigation farmers can start collecting or preparing information required for the next stage
of investigation which is the feasibility study.
Feasibility study
Farmers hill irrigation projects have to be technically and economically viable to qualify for
government funding. However, rigid technical and economic criteria that are normally applied to
larger flat area systems in more accessible areas are not relevant for projects in remote hill systems
where market economies seldom exist. Farmers here are producing for their own consumption.
I
Overwhelming poverty, migration, increasing population, food deficit, landlessness, decreasing
productivity due to land fragmentation and loss of fertility, erosion of valuable productive land due to
C natural and environmental processes prevalent in remote hill districts will need to be given more
emphasis in project selection. The main objective of an economic feasibility study for a farmers hill
irrigation system should be to establish the possibility of implementing a set of proposed new
construction or improvement works and providing other supplementary irrigation related support
services within a given cost ceiling. ( Irrigation agencies would normally set a maximum cost ceiling
based on command area and type of construction (new or rehabilitation)). To increase the chance of a
sub-project's approval engineer and the farmer must try to keep the per hectare project cost to
minimum as possible. This can be done in several ways :
* by considering effective low cost alternative engineering solutions,
* farmers agreeing to prioritize their needs and requesting financial assistance only for
the most needed items ofsnstruction work,
* restricting the size and scope of the project,
* farmers agreeing to bear a greater portion of the total cost, etc:
The technical feasibility study for farmers hill irrigation systems would be expected to establish if the
farmers irrigation goals can be realized taking into consideration the technical, managerial aqd
financial constrains of the farmers. For example, if crop diversification and expansion of command
area is a goal, the feasibility team must establish the availability of sufficient water in the river s'ource.
If equitable water distribution is another goal, the team must help farmers to choose appropriate
engineering solutions based on costs and managerial skills of the farmers. The solutions can include
the provision of flow division, control and measuring structures, or regrouping and construction of
new distribution channels to improve the distribution of water. If increasing distribution efficiency is a
goal, one possible solution is to-change from field to field irrigation to an appropriate distribution
network of channels. At the end of the feasibility study a tentative cost estimate will have to be made.
This will be the primary basis for project approval, although social considerations mentioned earlier
can influence project selection. The cost estimate should be prepared based on the agreed techriical
solutions and project components. Any changes to the estimate (inclusions or omission) 'should only
be made in consultation with the farmers.
Detail design and cost estimates
Once a project has been approved based on tentative estimate prepared during the feasibility study, a
detailed .design and cost estimate will be required to secure funding. For small projects the data
required for detailed des'ign and cost estimation can be collected during the feasibility stage. However
for larger projects, another visit will be required. AS far as possible local materials, skills and labor
must be used during the construction. Therefore the costs and availability of lbcal resources must be
investigated during the feasibility stage. Whenever possible the construction work should be packaged
into skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled works and sub estimates prepared for separate packages so that
semi-skilled and unskilled packages can be given to the water users themselves:.
Cost sharing arrangements
The total cost'of an irrigation project is made up the following components :
* overhead costs of the agency that include reconnaissance surveys, feasibility studies,
detailed design and cast estimates etc.,
* costs for training of farmers,
* direct construction costs for sub-project works, commissioning of the sub-project, and
repair of defects etc.,
* recurrent costs for operation and maintenance of the completed scheme.
Generally the agency will bear the full overhead cost for preparation and planning of the sub-project
and training of farmers. The farmers and the agencyewill share the cost for construction and
commissioning of the sub-project. The percentage share will be determined by the government policy.
The farmers, however, will have to take full responsibility for managing the irrigation scheme add
finance the water management, maintenance and repair cost accordihgly.
The main consideration for cost sharing arrangements should be as follows :
* the farmers capacity to pay: poor farmers cannot afford to pay in cash, neither can
they afford to donate their land. They can only pay by providing their labor,
* some rich farmers can contribute land instead of cash, and some cash instead of labor,
* farmers belonging to a higher cast may want to hire labor to pay their contribution,
* farmers can obtain collective or individual loans from banks using their land as
collateral, but the land of poor farmers may already be mortgaged to wealthy money
lenders in the village.
The agency and the farmers should bear all these considerations in mind while establishing the
proportions of the farmers' contributions. The seniices of a local social worker with a thorough
knowledge of the farming community should be involved in this assessment process.
Sub-project workplans
Sub-project construction workplans are generally prepared by the agency staff. The sub-project
workplan if possible should segregate the part of the construction works to be implemented by the
farmers using their labor and cash contribution. For implementing the agency funded part of the
workplan the time availability of local labor, numbers of skilled, unskilled and portering labdr,
interruption to work during irrigation (in existing FMIS), time required for portering of local and
imported materials must be taken into consideration. Most of the construction (agency funded) should
be planned during the agricultural slack season because it may be possible to make use of 'additional
labor from the neighboring villages for the construction activities.
Maximum use of beneficiary farmers in the implementation stage of the sub-project
Involving local workers and village based small scale contractors in the construction of irrigation
projects is a critical incentive for users of th'e irrigation project to take responsibility for managing
their irrigation system on completion of the construction works. This will give the users a sense of
pride having contributed to building the scheme and increase their confidence to take care of
maintenance work and minor repairs. It also provides short term employment on fair wage conditions
which generates the much needed cash for the poo;er communities and creates a community spirit
which is required for the sustainable maintenance and operation of the irrigation system. Involvement
in construction work also provides local workers with the opportunity to familiarize themselves with
construction techniques and working procedures that can be applied by them during operation and
maintenance phases. Use of local beneficiary labor & also beneficial to the agency because there is an
element of built in quality control. Farmers would always put in extra effort to make their canals and
structures stronger. When skilled work is to bt? performed (reinforced concrete aqueducts, pipe
joining for inverted siphon, etc. ) the agency should bring in skilled persons from outside for the sake
of durable construction. However the agency should make it a point to train a few semi-skilled
workers from the village in these skills so that these workers can maintain the cpmplex structures in
the future.
Data collection
During the 'reconnaissance, feasibility and detailed design surveys some or all of the aspects given in
the list below will need to be taken into consideration. However, for each aspect, the depth of
investigation and the extent of data collected will depend on the type of survey. Based on the
following list of items suitable questionnaires will need to be prepared well in advance of the field visit
to collect sufficient data.
 X General Y
III Description of the system
A. Area overview The physical system
- name and location of project, h
- access to project: walking distance, walking time withlwithout load, 1 Hydrology
- access to agricultural support services, - rights to water in the source: upstream and downstream, basis for the water share,
- food sufficiency 1 insufficiency, seasonal variation in the water share,
- level of affluence / poverty: proportion of poor farmers, - seasonal variation in the water supply at the extraction point: measured low flow
- labor availability in each season: daily wage, contract, estimated high flow and normal flow,
- availability of skilled labor: description of skills, - frequency of flood / drought: estimated flood flow, flood water levels,
- availability of local construction activiries: quality, cost, haulage distance. - other uses of the source water: water mills, drinking water etc.,
B. Settlement patterns - water quality (salt, lime, heavy silt content etc.),
- history of settlement, - regime of the river flow at the extraction point: meandering, siltation, erosion boulders,
- ethnic composition, extraction easy / difficult etc.,
- in and out migration, - water constraints to expansion or intensification of irrigation.
- total population served by the project: composition. 2. Canals: Main and distribution
C. History of the surrounding area's irrigation development and its effect on this project - type of construction, materials used, quality and condition (erosion / siltation) stability
- map or sketch showing the following for each system: Relative location: water of hill slopes along the canal, stability of canal banks, discharge capacities, canal
source, diversion point, size of command area and name of command. reaches with low and high discharge capacities,
- sketch of layout,
II History of the system - distance from source to first fields: idle length,
- length of main canal and distribution canals,
A. Original construction - seasonal change in the condition of the canal (monsoon, winter),
- when? - are major improvements needed stabilize canals?
- who initiated and directed? - are major improvements needed to increase canal capacities?
- amount and source of resources invested: cash, labor, materials, - is there wastage of water in the distribution system due to field to field irrigation?
- basis for internal resource mobilization: (household, land holding etc.), - is there wastage of water in the distribution system due to seepage / leakage losses or
- are present internal water shares based on this original investment by the farmer poor control operations?
families? are records of this kept? - does the distribution system need additional canals for improving efficiency of water
- what is the basis for sharing the source water among the upstream and downstream distribution?
users? were agreements made with other users at the time of original construction? - does the distribution system need additional structures for improving efficiency of water
have there been changes in the agreement? and why? distribution?
- external sources. - will flow control structures need to be automated (simple proportional distribution)?
B. Improvement / rehabilitation can manual flow control be introduced? manual flow control for all structures or
- when have major rehabilitation and / or improvements been made? selected structures?
- who initiated? when? what was done? - is flow measurement required? appropriate types of flow measurements devices,
- internal or external resources? - is canal lining required?: are farmers willing to use traditional materials for lining
- basis for internal resource mobilization, . (stone, slate, clay, soil cement etc.).
- did internal water shares among the farmers change after major rehabilitation or 3. Structures
improvement? - type of construction, materials, quality, condition,
- are there regular external resources given? If so how much? by whom? - stability of structures,
C. System expansion / contraction - are major improvements needed to stabilize structures?
- how have the boundaries of the system changed? - are major improvements needed to increase flow rates through the structures?
- do new areas have the same equitable water right as the original command? - are additional structures needed?
- do junior / senior water rights exist? 4. Environmental hazards
- have new settlers (authorized / unauthorized) been allowed to join? - is main canal passing through active or potential land slide or unstable (rock) areas?
what is the risk of failure of canal?
- will failure of canal section permanently put the scheme out of operation? can parts of
the command (located before the landslide or hazard zone) be operated?
- will canal construction in the potential hazard zone induce more severe problems
leading to failure of the project? 3. Meetings
Boundaries of the irrigated area - regularity of meetings, purposes for which meetings are held, records of meetings,
- irrigated area for each crop, how are resolutions passed (voting or consensus)? Attendance (landlords, tenants,
- limitation of expansion for eaGX crop: physical, water rights etc. women).
Soils 4. Conflict and conflict management
- fertility and suitability for irrigated agriculture: measurement of percolation rates, - cause, nature, frequency of conflict,
- type: head, middle, tail. - are conflicts specific to cropping season?
- are conflicts internal or external to the system?
Operation and maintenance - are conflicts among systems?
- are conflicts related to non water issues?
Activity / problems - to whom is first appeal for conflict resolution, and what is the step-by-step procedure
- related to water acquisition: water rights, shortages of supply, damage from floods, for difficult cases?
etc., - what is handled within the organization, and what is taken outside?
- related to water delivery: canal cleaning, landslide repairs, flood damage etc., - police, court cases,
- related to water distribution, - political involvement,
- maintenance of diversion works and canal distribution network. - any rules and sanctions in place to deal with conflict?
Water distribution tasks (frequency and magnitude of effort) - records of conflict resolution.
- method of water distribution for each crop and variation during each crop: rotation, 5. Water rights at system level
continuous flow, - sharing with other systems: trading of inter system water rights,
- distribution during water shortage period, - permit, rent, prior appropriation, riparian,
- relationship of the water distribution goal to the physical infrastructure: adequate - customary rights,
inadequate, how to improve? - evidence of conflict among systems.
- who is responsible for water distribution? 6. Water allocation (water rights of members within system)
Maintenance - allocation principle: land area, soil, investment, purchased, traded,
- routine maintenance: what work is don& frequency? how long does it take? what - how does water allocation change with crop, level of water supply,
resources are used? basis for resource mobilization? who initiates and directs work? - outside influence due to assistance,
- emergency maintenance: reasons, frequency, how long does it take? how are resources - dominance of one social group.
mobilized? what resources are used? who determines it is an emergency? who organizes 7. Internal resource mobilization
and leads the work? - purposes for resource mobilization,
- external assistance to maintenance: how much, type of assistance. - basis for resource mobilization same as water allocat~on,household,
- type of resource: cash, labor, in kind (remuneration, etc.),
Institutions and social envirnontment - organization to manage the mobilization,
- accounts of resources due and contributed,
Social structure - annual quantity of each type of resource,
- land holding pattern. Any changes in rented-out land with changes in irrigation ? - sanctions for not contributing,
- nature of tenancy (criteria: owner, tenant, share-cropper), - annual amount realized from fines, how collected and used?
- ethnic composition in the command, - what is consequence of not paying fine?
- villages, - where are hnds and in-kind resources held? Are there short-term loans provided to
- settlement pattern and irrigation labor availability, farmers from these resources?
- power structure (related to land and political affiliation). - discrimination against contribution: caste, sex, age,
Organization - what if family does not have male member?
Types of organizations and their hnctions. Legal status of organizations - contractual arrangements for maintenance: method, reason,
Membership - resource generating activity: mill.
- criteria: land, water share, crop, tenancy, official position, contractual, ethnic 8 External resources
(exclusions), gender, age, labor, investment input, - purpose,
- positions and roles: are positions and roles compatible with needs and are defined - source: connections, contacts,
clearly? how much authority 1s delegated to the different members to carry out their - who (person) initiated contact with outside agency, incumbent or previous experience in
hnctions? government position.,
frequency,
 - . type: cash, food-for-work, c ment, gabion wire, technical advice. Chapter 6: Assessment of water availability
Organizational development \
- changes over time in: rules, roles, resource mobilization, processes for electing River flow and seasonal variation
fhnctionaries, etc., In Nepal, monsoonal rains and snow melt contribute to river flow. Depending on the attitude some
- changes in decision-making process, are influenced by monsoon rain while others are influenced by monsoon and snow melt.
- process of allowing new outlet from main canal, On catchments that are entirely below 3000 m, there is no significant contribution from snow melt.
- terms and conditions of external agency for providing aid and resolving conflict, The hydrograph of these catchments show no rise in flow until the first monsoon rains. Figure 6.1
- change in involvement of government offices, shows the daily discharge hydrograph for a river catchment with the contribution of snow melt. Figure
- changes in relationships with other system: water sharing when temporary damage in 6.2, is a hydrograph of a small catchment not influenced by snow melt. This hydrograph demonstrates
canal, sharing resources for maintenance. the much more pronounced rise and fall of flows in response to monsoon storms typical of small
catchments. During the low spells in the monsoon in such catchments, river flows can drop to low
Descrption of the agricultural system and services levels. This is relevant to the irrigation designers since these lower monsoon flows may significantly
reduce divertible flows.
Agricultural system
General Assessment techniques
- main crops, cropping pattern, crop calendar, cropping intensity, extent of land The design criteria for irrigation schemes in Nepal is 80% reliability of full supply. The problem for
cultivated during pre-monsoon, monsoon and winter periods, the designer is t o estimate the river flows at the proposed location of the headwork, which can be
- can farmers freely choose the crops t o grow and the cropping calendar7 expected to exceed 80% of the time. Given the large spatial variation and the large number of small
- estimated yield of the various crops, catchments it is unlikely that the designer will find a gauging station at the point he is interested in. In
- - .

change in agricultural practices in past 25 years: new crops, varieties, technology, the optimum case there may be a long record at the proposed site and in the worst case no local
Production inputs information or nearby gauges would be available, When long, reliable records are available for the
- use of improved seed varieties, fertilizers, proposed sites the data can be analyzed using standard hydrological technique of frequency analysis.
- methods of disease and pest control, When no records or gauging station is available the designer must use regional prediction methods In
- cost of inputs, another case, limited flow records may be available for $he proposed site and long term flows for a
- availability of farm labor and draught power, hydraulitally similar catchment. In such cases it may be possible to combine, the data from the
- extension services (types, training, production campaign), where based? hydraulically similar catchment. However, it must be noted, it is only possible to relate gauge data
Agricultural practices from elsewhere t o the diversion site if the two catchments show the same run-off response. Given the
- land :reparation methods,
great spatial variability of run-off and rainfall in the hills, it is extremely difficult to transfer data from
- use of manure, fertilizer,
gauged catchments in the absence of any data for the diversion site. It must be also noted that the
- broadcasting or transplantation, reliability of flow estimates by regional techniques can be much improved by even a few
- yield per crop, measurements taken at the site.
- total yield per year, The different methods for flow estimation and the associated reliability of estimated flows are shown
- prices and possible marketing facilities- in Table 6.1.

Farmer participation Assessment (f~nonthly.flow

- willingness of farmers to raise the required contribution (including labor and cash ), to
participate in the process of decision making during the project request, preparation,
planning and implementation stages and to take over full responsibility for maintenance
and operation of the completed project.
System strengths and weaknessess
when long term records are available
When a long term record of monthly flows is available the 1 in 5 values are obtained using frequency
analysis, This is obtained for each month from the mean and standard deviation values for that month
The value obtained using the mean and standard deviation technique is called the independent, or non-
homogeneous, 80% value, The annual 80% value is obtained from annual mean and standard
deviation and not by summing up the independent 80% monthly value
he 80% reliable flow is o
80 = Qmean - S x 0.8418

Strengths, Where S = standard deviation of the monthly series, and 0.8418 is the 1 in 5 reduced variate of the
Weaknesses. normal distribution.
Figure 6.1: Hydrograph of a river catchment influenced by snowmelt Table 6.1: Estimation of flow available for diversion and reliability of estimates
1
I

8000
Optinzlrn~ Good U.~efzrl Poor Wo1:~t

Available flow > l o years at 3 to 7 years at 1 to 3 years at Spot No

data diversion site diversion site diversion site measurements measurement
in dry season at site
at diversion
site
> 10 years at > 5 years at
"hydrologically HSC
similar
catchment"
(HSC) or in
same
catchment and
difference in
area small
Options for Frequency Calculate means of short record Regional Regional
analysis analysis period at both sites, adjust to prediction predict ion
p p p p ~ p p

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
long-term WEC S,MIP WECS, MIP
with
adjustment
Figure 6.2: Hydrograph of a small river catchment not influenced by snowmelt Reliability of ~xcellent Very Good Good Fair-better in Poor
Estimated dry season
flows: Mean than monsoon
1 in 5 year Excellent Good Fair Very poor

Assesslnent of n~onthlyflow when recorciL~

are not avarlahle
Two methods are available*forthe estimation of monthly flow. These are :
* regional regression method developed by the water and E n e r ~ ycommission (WECS) of
the Ministry of Water Resource (MoWR), Nepal for long term mean tlows and for low
flows.
* regional method developed by Sir Macdonanald and Partners for the MIP Design
manuals, for mean and 80% reliable tlows.

Regional regression l~zethodforlong-term flows and low-flows

This method was developed by WECS (1989) from a study based on long term flow records of
DHM's primary gauzes In this study monthly data was used in a multiple regression analysis involving
upto 14 catchment parameters such as. basin area, main stream length, area of catchment below 5000
m elevation etc A set of 12 regression equations were derived which can be used to predict the mean
flow in each month of the year

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr Ma!. Jun Jill Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
These equations are given in Table 6.2 and are of the form .

Q mean (month) = Coefficient C x (Basin area)Al x (Basin area below 5000 m + x

(Mean monsoon precipitation)A3

76
Where
basin area is measured in square kilometers, and the mean monsoon precipitation is given in Figure 6.3: Monsoon precipitation isolines(mm)
millimeters. Source: Department of Hydrology Meteorology, HMG, Nepal
A1 - the power of area of basin (km2)
A2 = the power of area of basin below 5000 m + 1 (km2)
A3 = the power of mean monsoon precipitation (mm)
Qmean (month) = the flow in cubic meter per second.
t the designer to measure the total catchment
These equations cover the whole country and requlre
area, the catchment area below 5000 m and the average monsoon rainfall for the whole catchment
estimated from a isohyetal map (see Figure 6.3).

Exan~ple1
Calculate the March and July mean flows for a 400 k i 2 catchment whose water shed is below 5000-
m elevation. The average monsoon rainfall in catchment is 1200 mm.

Using the formula given above and Table 6.2.

Q mean (March) = 0.009988 (400 +1)0.9948 = 3.88 m3/sec = 9.7 11s per km2
Q mean ( ~ ~ l 0.02123
~ ) = (400 + l ) l 0 0 9 3 (1200)0.2523 = 53.85 m3/sec = 134 11s per km2

Prediction of low.flows
The WECS also developed regression'equations to obtain the 2, 10, and 20 year low flows. To
predict the one month low flow with 2, 10 at 20 year return periods the equation are :

4 2 = 0.09299 + 0.05269 (area below 5000 m + 1)0.5

Q1O = 0.00749 + 0.08480 (area below 5000 m + 110.5
Q 2 =~0.03059 + 0.08284 (area below 5000 m + 110.5

If the resulting value of Q is negative, it is set to zero.

Y

The WECS low flow analysis relates to the lowest flow in the year and not to a specific month. The
month with the lowest mean flow for the catchment will be equivalent to the WECS low flow month.
For catchments where snow melt is important the minimum month is February. While for catchments
without a snow melt contribution the lowest month is usually April.

Regional method for wean and 80% .;;eliable.flows

This method of analysis is based on regional non-dimensional hydrographs drawn up for 7 regional
groups. (see Table 6.3a and 6.3b for the identified seven regions). The geographic location of the
seven regions are shown in figure 6.4. These hydrographs present monthly flows as a ratio of the
flows in April. The lowest flows occur in MarcWApril and where these have been measured at an off
take site, the hydrograph can be adjusted to match the ratio of predicted to observed dry season flow.
Based on DHM's spot measurements, mean monthly hydrographs for the seven regions have been
prepared. These indicate flow rates (in 11s per km2) for each month. Where the data is sufficient 20%
and 80% exceedance values have also been derived (for region 3, 5 and 6). For regions 1, 2, 4 and 7
envelope curves giving maxima and minima have been derived. The method permits mean monthly
flows to be estimated anywhere in Nepal and the 80% reliable flows to be estimated for 3 regions.
Estimated minima can be computed for a hrther 3 regions.
 Table 6. 2:
I
WECS prediction equations for long-term average flows Table 6.3a : MIP Non-dimensional regional hydrographs : mean monthly flow
(m31s)
Mohth Constant Power of Power of Power of Coefficient
coefficient area of area of mean of [ Month Region
basin basin below monsoon determination -
5000 m + 1 precipitation 1 2 3 4 5 6
May 2.60 1.21 1.88 2.19 0.91 2.57
Jun 6.00 7.27 3.13 3.75 2.73 6.08
Jul 14.50 18.18 13.54 6.89 11.21 24.32
Jan 0.01423 25.00 27.27 25.00 27.27 13.94 33.78
0 0.9777 0 0.945 Aug
16.50 20.19 20.83 20.91 10.00 27.03
Feb 0.01219 0 0.9766 0 0.966 S ~ P
Oct 8.00 9.09 10,42 6.89 6.52 6.08
Mar 0.009988 0 0.9948 0 0.983 3.94 5.00 5.00 4.55 3.38
- Nov 4.10
AP~ 0.007974 0 1.0435 0 0.979 Dec 3.10 3.03 3.75 3.44 3.33 2.57
May 0.008434 0 1.0898 0 0.959 Jan 2.40 2.24 2.71 2.59 2.42 2.03

1
Jun
Jul
*ug
0.006943
0.02123
0.02548
0.9968
0
0
0
1,0093
0.9963
0.2610
0.2523
0.2620
0.93.2
0.938
0.955
Feb
Mar
Apr
1.80
1.30
1.OO
1.70
1.33
1.OO
1.88
1.38 1 1.88
1.18
1.00 , 1.00
1.82
1.36
1.OO
1.62
1.27
1 .OO
Note * There are very few data from Region 7 - the Terai.
S ~ P 0.01677 0 0.9894 0.2878 0.968 This hydrograph must be regarded as very approximate.
Oct 0.009724 0 0.9880 0.2508 0.953 -

Nov 0.001760 0:9605 0 0.3910 0.973 Table 6.3b: MIP Non-dimensional regional hydrographs: 80% reliable flow
Dec 0.001485 0.9536 0 0.3607 0.968 (m3/s)

Units of flow are m3/s

Example equation for July is

Q mean July = 0.02123 (area below 5000 m + 1)1.0093 X May

(mean monsoon precipitation)0.2523 Jun
Jul
3. A power of 0 indicates that the particular parameter does not enter into the Aug
equation for that month. S ~ P
Oct
Nov
Dec
The examples below show how the MIP method is applied to determine the mean monthly and 80% Jan
reliable flows. Feb
Mar
Exan~ple2 Apr
Flow measurement made on March 1st on a river stream indicated a flow of 265 Ips. The catchment
area of the stream as measured on a top0 map was 35 km2 and lies in region 3. Estimate the mean
Notes: All values for mid month.
* Insufficient data to establish SO%, only minimum.
\ \

monthly and 80% reliable flow from this catchment. The flow rate of 265 Ips is equivalent to 7.57 Ips ** Insufficient data, envelope curve only. I

per km2. This value is very close to the early March mean flow given in Figure 6.5 for region 3.
Therefore no adjustment to the regional hydrograph is required in this case. The mean flow in each
month can be read directly from the graph in 11s per km2 and converted to flow by multiplying by the
catchment area. Accordingly the 80% reliable monthly flows can also be read directly from the graph
in l/s per km2 and converted to flow by multiplying by the catchment area.
* * * No data
Example 3
Flow measurement made on March 1st on a river stream indicated a flow of 350 Ips. The catchment
area of the stream as measuEdl?6m a top0 map was 35 km2 The catchment lies in Region 3.
Estimate the mean monthly flow and the 80% reliable flow from this catchment.
Figure 6.4: f
Hydrologica regions of Nepal
. ~ example
h ~ illustrates the adjustment procedure.
The mean monthly predicted flow is derived from the non-dimensional hydrograph for region 3 as
Mountain catchments.
follows.
Hills to the north of
Mahabarat, river rising north Non-dinrerzsionnl Measured Predicted Predicted
Month
of Siwaliks, inner terai. hyd~~ograph.for (LIs)
JOPV April JOMJ hydrograph (I&)
Pokhara, Nuwakot, region 3 (mean
Kathmandu, Sunkosi motzthlyj7ow) .
tributaries.
Lower Tamur Valley 1.88 404
Rivers draining Mahabarats. May
June 3.13 673
Kankai Mai basin. 291 1
July 13.54
Rivers draining from Churia
August 25 .OO
range to the terai.
--
October 10.42
November 5.00 1075
December 3.75 806
January 2.71 5 83
February 1.88 404
1.63 350
March 1.38 297
April , 1.OO 35011.63 = 214.7 2 15

The value of 1.63 is the weighted ordinate of the non-dimensional mean monthly hydrograph
corresponding to the 1st of March, estimated by interpolation.
The predicted April flow is then 350J1.63 = 214.7 Ips (say 215 Ips).
The other mean monthly flows are computed by multiplying the value of the non-dimensional mean
monthly flow hydrograph for region 3 by 2 15.
From Figure 6.5 the April 80% monthly flow is 1.7 IJs per km2 or 35% of the April mean of 4.8 llp
per km2.

Therefore the predicted 80% April flow is 35% of 215 = 75.25 Vs (say 75 Ips). The other 80% reliable
monthly flows are computed by multiplying the values of the non-dimensional 80% reliable monthly
flow hydrograph for region 3, by 75.
 Figure 6.5: Mean monthly hydrograph for MIP region 3
Month Nor?-dintensional Predicted Predicted
hydrogaph for AprilJlow hydrograph (Us)
1 region 3 (80% (80% (80% reliable
- reilable Jlowj reliable $'ow)
flow) J

1000

m
2
W

2 Combining the WECS and MIP n~ethodc

100 For regio~ls 1, 2 and 4 the WECS low flow equation for a return per~odof 2 years and the
S
Lr, hydrographs prepared by MIP can be used The procedure is as follows Use the low tlow equation
$ for Q2 and multiply by 0 86 to estimate the 80% low flow month Compare this value with the lowest
month on the "minima" envelope curve for the appropriate region (see Figure 6 6) Adjust the
2 minimum curve as necessary
z"
. .
Conzbining data fi.0111 11yd1~0/ogi~~//~~
. C IJ ~I ~ J ~ ..* .s (HS(7
It is only possible to relate dita from another catchment to the diversion site if the two catchments
show the same run-of'f response. Therefore this technique must only be used with caution The
following example shows one method for combining data from a HSC.

10 A and B are two hydraulically similar catchments Catchment B has a long record of published data
The diversion s ~ t eis in catchment A and has been gauged since the pre-feasib#ty stage and there are
three years of data The procedure based on the above data are as follows.
i
/
1. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the 3 year record a d h e diversion site.
2 Calculate the mean for the same three year period for Ly&atchment B.
3. Calculate the mean and standard deviation for low record for gauged catchment B.
4. Adjust the short record at diversion site in catchment A to long-term by the relationship
between the short and long-term periods for the gauged catchment B.

Assuming that the catchments are hydrogically similar, the standard deviation of the gauged
80% Rellablc
catchment B can represent the standard deviation for the catchment A, and the 80% reliable values
1 can be calculated as below :
MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR
 Figure 6.6: Mean monthly hydrograph for MIP region 1
Data :
I I Proposed diversion site in
catchment A
Gauged catchntent B

3 year mean April flow 4.0 m3 /s 4.7 m3 1 s.-

Long term mean April flow 4.25 m3 I s :
Standard deviation for catchment B 1.15

4.25
Estimated Long - term mean April flow for site A = 4.0 x -
4.70 = 3.6m3l sec

:. 80% reliable April flow = 3.6 - 1.15 x 0.8418 = 2.63 m3lsec

p Water in the stream and water available for extraction

Not all the water available at a given point on the stream can be diverted for irrigation purposes.These
may be upstream and I or downstream users who also depend on the stream for water Therefore
there users will need to be consulted and agreement reached on the amount of water that will be
extracted from a given point on the stream during the different cultivation periods 'Stream flow. in
small river tributaries can diminish rapidly during the winter months and water conflicts may be severe
particularly during these months. Traditional or customary local aws or rules often govern the use of
water from small mountain rivers and river tributaries. It is therefore advisable to solve water conflicts
at the local level in conformity with existing local rules Co-operating farmers can solve even the most
difficult water right problems Particularly in the hills where networks of small hydrologically
interconnected canals are common, there is wide scope for resolving water conflicts by .
* staggering the cultivation season. fields at the colder head of the valley can be planted
earlier than those at the tail The staggered planting schedule can help spread out the
demand for water during land preparation
* growing different crops in the different areas of the valley, thus matching the water
availability with demand,
* changing system boundaries for canal operation purposes. EEciency of water
distribution can be increased by combining small adjacent irrigation systems into one
system under a larger intake. During the winter months of l o p water availability, it
may be possible t o combine small adjacent systems on a hill under one intake by
temporarily closing the downstream intakes. During mo when there is an
abundance of water in the source the adjacent systemsFan function separately by
drawing water t h r o u ~ hthe different intakes /
/
,/'
If the water conflict cannot be resolved at the local level the matter is then brought to the higher
government official in the district who will then deal with it using the provisions of the Water
Resource Act (2049). This act gives the government full authority to utilize or develop water
resources as it sees fit, resting the owners^^^ of all water resources with the kingdom of Nepal.
Perhaps a court ruling will then decide if extraction of water from a given point on the source is
I 1
I 1 I I allowed and if so the quantity of water that can be extracted
MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT N O V DEC JAN FEB MAR 7

APR
 Chapter 7: Soil factors influencing transpiration are those governing ihe supply of water to the roots of plants
Crop water and irrigation water requirement
* :
These are
soil structure,
Crop water requirement is the principal factor for estimating irrigation water requirement and *
planning of irrigation systems. soil permeability,
.x * water table, etc.
* Evaporation, Plant factors influencing transpiration are :
*
* transpiration, and extent of the root system,
* efficiency of the root system in absorbing moisture from the soil,
consumptive use, are important factors in the estimation of crop water requirement, * the leaf area,
* leaf arrangement and structure, and
Evaporation * stomatal behavior.
Evaporation is the process by which water in the form of vapor is transferred from the natural surface,
such as open water, bare soil or vegetative cover to the atmosphere. For evaporation to occur there
Plants virtually cease to transpire at night, due to stomatal closure, but the water from the surface
must be :
* adjacent to the plant continues to evaporate, though-at a slower rate. Thus over long period of time
a source of heat to vaporize the liquid water, and of, say, a month, the evaporation from the free surface may exceed the transpiration from the crop.
* the presence of a gradient of concentration of water vapor pressure between the However, over a shorter period of, say, a few dayfight hours, the crop may transpire more than the
evaporating surface and the surrounding air. water surface.
The source of energy for evaporation may be solar energy, the air blowing over the surface or the
underlying surface itself Evaporation from the land surface is affected mainly by factors such as the
Evapotranspiration (ET) or C:onsunzptive CJLse(Uj
degree of saturation of the soil surface, temperature of the air, soil type, humidity and wind velocity In designating water use by crops. evaporation and transpiration are combined into one term
etc. Several of these factors are greatly influenced by the type and devity of the vegetative cover. It evapotranspiration (ET), as it is difficult to separate the two losses occurring from cropped fields.
is difficult to generalize on the amount of evaporation from land surfaces because of the different soil Plants also require water for metabolic processes, however, this requirement is usually insignificant in
moisture characteristics. At high moisture content, the evaporation from the land sdrface is nearly comparison to the evapotranspiration rate (less than 1% of ET). The relative amounts of direct
equal to that from a free water surface. At lower levels of soil moisture, the evaporation may decrease evaporation from land and water surfaces and transpiration depend on the amount of ground cover.
in proportion to the content of the water remaining in the soil. Evaporation from land surfaces is For most crops covering a large extent of the ground only a very small amount of water is lost from
usually confined to shallow depths and evaporation rates reduce rapidly with increase in depth below the ground surface Factors that govern evaporation and transpiration also influence the
the surface. Mulches are effective in controlling evaporation losses for a few days after the rain. The evapotranspiration process. Usually a close relationship exists between incoming solar radiation and
mulch restricts air movement, maintains a high vapor pressure near the soil surface, shields the soil evapotranspiration.
from solar energy, all of which reduce evaporation.
Eflect of stage of growth of crops on evapotranspiration
Transpirution The stage of growth of a crop has a considerable influence on its consumptive use rate. This is
Transpiration is the process by which water leaves the living plant body and enters the atmosphere. It particularly true of annual crops which generally have four distinct stages of growth, namely
involves continuous movement of water from the soil into the root, through the stem and out through
* initial stage: germination and early growth when the soil surface is barely covered by
the leaves into the atmospher-e. Transpiration is basically an evaporatim process. However unlike the crop,
* development stage: from end of initial stage to full ground cover (70%
evaporation from the free surface, transpiration is modified by the plant structure and stomatal
behavior operating in conjunction with the physical principles governing evaporation. Transpiration is to 80%),
*
a dominant factor in plant water relationship because the evaporation of water from the leaves, li
mid-season stage: from attainment of effective full grou d cover to start of maturing
as indicated by discoloring of leaves or falling of)eaves. During this period the
produces the energy gradient causing the movement of water into and through the plants. The rate of
transpiration depends on the supply of energy to vaporize the water, the water vapor pressure, and the evaporation rate may be maximum if abundant soil qmlsture is available,
* late season stage: from end of mid season u&ll maturity or harvest: During this
resistance to difksion in the vapor pathway. Climate, soil and plant factors also influence
transpiration. Climatic factors influencing transpiration are : period the evaporation rate gradually decreases to a minimum.

* sunlight intensity, Estimating evapotranspiration

* atmospheric vapor pressure, E~aoptrans~iration is generally estimated from climatic data. Numerous empirical equations have been
* temperature, and developed to estimate ET. ( A short description of methods for estimation of ET are given later in the
* wind. chapter). Usually the evapotranspiration of a reference crop (ET,) is calculated first for periods of
one month or shorter. The ETo accounts for the effect of climate on the level of water requirement.
The actual requirement of a articular crop is obtained by multiplying the ETo by the crop coefficient
 (kc) which depends on the stage of growth of the crop.
station. However, in a country with topography as variable as Nepal, climatic conditions can change
Table 7.1 : considerably within a short distance and being nearby is no guarantee for a similar climate. The
Crop coefficient (kc)
-k.. penman method described below is a version modified by J.Doorenbros and W.Pruitt in the FA0
Irrigation and Drainage Paper 24, Crop water Requirements:
Crop development stage
The Penman's equation for reference crop expotranspiration is :
Crop Initial I I
Development Mid season I Late season 1 Harvest
Bean,green 0.30-0.40 0.65-0.75
- - 0.95-1.05 5 ET, = c[(wx Rn) + (1 - w ) f(tr)
~ x(ea - e,)]
Bean, dry 0.30 - 0.40 0.70 - 0.80 1.05- 1.20 0.65- 0.75
0.25- 0.30
Cabbag e 0.40 - 0.50 0.70 - 0.80 0.95- 1.10 0.90- 1.10 0.80- 0.95 Where ETo = reference crop (short green grass) evapotranspiration in mrdday,
I Cotton 1 0.40-0.50 1 0.70-0.80 ( 1.05-1.25 1 0.80-0.90 1 0.65-0.70 1 c = adjustment factor depending on maximum relative humidity (RHmax),
Groundnut
I

0.40 - 0.50 0.70 - 0.80 0.95- 1.10 0.75- 0.85 0.55- 0.60 total solar radiation (Rs), daytime wind speed (Uday), and the ratio
Maize,sweet 0.30 - 0.50 0.70 - 0.90 1.05- 1.20 1.00- 1.15 0.95- 1.10 daytime wind to nighttime wind (Uday / Unight),
0.30 - 0.50 w = weighting factor depending on temperature and altitude,
Maize,grain 0.70 - 0.85 1.05- 1.20 0.80- 0.95 0.55- 0.60 =
Rn net radiation expressed in equivalent depth of evaporation in mrdday,
F(u) = wind function,
(ea - ed) = vapor pressure deficit in millibar,
Rice 1.10 - 1.15 1.10 - 1.50 1.10 - 1.30 0.95- 1.05 0.95- 1.05
A profoma developed based on a set of climatic data typically available from agro- meteorological
Safflower 1 0.30 - 0.40 0 stations in Nepal is shown in Table 7.2. The data required used in the profoma are :
Sorghum 0.30 - 0.40 0.70 - 0.75 1.00- 1.L5 0.75- 0.80 0.50- 0.55
Tmean = mean daily temperature in degrees Celsius,
RH mean = mean relative humidity in %. (mean of the measurement at 8:40 hrs. and
Sunflower 0.30 - 0.40 0.70 - 0.80 1.05- 1.20 0.70- 0.80 0.35- 0.45 17:40 hrs.),
Tobacco 0.30 - 0.40 0.70 - 0.80 1.00- 1.20 0.90- 1.00 0.75- 0.85 U = measured windrun in 24'hours in kidday,
Tomato 0.40-0.50 0.70-0.80 1.05-1.25 0.80-0.95 0.60-0.65 n = actual daily sunshine in hours,
Watermelon 0.40'- 0.50
Wheat 0.30 - 0.40
0.70 - 0.80
0.70 - 0.80
0.95- 1.05
1.05- 1.20
0.80- 0.90 0.65- 0.75 ed = d
actual vapor pressure in milli ar.
0.65- 0.75 0.20- 0.25 Wherever possible, mathematical equations have been bsed instead of values to be looked up from
Note: 1st)gure for high humidify (RHmin > 70%) and low wind (< 18 kmph)
Zndfrgure for low humidity (RHmin < 20%) atrd strong wind 18-kmph) i
tables. Tabulated values are only needed for extra te estrial radiation, (R,), the maximum possible
daily sunshine duration, (N), the Penman adjustment actor, c. The original tables from FAO-ID 24
have been refined for the average range of conditions encountered in Nepal. Because daytime and
Methods.for estimating evapotranspiration (ETo) nighttime wind are not recorded separately a wind ratio of Uday / Unight of 2 was assumed and c
The influeqce of climatic factors such as temperature, humidity, wind, watefvapor pressure and solar factors are only given for this ratio.
radiation etc. on evapotranspiration has been studied by various researchers. Penman, in England has
made the most complete analysis using several climatic variables. Blaney and Friddle, in the arid Penman ETo for 36 agro-meteorological stations in Nepal are also given in Table 7.3.
Western US, used temperature as the principal variable to obtain an index to the consumptive use. The method of calculation using the proforma in Table 7.2, is explained below. Wind run measured
Jensen and Haise used temperature and solar radiation to estimate the consumptive use of alfalfa. at the height of the anemometer is converted to windrun at 2 meters above the ground (U24) using
Hargreves did the same for grass as the reference crop. Two methods and their limitations are the calculated conversion factor (ucf). The mean atmospheric pressure is calculated from station
outlined below. For more information on other methods for determining consumptive use of crops the altitude if actual records are not available. The mean daily absolute temperature in OK, is the mean
reader is referred to other sources of information: "Crop Water Requirements", J.Doorenbos and daily temperature in OC plus 273. The saturation vapor pressure at the mean daily temperature (ea) is
W.O.Pruitt, FAO-Irrigation and Drainage Paper 24, FAO,Rome,: A Symposium on Consumptive Use then calculated followed by the actual vapor pressure (ed), if it is not recorded in the station. The
of Water, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Paper No:2524,: Irrigation Water wind related function, qu), and the weighting factor, w, are then determined. The Penman equation
Requirement, USDA., SCS., Technical release # 2 1, April 1967 (revised September 1970). requires the net radiation (Rn) as input, net radiation is the difference between the net incoming short-
wave radiation and the net outgoing long wave radiation (Rns - Rnl). The total short-wave solar
Penman's method for estimating ET, radiation received.at the earth's surface (Rs) is estimated from extra terrestrial radiation (Ra), the
Of the various methods available to estimate the reference crop evapotranspiration, the Penman amount of radiation received on a horizontal surface at the top of the atmosphere, and the sunshine
method is usually considered to give reliable and useful data over a wide range of climatic conditions. ratio, the ratio of actual sunshine duration to the maximum possible sunshine duration (n/N). The net
One limitation to its use is that it requires comprehensive climatic data such as temperature, humidity, short-wave radiation is the fraction of the total short-wave radiation which is not reflected by the soil
wind speed, net solar radiation or duration of sunshine. Only a few meteorological stations in Nepal and the crop. Reflectance (albedo) depends on the nature of the surface cover and is assumed to be
record the whole set of data required and in some places it may be difficult to find a representative 25% and thus Rns = 0.75 Rs. The net long- wave radiation is estimated from mean daily temperature ,
the mean actual vapor pressure and the sunshine ratio.
Table 7.2: Proforma for estimating Penman Reference Crop Evapotranspiration Table 7.2 contd.

Station: Khumal tar Month: -Janu,ary

Altitude: 1350 msl Latitude: 27.70 N

Basic Climatic Data

Mean daily temperature: ((Tm, + Tmin ) / 2) Tmean = 9.1 0 C
Mean relative humidity: ((RHm, + RHmin ) / 2) RHmean = 74%
Mean actual vapour pressure: ed = 8.3 mbar
Actual daily sunshine hours: n = 6.5 h Calculation of net radiation R,
Measured 24 hour windrun: U = 106 kmlday Rs = ( 0.25 + ( 0.5 x n / N )) x Ra
Height of anemometer: h = 5.5 m = ( 0 . 2 5 + ( 0 . 5 x 6 . / 1 0 . 6 ) ) ~9.3
--
Rs = 5.18
Tabulated Values
Maximum possible sunshine hours: N = 10.6 h
Extra terrestial radiation: Ra = 9.3

Calculated Values
Wind conversion factor (ucf):
for h = 2m: ucf = 1
for h > 2m: ucf= (2 /h)O17 = 0.84
for h < 2m: ucf = (2 / h10.22 =

Converted 24 hour windrun above ground (U24):

U24 = ucf x U = 0 . 8 4 ~
106 U(24) = 89 k m/'

Mean atmospheric pressure (PMB):

PMB = 1013-(0.1155xaltitude)
= 1013 - ( 0 . 1 1 5 5 ~ 1 3 5 0 ) PMB = 857 mbar

Mean absolute temperature (TKmean)

-
- Tmean + 273 Select c from table depending on RHmm, Rs and U24:
TKmean
= 9.1 + 273 TKmean = 282.1 OK U ratio assumed to be 2 for RHmm = 98% - /

Rs = 5.18
/
/

Saturation vapour pressure (ea) U24 = 89

'

ea = 6 15 e (19.51 xTmean/TKmean) c=I.O '

I
= 6 15 e (19.51 x 9.1 1282.1) e a = 11.5
Calculation of reference crop evapotranspitration ETo
Mean actual vapour pressure (ed) (only if measured value is not available)
ed = RHmean 1 100 x ea ed =
Calculation of f{u)
f(u) = 0.27 x (1 + ( U24 / 100 ))
= 0 . 2 7 x ( l + ( 89 / 100)) f(u) = 0.51

Calculation of w
G = 6.6 x x PMB
= 6 . 6 x 1 0 - ~ x 8 5 7 =0.57
Table7.3: Penman ETo for agro-meterological stations in Nepal The adjustment factor, c, is obtained from Table 7.4, depending on the maximum relative humidity
(RHmax), the total solar radiation (Rs) and the daily windrun at 2 meters above ground (U24).

Pennan Refer- Crop E v q m t r a m p i r a t i m (m/day)

I r d e x S t a t i o n Name
No.
104 Oadeldhura
:05 Mahendra Nagar
218 Oipayal ( D o t i )
------------------------
Blaney and Griddle's 1nethod.for estinzating ETo
Blaney and Criddle developed a simplified method for estimating the consumptive use using
Ele- L a t i - Longi-
vatlon tude tude Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June J u l y Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec Mean Total temperature and day-time hours for the arid western zones of the US, wherein considerable data was
(m) (') (*) 'Year collected to determine the values of the coefficients to be used for various crops. The concept of
Far Western Development Region reference crop is not appropriate with the form of equation presented here. Doorenbos and Pruitt, in
1837 29.30 80.58 2.3 2.9 4.0 5.7 6.1 5.1 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.5 2.6 2.! 3.' 1348 FAO-ID 24, suggest a modification of the Blaney and Criddle formula for which the corresponding
176 29.03 80.22 1.7 2.7 4.0 6.1 6.9 6.0 4.6 4.3 4.3 3.7 2.6 1.8 4 . ; 1483
617 29.25 80.95 1.8 2.7 4.3 5.8 6.6 5.9 4.7 4.6 4.2 3.5 2.5 i . 7 4.0 1471 crop coefficient appear to be less dependent on the climate. By multiplying the mean monthly
- -

temperature, t, by the monthly percentage of day-time hours of the year, p, there is obtained a
- - - - - - - - - - - . - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - L - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . - - - - - . . . . . . . . . ~ ~

Mid Western Oevelopment Region

303 Jurnla 2300 29.28 82.17 2.5 3.6 4.8 6.0 6.8 6.3 consumptive use factor F. Expressed mathematically:
401 P u s m Camp 950 28.88 81.25 2.2 3.2 5.0 6.9 7.3 5.8
405 Chisapani K a r n a l i 225 28.65 81.27 2.6 3.6 5.5 7.7 7.9 6.5
406 Surkhet 720 28.60 81.62 1.9 3.0 4.8 6.5 7.1 6.2
409 Khajura 190 28.10 81.57 2.0 3.2 4.7 6.9 7.9 7.0
419 Sikta 195 28.03 81.78 1.7 2.6 4.4 7.0 7.7 6.6
------------------------------------------------------------------------.--

Western Oevelopment Region

604 Thabnarpha 83.70 2.5 3.1 3.9 5.0 5.2 5.0 4.2 4.2 3.8 3.5 3.2 2.6 3.9 1406 Where, U = consumptive use of crop in mm for a given time period,
706 Durnkauli 84.22 2.0 3.1 4.7 6.0 6.3 5.3 4.3 4.5 4.1 3.6 2.6 1.9 4.0 '1473 K = empirical crop consumptive use coefficient (annual, irrigation season, or
707 Bhairhawa 83.47 2.0 3.1 4.8 7.0 7.7 6.5 5.0 5.0 4.3 3.9 3.0 2.0 4 . 5 i653
728 Semari 83.75 2.0 3.1 5.2 6.4 7.3 6.4 4.9 5.3 4.4 4.0 2.8 2.0 4.5 1654 growing season),
804 Pokhara A i r p r t 84.00 1.9 2.8 4.1 5.0 5.0 4.7 4.0 4.1 3.6 3.2 2.4 17 3.5 1293 F = sum of consumptive use factors for the period, (sum of products of mean
809 Gorkha 84.62 2.2 3.1 4.6 5.6 5.6 4.8 3.9 4.1 3.5 3.5 2.5 2.0 3.8 1382
811 Malepatan,. 83.95 1.8 2.7 4.0 5.0 4:9 4.8 4.0 4.1 3.7 3.3 2.4 1.7 3.5 1290 temperature and percent of annual day-time hours), (t x p) / 100,
814 Lurnle 83.80 2.0 2.8 3.9 4.8 4.6 3.7 3.1 3.2 2.9 3.0 2.4 1.9 3 . 2 1165 t = mean temperature in degrees F,
815 K h a i r i n i Tar 84.10 1.9 2.8 3.9 5.1 5.3 5.1 4.5 4.6 4.0 3.3 2.4 1.8 3.7 1361
.......................... P = percentage of day-time hours of the year occurring during the period.
. C e n t r a l Development Region
902 Rampur 256 27.62 84.42 1.9 2.9 4.7 6.6 6.8 5.7 4.4
91 1 Parwani pur 115 27.07 84.97 2.2 3.2 5.1 7.1 7.6 5.9 5.2
1007 Kakani 2064 27.80 85.25 2.0 2.8 3.9 4.5 4.3 3.2 2.8 txy .
1029 Khuml t a r 1350 27.67 85.33 1.9 2.8 3.9 4.8 5.2 4.4 4.2 For monthly calculations the expression 11 = 25.4 k .f = 25.4 k - is used.
1030 K a t h n d u Airport 1336 27.70 85.37 2.0 2.9 4.2 5.3 5.5 4.9 4.1 I00
1103 Jiri 2003 27.63 86.23 1.7 2.3 3.3 4.3 4.2 3.5 3.1
1114 Hardinath 93 26.80 85.98 2.1 3.2 5.1 7.5 7.7 6.2 5.1
...............................................................................
A typical calculation is shown in Table 7 5 Doorenbos and Pruitt have pointed out that Blaney and
Eastern Development Region .
1206 Okhaldhunga 1720 27.32 86.50 2.3 3.3 5.2 6.5 5.5 4.2 3.3 3.5 3.1 3.3 2.; 2.1 3.8 1369 Criddle formula should normally be applied for periods not shorter than one month and for each
1215 Lahan 138 26.37 86.50 2.4 3.5 5.8 7.5 7.3 6.3 4.8 5.7 4.4 4.3
1220 C h i a l s a 2770 27.52 86.62 1.5 2.0 3.2 3.9 3.6 3.1 2.9 2.5
3.2 2.4 4.8 1754 calendar month for each year of the record, instead of using mean temperature from several years
2.8 2.3 1.7 1.6 2.6 947
1304 Pakhri bas 1677 27.05 87.17 2.1 2.8 4.2 5.0 4.5 3.2 2.8 .2.8 2.8 2.8 2.3 2.0 '3.1 1135 record. According to them the formula is not suitable for use in .
1307 Dhankutta 1160 26.98 87.35 2.6 3.5 5.0 5.8 5.3 4.3 3.5 3.8 3.4 3.6 3.1 2.5 3.9 1411 ' * equatorial regions where temperatures remain fairly constant, but other weather
1319 B i r a t n a g a r A i r p o r t 72 26.48 87.27 2.4 3.6 5.5 7.3 7.3 6.1 4.9 5.3 4.4 4.0 3.1 2.3 4.7 1711
1320 Tarahara 200 26.70 87.27 2.2 3.2 4.9 6.9 6.9 5.8 4.9 5.0 4.3 3.9 2.9 2.1 4.4 1614 parameters change,
1324 Bhojpur
1405 Taplejung
1595
1732
27.18
27.35
87.03
87.67
1.9
2.0
2.6
2.7
3.7
3.6
4.5
4.3
4.3 3.9 3.2 3.6 3.1 3.0 2.5 1.8 3.2 1159 * high altitudes where day-time radiation is practically independent of night-time
4.4 4.2 3.5 4.0 3.3 313 2.5 1.9 3.3 1208
1407 I l l a m Tea E s t a t e 1300 26.92 87.90 2.2 3.0 4.3 5.0 4.6 3.3 2.8 3.5 2.9 3.2 2.8 2.2 3.3 1211 1 temperature, and
1421 Gaida (Kankai) 143 26.50 87.90 2.0 3.0 4.8 5.9 5.1 4.1 3.4 4.3 3.4 3.3 2.6 1.8 3.6 1330 !
I
* climates with a high variability of sunshine during the transition months
,

Oper8atronalwater reqzlrre~llents
Operational water requirements cover water needs for land preparation, or percolation losses
in flooded paddy fields They occur at the field level and must be supplied in addition to the crop
water requirement Crop water requirements and operational water requirements together make up
5 the field water requirements Operational crop water requirements differ from crop to crop, but there
-
J

are basically two cases

4
2
*
*
crops growing in ponded water, such as rice, and
dry foot or upland crops
Applying additional water for leaching is not considered necessary in the hill and mountain areas of
Nepal, because the surface water used for irrigation is usually neither saline or alkaline, and sufficient
leaching takes place during paddy cultivation
Table 7.4: Penman c-factors
( U r a t i o = Uday/llnight = 2 ) Month Mean monthly Monthly crop Percentage day- Monthly
S e l e c t a p p r o p r i a t e t a b l e based on R- (X)
F i n d c - f a c t o r m r r e s w m i n g to Rs (mn/day) and U24 ( ! a / d a y )
temperature coefficient light hours consumptive use
(wheat) P (mm)

(I) (2) (3) (4) 25.4 (2)(3) (4)/100)

January 49.1 1.05 7.40 96.9
February 5 1.4 0.65 7.02 59.5
- March
April
Mayppp
June
Jul
y -
---
August
September
October
November 56.3 0.55 7.27 57.18
December 49.6 1.10 7.27 100.7

Operational water req~irements~for

paddy crops
Paddy cultivation in the hills requires water for land preparation, initial flooding of fields, and for
percolation losses when the fields are flooded. During land preparation the plough layer must be
saturated and the soil puddled The amount of water needed for this operation depends on the soil
type and the initial moisture content of the soil For spring paddy, 150 mm of water is suggested while
for main paddy 110 mm is considered adequate. If follow paddy is grown after spring paddy the soil is
already in a good state of preparation and not completely dried out. Therefore the water requirement
for land preparation can be reduced to 55 mm. For all paddy crops an initial amount of 100 mm of
water is required for initial flooding after land preparation. Percolation losses in the paddy fields is
usually assumed to be 3 to 5 mm per day. However, these values apply to ideal soils having a heavy
clay conient. Soils in the hills of Nepal, are somewhat coarse textured and percolation losses of these
soils can increase upto 10 - 20 mm.day. Considering that each 5 mm of water lost per day is
equivalent to about 0.6 Vsiha it is obvious that perc.olation losses are ari important part in the total
field water requirement for paddy, It is therefore recommended that;infltration values (percolation)

- --
RHmax = 90% RHmax = 95%
suggested values can be used: ei\
are actually measure in the field. I f no infiltration measurements ar available.the following average
\
~ ..--.-. .....---..-.-.-.....-.----..-.......
5 6 7 0 8 5 9 6
-----.------.---..----...--....-....
7
------.---
1
-.
---
6
-.-
- .-
9 10 Rs U24
.- - - - . . - - - . - - - . Table 7.6 Average percolation for different soils (mmlday) \,
1.03 1.05 1.07 1.08 1.10 1.10 1.03 1.05 1.07 1.08 1.10 1.10 30
1.32 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.10 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.10 60
1.00 1.02 1.05 1.07 1.10 1.11 1.00 1.02 1.05 1.07 1.10 1.11 90 Soil type Perco&tion rate
0.99 1.01 \
1.04 1.07 1.10 1.11 0.99 1.01 1.04 1.07 1;10 1.11 120
0.97 1.00 1.03 1.07 1.10 1.11 0.97 1.00 1.03 1.07 1.10 1.11 150
0.96
0.24
0.99
0.98
1.02
1.02
1.06 1.:O 1. 1 1 0.96 0.99 1.02 1.06 1.10 1.11 180 Clay and clay-loams 3
1.06 1.10 1.11 0.94 0.98 1.02 1.06 1.10 1.11 210
0.93 0.97 1.01 1.05 1.09 1.10 0.93 0.97 1.01 1.05 1.09 1.10 240 Loams, silt-loams, or very fine sandy- oams 10
0 42
0.91
0.90
0.96
0.95
0.94
1.00
0.99
0.98
1.64
1.03
1.02
1.08
1.07
1.07
1 . 10
1.09
1.09
0.92
0.91
3.90
0.96
0.95
0.94
1.00
0.99
o.ga
1.04
1.03
1.02
1.08
1.07
1.07
1.10
1.09
1.09
270
300
330
I Sandy-loams 16
o.eg 0.93 0.97 1.01 1.06 1.08 0.89 3.93 0.97 1.91 1.06 1.08 360
Note: soil.^ coarser than son&- lourns ore not recommended,fbr paddj) culrzvofion.
.- - - - .. - -
..---- ~~
--- - - - -. - . - - .- - - - - - - - -
- - - - - -- - - - - -
-..
Operational water requirementsfor upland crops Monthly rainfall data (mm)
Table 7.7:
Upland crops generally do not have specific operational water requirements. However, if the soil is
very dry and hard during land preparation a light watering may be applied to facilitate ploughing and I
harrowing. The first irrigation of crops planted during the dry winter period is usually scheduled either
immediately before or after planting to bring the soil to the field capacity for germination. However,
the amount added is part of the calculated water requirement and no extra water is needed.

Rainfall and its contribution tofield water requirement

For maximum effectiveness the tieid water requirement must be fully met by rainfall or rainfall and
irrigation. An estimate of the water supplied by the rainfall is therefore needed to estimate the net
irrigation requirement, the amount of water that has to be supplied to the field by irrigation. In Nepal,
rainfall is highly variable. Therefore its distribution and reliability must be analyzed to reduce the risk
of crop failure. Irrigation water requiremcnts are generally calculated based on 80% reliable rainfall.
This is the minimum amount of rainfall that can be expected to occur in 4 out of 5 years.
Consequently the rainfall must be expected to be less than that amount in 1 out of 5 years, and lack of
sufficient water may result in possible low yields. This risk is considered acceptable, and reducing it
further would mean higher canal capacities and higher construction costs, if water is not limited, or a
reduced irrigated area and reduced benefits, if water is limited. The 80% reliable rainfall is calculated
using historical data recorded over a long observation period. The most common way to access the
monthly reliable rainfall is to transform the data into consecutive series of cumulative rainfall
beginning with the driest month of the year. Based on the monthly means, the cumulative rainfall
totals for the driest month, the two consecutive driest months, the three consecutive driest months and
so on are tabulated for each year record. For each period the 80% reliable rainfall is calculated using
the expression :

P,,, = P,,,, - 0.8416xStd.Dev. P-eff = f x P(80%): the value off, varies with the rainfall intensity as shown below
\\--.-
_
- - ___,/- __-- for paddy crops :
Where, Pgo% is the 80 percent probable rainfall, Pmean, mean rainfall, and Std Dev., standard f=O if P(80%) < 5 mm
deviation of the series. Monthly values are calculated by subtracting the two corresponding f = 0.85 if 5mm < P(80%) < lOOrnrn
consecutive periods. A typical analysis is given in Tables 7.7 and 7.8. f = 0.70 if 100 mm < P(80%)
for upland crops :
'
Table 7.9 (at the end of the chapter) gives 80% reliable rainfall (homogeneous series) for several f = 0.70 for any amount of P(80%)
meteorological stations in Nepal.
Calculation of half-monthly values

Efective rainfall
The effective rainfall, P-eff, is that portion of the reliable rainfall that contributes to meeting the water
requirement of a crop. Rainfall of high intensity or large amounts produce runoff which is lost for the
crop. Similarly, rainfall on a already saturated soil is considered ineffective since it is lost through deep
percolation. Small amounts of rainfall which only wet the plant canopy are sometimes considered
ineffective, however they may contribute to the satisfaction of the evaporative demand For planning
purposes P-eff is usually taken as a fraction of the reliable rainfall and different coefficients, f, apply
for flooded fields of paddy crops or dry fields of upland crops.
1
Imgation planning is generally done on a half-monthly basis and if ha1 monthly climatic records are
not available, half-monthly rainfall and ETo values must be determ ned from monthly data. For
practical reasons it is suggested to use linear interpolation, although p riodic fluctuations of climatic
parameters are rather in the shape of smooth curves than straight lines.
To calculate the values for the second half of month A (a2) and the fir half of the following month B
(bl) from the respective monthly values a and b, the following equation are used:
a2=(3a+b)/4 \,
bl=(3b+a)/4
These formulas apply directly in the case of the evapotranspiration if the daily rate (mmJday) is used
as the basic data. The results are then multiplied with the number of days in the half - monthly period
to calculate the total of the period. If monthly totals are used as the input data such as for rainfall, the
results have to be divided by 2 to account for the fact that the length of the new period is only half of
the initial one. As an example, half monthly values of the ETo and the 80% reliable rainfall for a
rainfall station are given in Table 7.10.
 Table 7.8: Analysis on monthly data Irrigation efficiency
Months l L 1-2 12-2 11-2 11-3 11-4 10-4 10-5 9-5 9-6 8-6 8-7 m e r determining the net field irrigation water requirements, an estimate of the expected irrigation
Year is needed to determine the gross irrigation water requirement, that is the amount of water
needed at the diversion intake No irrigation system is capable of conveying water without losses in
the form of seepage, spillage and evaporation:For small irrigation schemes, evaporation losses are
generally ignored. Field application is also not perfectly uniform because of uneven soil surface and
again, percolation and spillage losses. To estimate the overall irrigation efficiency of a system all
components that affect it must be considered such as field application losses, E-field, on-farm
distribution channel losses, E-farm, and the main canal losses, E-main. Field application efficiency
must be estimated differently for paddy crops and upland crops. For paddy crops percolation losses
are already accounted for as operatiorial losses and only minor spillage must be considered. An
application efficiency of 90% is thus suggested. For upland crops, percolation losses are also part of
E-field and 75% are suggested for properly managed basin irrigation systems on fine textured soils.
This value should be reduced to 70% or 65% on medium or coarse soils respectively. Negligent water
management also justifies a reduction of the field application efficiency. Seepage in canals depends on
the wetted perimeter, the canal length and the permeability of the canal bed. On-farm distribution
channels have typically a rather low flow and thus a unfavorable hydraulic radius, that is a large
wetted perimeter in relation to the flow and the cross sectional area. Losses are proportionally high
and for design purposes an on-farm distribution channel efficiency of 75% should be used. Main
canals of small irrigation schemes vary considerably in length as well as in size and efficiencies will
vary accordingly. The estimated losses due to seepage depend on the wetted area of the canal and the
velocity of flow. Assuming an ideal semi-circular cross section and an average loss of 0.8 miday over
the wetted perimeter of the canal, the losses can vary from a minimum of 4% (for a canal carrying 400
Ips) to a maximum of 33% (for a canal carrying 10 ips). Although this seepage rate may seem rather
high, soils in the hills are known to be permeable and cross sections sometimes far from ideal. In
addition, losses in the form of spillage also had to be accounted for The pursuance of high operating
efficiencies can lead to complicated irrigation schedules and expensive control structures. These
require sophisticated regulation and measurement of water, which often leads to faulty operation,
1~ o n t h l vResult I eventually resulting in low efficiencies. A more practical statergy might be to concentrate on the
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec provision of a more reliable and dependable flow in the system which would allow a equitable division
P(80%) 1 13 16 54 86 of water between the farmers.
167 322 225 141 22 1
.,-
7
-
A Estimation of irrigation water requlrernents
Table 7.10: Monthly and half monthly values of Evapot and 80% Reliable Because of the topographical and climatological variability of Nepal, irrigation water requirements
Rainfall " J
are also highly variable. Whenever representatlve climatological data required for the Penman method
Reference Crop Evapotra~~spiration
(nzm/day) are available, irrigation water requirements oan be calculated ined above. Model calculations
I Month 1 1 I
Jar? Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul 1 1 Aug 1 1 1 I Sep / Oct I Nov I Dec 1 are provided in Tables 7.1 la, b and c Two cropping considered, monsoon winter
paddy - late paddy - early
cropping (main paddy - main wheat) and year round
wheat). Water requirements of maize are given as an where water is limited.
Mean 1.9 2.8 3.9 4.8 5.2 4.4 4.2 4.3 3.5 3.1 2.4 1.8
Main canal efficiency is assumed to be 80% and 75%. Field application
lsthalf 1.9 2.6 3.6 4.6 5.1 4.6 4.3 4.3 3.7 3.2 2.6 2.0
efficiency of paddy is taken constant 90%, for wheat E-field are used, 75%,
2ndhalf 2.1 3.1 4.1 4.9 5.0 4.4 4.2 4.1 3.4 2.9 2.3 1.8
70% and 65%. Similarly, percolation losses of paddy vary betureen 3, 10 and 16 m d d a y . Depth of
80% Reliable Rainfall (mm) gross irrigation requirement (mm) is converted into flow rate (Ilslha) assuming 24 hour water delivery
1 Month 1 Jan 1 Feb Mar I 1 Apr I May 1 Jun 1 Jul I Aug 1 Sep I Oct I Nov 1 Dec 1 which is the usual practice in small farmer managed systems. Calculated monthly diversion
requirements must be compared with the expected flow of the water source during the same period to
Mean 1 determine the area of the crop that can effectively be irrigated. The maximum gross irrigation
13 16 54 86 167 322 225 141 22 2 7 requirements needed at the headwork are compiled in Table 7 1 2 For main paddy the value varies
1st half 1 5 8 22 39 73 142 125 81 26 4 3 from 1.14 lislha on fine textured soils with only 3 m d d q y percolation loss to 3.76 lislha if the crop is
2nd half 2 7 13 31 53 103 149 102 56 9 2 3
grown on a coarse soil-with losses of 16 mmlday. Similarly, the maximum gross irrigation requirement Table 7.9: Mean and 80% reliable rainfall of meteorological stations in Nepal
of main wheat increases from 0.67 Vslha if the water application eficiency is 75% to 0.77 Ilslha if E-
field is only 65%.

Early paddy has the highest maximum diversion requirements of all crops between 2. 18 and 4.96
Ilslha and if replaced with maize which requires only between 0.95 and 1 . 1 l/s/ha, the irrigated area
could be doubled on even quadrupled depending on soil conditions.

Table 7.12: Effect of system losses and efficiencies on maximum gross irrigation requirement
(Ilslha)

1. I Percolation loss (mm/doy) 3 I0 1.6 1

Main paddy 1.14 2.48 3.76
Early paddy 2.18 3.68 4.96
Late paddy 1.14 2.64 3.96

2. I Field application efficierzcy 1 75%

-

1 70%
-

r
-

65%
-

1 - m m * = " ? y " "

N N N N

Main wheat 0.67 0.72 0.77

Early wheat 0.55 0.59 0.77
Maize 0.95 1.02 1.10

Sumrnaty
The values given in Table 7.12, show clearly the effect of system losses in canals and field of irrigation
schemes on the irrigation water requirement. The accuracy of the estimate, however, is no better than
the accuracy of the least reliable component used in the procedure and most likely this will be the
eficiency factors. Measurements of percolation losses in paddy fields or canals would greatly improve
the reliability of the estimates but unfortunately they are not very popular. To start with a precise
estimate of the reference crop evapotranspiration is of course important but the complexity of the
Penman formulae does not guarantee the reliability and accuracy of the irrigation water requirement if
+
the estimated efficiencies are accurate only to 10%.
Suggested efficiency values given in any publication, therefore, must be considered as guidelines only
to indicate an approximate range. Actual values for specific project depend on the actual conditions
such as soil texture and permeability, type, length and size of the canals, size and shape of the Q m m Q n
N N N - N
0
I

irrigation basins and the organization and skills of the water users and irrigators. For a reliable and N n C O r
. . . . . ,
".om.-,-
8
I

N N N N N I

meaninghl estimate of irrigation water requirements it is imperative to spend some time in the field to m m m m m

Y 1 0 0 0 m
I

I
N m n n u I m * O " , O N C O ~ ~
assess all possible factors affecting water management efficiencies. o m
N
.
n N * D * I
. N oN m
. . .
N 0
N 1I
, O
N m
N m
.
m m h Q * O - - O
. . . .
~ "N 9 Nm N
. .
0 9
N mN N
.
* 1 0 - - n
& ; i d ;
N N N N N
l
l

N o n Y I C I

-
* r . N N *
- N m h r
N - ,
l
l

L I
C L . 6 ,
O C 3 * N I
C , * C
0 . 1 - r m ,
N U r , 8
ID*-PC I
- m c s
C L = , - X I
a 0.073- 1

m _ l m c V I 0

8 O N O Q Q O V l l P O N - m m - I
0 0 0 0 0 - 1
0
N 0
N 0N 0N 0N 0N -N - N * n * * n * a
 ................................................... ................................................................
I n d e x S t a t Lon Namc Elc- I . a t i - 1.ongi- U i n . Jan Feb Mar Apr Hay Jun Jtrl Aug St<y Oct Nrrv Der. T o t a l Jar, Frh Mar Apr flay Jun Jul Aug S E ~Or1 Nuv Dcc T o t a l
No. vation tude r u d e Yrs a €
(nasi) I (') Recrrrd (lt1m) ( m s l (rt~s) (mm) inrnn) (mm) (mn) (nm) lmm) lmm) (mi") (mnl) (mm)
~ - - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ - ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ - . - - . ~ . ~ - . - ~ ~ - . - ~ ~ - ~ - ~ - - - - - - - - - - -
600 DHAULAGIRI Zone
601 Jomson 2744 28. 78 83.72 21
604 Thakmarpha 2566 28.75 83.70 15
605 Rsgltrng 984 20.27 83.60 16
606 Tatopanl 12113 28.48 83.65 15
609 Renl tlazar 835 28.35 83.57 27
614 Kuahma 891 28.22 83.70 17
...................................................
700 I,IRIBINI Zone
702 Tansen 1067 27.87 83.55 23
703 B u t w a l 205 27.42 83.47 21
704 Beluwa ( G l r u a r i ) 150 27.68 84.05 29
706 Dumkaull 154 27.41 84.22 14
707 B h a l r h a u s 120 27.53 83.47 14
715 K h a n r h i h o t 1760 27.93 83.15 16
716 Tsul l h a u a 94 27.55 83.07 14
722 l i u s l k o t 1280 28.17 83.27 28
728 Semarl 154 27.53 83.75 5
...................................................
800 GANDAKI Zone
802 Khudl Bazar 823 28.28 84.37 21
804 Pokhara A l r p o r t 827 28.22 84.00 20
809 Corkha 1097 28.00 84.62 25
810 Chapkor 460 27.88 83.82 28
811 Halepatan 856 28.22 83.95 12
816 Lumle 1642 28.30 83.80 16
815 K h s l r l n i Tar 500 28.02 84.10 12
816 Chsme 2680 28.55 84.23 10
817 Damaull 358 27.97 84.28 8

900 NARAYANI Zone

902 Rnmpur
903 Jhavanl
904 Chlsapanl Gadhi
905 Daman
906 Hetaude H . F . I .
909 Slmarr A l r p o r t
911 Parwanlpur
912 Ram011 B a i r l y a
915 U a r k h u Caun
918 H l r g a n J
919 Uakuanpur Gadhi
921 K s l a i y a
.......................

...............................................................
80% RELIABLE RAINRALL
Olomogeneous serlea)
................................................................
Lndex S t a t l o n time Ele- L a t l - L.ongi- Uln Jan Feb Uar Apr flay Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nuv Dec T o t a l Jan Feb Uar Apr nay Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec T o t a l
No. vstlon rude tude Yrb of
(mas0 ! (') Record I n n ) Im) Imm) (mm) (mm)
(mm) (mm) lmm) (mm) (nm) (mm) ( m ) ( m m )
......................... ................................................................
1000 BAGIUTI Zone
1004 Nuwakot 1003 27.92 85.17 26
1005 Dhadlng 1420 27.87 84.93 29
1006 Gumthsng ZOO0 27.87 85.87 15
1007 Kakanl 2004 27.80 85.25 14
1008 Naualpur 1592 27.80 85.62 16
1009 Chautara 1660 27.78 85. 72 19
1016 Sacmathang 2625 27.95 85.60 14
1017 Dubachaur 1550 27.87 85.57 I5
1018 B a u n e p a t l 845 27.78 81.57 15
1020 Uandan 1365 27.70 85.65 12
1022 Godavari 1400 27.58 85.40 16
1023 D o l a l Ghat 71U 27.63 85.72 16
1024 Dhul l k h e l 1552 27.62 85.55 37
1025 Dhap 1240 27.92 85.63 10
1027 Bahrablre 1220 27.78 85.90 16
1028 Pachuvar Chat 633 27.57 85.75 16
1029 K h u m a l t a r 1350 27.67 85.33 16
1030 Kathmandu A i r p o r t 1336 27.70 85.37 46
1036 Pnnchkhal 865 27.68 85.63 12
1049 Khopasl ( P a n a u t l ) 1517 27.58 65.52 14
1054 Thamachtk 1847 28.02 85.32 12
1058 T n r k c Ghyang 2480 28.00 85.55 8
1060 Chapa Gaun 1448 27.60 85.33 10
1061 Lubhu 1341 27.65 85.38 10
1062 Sangachak 1327 27.70 85.72 6
1063 Thokarpa 1750 27.70 85.78 4
...................................................
1100 JANAKPUR Zone
1102 Charl h o t 1940 27.67 86.05 27
1103 Jirl 2003 27.63 86.23 13
1104 neiung 1536 27.52 86.05 7
1106 Ramechhap 1395 27.32 86.08 17
1107 S l n d h u l l Cadhi 1463 27.28 85.97 31
1109 P a t t h e r k o t ( E a s t ) 275 27.08 85.67 31
I l l 0 Tulsl 457 27.03 85.92 31
11 14 H a r d l n a t h 93 26.80 85.98 13
..................................................
 .-
80% RE1.IABL.E RAINHALI.
(homogeneous serles)
. -... . - - - . - ..-..-.---..-.-.---
_.__._..__.__._..__-.--------.------.----.
- _.... ......... ______ . . - - - - - - . - - - - .....- - - .
_ Jan Feb Uar Apr nay Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total
.Ian Feb Uar Apr Hay Jun Jol lug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total
Index Statlon Name Elc- Latl- Longl- Uln.
No. vation tude tude Yrs 01
(masl) ( ) (') Record
.__________________-...----.-.----.----------------

1200 S A C A ~ T I UZone
1202 Chaurlkhsrk 2619 27.70 86.72 36
1206 Okhaldhunga 1720 27.32 86.50 23
1211 Khotang Barar 1295 27.03 86.08 27
1213 Udalpur Cadhl 1175 26.93 86.52 33
1215 Lahan 138 26.37 86.50 16
1216 Slraha 102 26.65 86.22 38
1220 Chlalsa 2770 27.52 86.62 16
1223 Rajblra) 91 26.55 86.75 14
._..____._.___.__.......~.---....--.------.--------

1300 KOSl Zone

1303 Chalnpur (East) 1329 27.28 87.33 39
1304 Pakhrlbaa 1677 27.05 87.17 11
1307 Dhanh~tta 1160 26.98 87.35 36
1311 Dharan Bazar 444 26.49 87.17 35
1313 Blratnagar 67 26.47 87.28 32
1314 Terhathw 1633 27.13 87.55 15
1319 Blratnagar Airport 72 26.48 87.27 15
1320 Tarahsra 200 26.70 87.27 16
1324 Bhojpur 1595 27.18 87.03 24
______.^___________---------.-.--------------------

1400 UECHI Zone

1405 Taplejung 1732 27.35 87.67 34
1406 Uemeng Jagat 1829 27.20 87.93 33
1407 Illam Tea Estate 1300 26.92 87.90 29
1408 Damak 163 26.72 87.67 23
1421 Calda (Kankai) 143 26.50 87.90 2

Monsoon/Wl n t e r C r o p p i n g : Main Wheat Land P r e p .

M a i n Paddy Main Wheat
----._-_---
..._.._-..._____.__..---.----.--.--.
---_--------
************====;============Z===================~========== .----------------
Month Jan Jan Feb Feb Mar Mar Apr Apr May a~ Jun Jun Jul Jul Aug Aug Sep Sep Oct Oct NOV N O ~ oec oec
Period 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 . 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Days 15.5 15.5 14.0 14.0 15.5 15.5 15.0 15.0 15.5 15.5 15.0 15.0 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.0 15.0 15.5 15.5 15.0 15.0 15.5 15.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

€To ( m / d )
ETo (mn)
80% R a i n (mn)

Crop C o e f f i c i e n t kc
ETcrop (mn)
Land P r e p . ( m )
P e r c o l . (mn)
F i e l d . R e q . (mn)
e f f . R a i n (mn)
I - n e t (mn)

Year Round Cropping: E a r l y Wheat Land.Prep. E a r l y Paddy L.P. L a t e Paddy E a r l y Wheat

--------.--
. - - - - - - - - - - . ************=====:=====-=-=-I================ * * * * * * : = r ~ = ; : = = = = = = z I = = = ~ = ~ ~ = = : = = = = = = = =-
=-= =- - - - . _ _ _ _ - - _ - _ -
Month Jan Jan Feb Feb Mar Mar Apr Apr Hay May Jun Jun Jul Jul Aug Aug Sep Sep Oct Oct Nov Nov Oec Dec
Period 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Days 15.5 15.5 14.0 14.0 15.5 15.5 15.0 15.0 15.5 15.5 15.0 15.0 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.5 15.0' 15.0 15.5 15.5 15.0 15.0 15.4 15.4
~ ~ . . ~ ~- - . -

ETo (rm/d) 1.9 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 4.1 4.6 4.9 5.1 5.0 4.6 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.3 4.1 3.7 3.4 3.2 2.9 2.6 2.3 2.0 1.8
ETo (mn) 29.5 32.6 36.4 43.4 55.8 63.6 69.0 73.5 79.1 77.5 69.0 66.0 66.7 65.1 66.7 63.6 55.5 51.0 49.6 45.0 39.0 34.5 31.0 27.9
80% R a i n (mn) 1.0 2.0 5.0 7.0 8.0 13.0 22.0 31.0 39.0 53.0 73.0 103.0 142.0 149.0 125.0 102.0 81.0 56.0 26.0 9.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 3.0
Crop C o e f f i c i e n t kc
ETcrop (mn)
L a M Prep. (mn)
P e r c o l . (mn)
F i e l d . R e q . (mn)
e f f . R a i n (mn)
I - n e t (nnn)

F-field
iarm
€-main
 Table 7.1 l(c): Irrigation water requirement: Percolation losses 16 mmlday, field efficiency
Table 7.11(b): Irrigation water requirement: Percolation losses10 mmlday, field efficiency
upland crop 65%
upland crop 70%
,
19
u - m , m m o
zz
m O .
- - N
m ~
. .
r
gB$
- r-r-m
mgi
I
,
,
u N m
a , L
8 m m o
O
.
N
,
-
a -
N
D
.
- - o
N D
O
.
F C 9 -
"2;
C O ''
I
, w
$ 0 L O ,
-
.
I
j m m , ~ m n
' - 0 .
-(P-(?
N
. m
- N
m - N
. .
m ~ r -
N N
. X H X
m m o
( D C - ~
C N

m
.

(Do:
- I
. I
t ~ u w m > m m oy
I D ' 3 " '
m I d r - m - N
- I N -
- - o
. .
N N O
n m
. x x x
m m o
m h m
m - ,

c 0
ul

(wD O
. ,1 - I
N N
U I
4 , N
+ , I L , - ~ 1 0 0 0 o w . . .
- - L O gsg '9;;
I

; ;; $-?: ? ? ? 2" ?.- 62s 4 % : U I u - m t o o o m m m. - m . . x xo xo

m N. m
m ,
U
m ,I u - m l ~m N ~ ~N - - X x X ::d i I & n
i & ZN N N O r-r-m C
N O i
I K n 2 i 'u-m . O O N ? mr-m m I I 4 &
m
N N O
m n
a h a m
L ' I m D O 1 3 1 8 I? O N N V O I K l 4 1 - 0 ;

C I
, ,
U O '
:
w. N- . . .
o .
,
i

I
C 8
r
m m
> > N o ; qm.0
o
449 ssg
-
9: 1
. I
-r,
I
I
>
LO
N
I I A <D&
O m *
'94
qqo $55 q 2 ,
,
0 m m . 4 4 x x x - n ' ,, Ln_ I
t n O N
N - -
N N
P C ~
m 0
I I I 1 z m I N V N
m
. m
0 -
n - N
4 -
m - m
r?O 1 rn A O N
N - -
N N
mr-m m .
m o
N O m 1 W I

,
8 W

:; p> j6-?;??~. g"

=/ - . -.
ggg > - 0 x
m x
m xo
r O
I NO);
1 ~O
V
W~ ~ a. m. ? y z ; 0 . (' ( D O 0
"
a. " " mNm 'I
> - 0 1 (Do0 d Z. Y ' h ~r - m ~ D ir. '
o L L O , ~ m w I z m I N ~ V. m ~ N m
N c m N . '
2 & m& d - , m m - I * ) 0 - (10 1

, gzg ?$I;
,I
,
II U N m, '9 9 9 ,"? m " ". . . gsg 9:;;
,I
, I
uU N
. ~ ~: q q
m m.
m m. c. - . x m
o x u0 o' o
V ,I 1
~ ,
{loNmlm o o
/I: & I &LO&
m
m a.
. N
m. r -. - .
~ r - mm r - m
ggg 9::
m
ID 0. I I1
I
,,*'urn
11: ,I 8 m o o
& A &
u
o m
m &
0
w y y
~ r - m mr-m
u "7
m 0. I 1(8
0
1
I,
1 0 ~ j ~ z. N m
o w
~
V
c
"7
mr-m m
m 0
.II
I1
I1
II
IIO
I
I
LO
-
I
1
N
-
L O ~
OW
. N ~ r - mmr-m
o m
m - 1 1
10 0 18
,I
I,I
1 I1
,6
I,
I1
" I W o w e m
I I o - 4 m I N m O
i i u . r . . . m
- 4
.
1 1 9 gfi& "?%;I ,,U"rn
I I U ' I
I N m O
. . . m - 1 7 0 22:: "Lo"
.0 11
llU4mI m - -10 x x x mm1t w 0 II
I I O
0
m ~ m m m .r-
- I O N OW
c a m
U N N
m c m w
V 0 I1
A I D
11
m t n m m
- 8 W N
?h.
OW
r
W
-
N
~
N
mmr-m m . ( I
w 0 11
,I A&; 9; g:8 ;u* 1 10 I1
U N 0 - U N N
11
11 !!
,,
11 d l W N 0 9 O W N $1
I,
I/

. . . . gsg 4;;;
11,I
-" 0 0 2
0 .
a w q ; q o o
w
~9 0 ~ 9 ~ :g s g 4;;; m I ~ 4. m ~ 0 m m 9 m r - m u N' 1,,I1
0
!!
!!
urn ~n_;m:s ;z g z z ;
N
m r - m - g & !I;I
4 ' " 0 - 0
N "7 '1
I,
a - o l r - m o m m o n - w
, ' I wa - q l y y o , 27 o-+yy x x x w m ; ;
4
>I1
11
w . . ' . . 0 . . . .
. X X H
o m 0 > ll
~ LO-
0 u
/I
8 6g .-
-
a-q o m r - w
. . . . L memo- . m o m o - mr-m o ~ m o - m u m - m . , I
I, ,
l
. . .
r - 0 0 ~ I I ~
o m - m e m m u
r-
e m
.II
11 n 11 o m - w u o m u m O II
n
Z I8
l l
w
m m 8 - L O -
o m
8832 m c m n
m
n
n
11
,I
4 ,
N N N * !I m ,I
I
N m N w I,
/I
U
a
m II
- 1 ..N
6%:: u,2\1 I1 O l N O l
C I I J . I
- l o o
. . . 2 0 O O U W gsg gsg 7:;;
11 m ~ m- ( D O 0 o t w gsg mr-m V m m - w mr-m

-
l ' 1 1 - 1 1 4 ~ I W D N . O
m c m N Il m,, m o u - c u
. 5 : ; 2 LO; ODN m m - m
ONr-"? II 7 11
- . I
+
4 -
N O N U 11 J I1 4
!!
m d
o
m , l
II1
- 8
7.N

x x x gsg ?m z i :
. . .
-
o u m q

,
II m-LO I " , - 0 o m 0 m r - m N I1

;)2m l O l d *- mmr-o
m ~ m w
mr-m
I!
I,
I1
IIFNO1 ,
4 , (DN

. . .
A N

x x x
r
M - N q : N Y o -;;gg~;;
o m . 0 .0 '. D. m. m. gsg 7%:;
I
11 - N
3
O
. I
I N ' O
. . . gW,O,OW,q? gsg ?, II
~
1 1I 3 - N .L 'O .~ "N ' O O W ? ? ? ? ? g gg 4 7 ~ ;
11:I ( 4 ,
N - O

m u
-
, m . o .o ( ~. ? m .
. - o m m w N
d C O r o r - O r -
g:8 -
&711
N 11
II
11 J
z ; u g $ 4
- N C C
mr-m 2
m
~ ;; ;
I
1 1 7
I
I1
0 I
" I
* m a
D U
4
. ~
+ F m C ' W O m
N O A N
O ~ ~ m
U r -Lm O 0
4 m. 11
0,

I1 11
I
I,
LD I u l n m
4
. - o m m u m mr-m
, 02 4 , - m w m o ( D
N m - N
-. . II II
m n
u I,
r(N.4.-
q q q ggg 7s: , . . . . . . . . t* -3 - ~ ' , m. c. .o goo Uqo 66:: 7%:
-
* - - m l m ~ o o q o . I 4 . . o m 0
. ,11I m o. **
I8
,,
J
- , m u
. m o m m m m
. . , - m m-CN
o>h - m a CI N
m
' 1 I1
1
I,
i. * :
J *
I:;&
I m u
- 4 ., m
- mm m rmn m
N
d
N mr-m m o- tI !
1

,
II
3 7 m
- I
~
(DU
u
4
w. m ~o m . - m ~
- r - t n + c m r -
N m N
m m m
0 m
I,
a + 7
J. **
m c e m ~ . m m
d l 0 - - P O
m o m
W O N
4
m m m

*I /
4
I, C N O I U O O
. . , . t* ,C N O l P O O
. . . . + . .
0 - 0 w + *
. . .
g
-
r--0
g I I J . I . . .
" F
r n ' . 9%; y : ~ a m . N O m ~ m .* 9 - m . N mr-m
m rs- m
g ,-NO I N N O 0 . I ,
"99 ?:: I
(DZ N LO 1

&::
w *
L *
C N O
i I w g g
; ~ O O ,

6 - N . *
o _ o**
( 1 7

I
LO
. . I

\ ! c - c . ~ ( D o o
( o m m
( Dd
O
. N
o m

2 %
N N O
mr-

c'yy
mr-m

ggg
o 0. I I II
!
i
I
E 2
D *
'3
c t
C - 0 ;
J
7 m r u m m
90.0
"r-m

240
. o m
Nr-m

m " ?
o - m
0 0 1
4
+
11
I1

5 ;u
- I (DO

m m
4
o m

m .
. m
m -

m
. .
u
. g gg
mr-m
4::;
0 ,I
!I

w - *
1;: - 8
: ; &oor - o. m
m 0
a m - mr-m m
N 0. I I, )
I

,
I
2.
m * - 8 ( ~ r - -r-m nor-
4 *V + *
I
11
11
mr- o m (Dm-
I D . ,
N 0 88

4
J. o u o u - D gsg o. m. 0. I z IN ~
m. m
I q T q m e o u - n x x x m u : ,
g2g
-
o m 0 9, i i i o ; mr-m I 1 I m I m F m ? A A ? : ;
Z N W i o rP- O
O > I1 r-m - m u ~ m m u u r,
r m o m m m 4 1
N O N m
- N n It il

20. x
O L D* 0
O O N , ~ ~ . . .
4 - 0
a ~ ~. I m. . .
+ m
.,- m ~ m mm r - m
m w n o
- N N
m m m
r- m
- X I1
L I1
I I T
I,
m
- 1
I m m m
r-m 3 m
.r- m m n -
w m n o
Nu' *
mr-m m :
"- u
m
I,
II

;;
I

+ r .n o. o. m q l r
o %Sg m m o
. . . W
m.11 L N O
I I ~ . I
I m m o
. . . -o o
. o o q q y gtg 0 %

. O O O O ~ u m - m e m
P -
m I I Q
14
LO turn-
c o
. o o o o m e
~ m m u r - N U
mr-m m
0 0
. 11
18
- m m y ~ ~ z I1
- (
N O m (D 8
I
I/
E&-?;*?? "999471 gsg 9 9 1 ;
114 I U ~ N . m o o m m r - m r - m m . I
I, - 1 'ON " r - m u m - V u u #I
11 N m m m I

, .; u
L N r o I - m o
, g. z. . m m
w . . . .
m - m
Z Sg .* L a m 4 - m a
. , . . 090 9-9 g5'd 96:
-
.
( L N m I d m O
,
I m ,
4 , m -
i
m m
4.i
O N
m - 0
. . .
m a ?
N
g
r - rs- m
g ?
m $
. ,;
0 0 1
d g m m m
N
mr-m o .
roo
I
l

a
%:I
L *
y ; u m n
0 - -r-r-
. o m
-
m - o
u - m

499
mr-m

g6g
0
u-•
N

~ e :
,1 L - m, 8
??? $ 7 ". ". ". gzg . * ~
n * m
- m ~ m m s
. oo - .
-
8 -
i I m I mmrn . l o a m o mr-m m . I C ~ I m i n m m . - m w m m m r - m o . I
- 8 m o m 0 0 C O I m - I m - ( D r - D N u - .
2. * N .
J I
! D N ? ; - .U .O m m m m o 22% 7 % ; . . x xo xo - , N-
.
- -
u m m m . . . , n ~ q ; .- w. o u
o v. u m. o
, . u. , m m. r. - .
- -
o u U l W 1 0 m '
,
, u
D ~ O ; - U O
0 . . . ggg
r-r-m
?m % 1 ,
I
m I ~ i
u mmr- . m ( D U N m r - m N ., I L L I 00,.
w
.- C W N w r - m N - 1

, 0 -
P U N N O I I
I 3 )
I >
w - I -3 O D rC) D (DO I - I 0 - 0 0 1

i
3
C
I
1
,
,
~
w
- o
. # . # m
,
u q ~q . .
OU-m . x x x ~ N I
I
I
I
8 x
C
r
8
:
N
0 - 0
W
u " ,
I m u, 0
,

N",
20 o m 0
2. - . 4 .
X X X
o m 0
"r-m
eE;
n . '
m o 1
I
m
8
s
J

1
1 n - 9 1 m w n
l Q
I U
1
2 ~
. . .
~
,
s o
o m
m .
m
. N
0 0
my7
m ~
O
m
N
ssg
m
m r - m
- 8 ;
0
P O .
u D m o l

-"
m i - 8 m 3
I 3 I
c N m - c o
II
l
gfig 7 : ; I
. . . . m m m u -
. - X X L a m ! I C N " I - ( D O o m m o m
. . . $5:: 9 %
'r mC N ~ ~ ' D Oz y
, m. u. C. X X H O f t >
- ,
,
I
m
C N m
.
I
I
d m 0
. .
N N N
O m
0. N- . . .
N - - r-r-m u . I
, m
I 1
- 8
t N N N
D
6

- D
.C
.
C - w
D C
m r , o
w r - m N
. a !
. I
m 0 4
A
L ,
,
ZNZN . I . . .
iz
0 .
4-; a - m 0
m G
L 1 r ~ - m. m m - 0 , m I
m
W li
, c - o < m m o ~n_m m. r -. N. 2:::: ? % :
I
, m C - o
. , I m r . 0
. . . - . D.
o m m
. . r. X~ Y X
m m o
- 0
.a 1
r
W I
,
,
C - m I m y o
m . 2 m m ~ gy g g - $
. I .
m , - m c . n m o m m r - m .
A : - & A * I N
. n
- m
m o m r-r-m
I~
-o d m -
- O
n o n
o n
w r - m m .
m o
I
L
1 7
- . N - n o m
u,
m o

,
8 i T i l
C i
,
I
- 4
I 0 ,
1 2T 1i u m 4 u
- C I

-
Y I
;
; - .- 8
-E ,
u ; Ir a
z-
IJ
c - - l1 2

-E
m c l

,
I
L
011
,

-~ -
"
.- E-.
f---- E
E - 0
I
\
l
I ? ;
" g 2----
E
E
,. .-
-. r

ffl
l
8

-s ; ;
0 ,
8
; l 8
I
,
I

1
.-C I,
x 1
8
I D
c
r E 6s 6 - 7 -E -L ; 2: ; z,c5
,, D - - =' E " " PgE . - -
Suo - wk i n . - - v
S" "mf 'P -.&'t-5.
I \ I 8 1-
c i a m , o v
8

: l E 0
. I C
o u a u
O E C
8

" i 1s u . - m i : u - K 0 8za.U. a F E c
W L - r
vl
a m
8
,

i
i j 5 : 0 1 - - C Z
u - m .. L- -m a ? ? I C %
.?ma
L0 O ? E b . ? L L. : : LO?:
e:Eb-E=c :
D L L
C I C L A N o o x ~
m , Uc r Ln > O, D L 0
y?:
81 E 2 2 I L L g o w d a k e . . u w w --, > , 2 1 n o <u,wm u i u ~ a r w i - w i u ~

Chapter 8: Alternative method of irrigation suitable for hilly
areas
Sprinkler and trickle are two alternative methods of irrigation for hilly areas. Both sprinkler and drip
water to operate. In the hills
water obtained from s~rinas.
will need frequent cleaning if
clean water is not used. Conventional in-line plastic drippers are factory made and fitted inside the
plastic pipe at the required intervals and it is not possible to remove the dripper for cleaning without
cutting the pipe. Alternatively, replaceable in-line drippers (see Figure 8.7a) can be used to facilitate
cleaning of clogged drippers. High pressure water pumps, efficient filters to filter sediment and other
impurities and electricity required to operate the pumps and filters are usually not available in remote
villages. For this reason, drip irrigation systems should only be recommended on an experimental basis
in the hills. However in the case of sprinkler irrigation cleaning and reassembling distribution networks
is easier particularly when portable systems with flexible tubing, quick-connecting couplers and
sprinkler heads are used.
Sprinkler irrigation
-
Sprinkler is a versatile means of applying water to any crop (except field crops s u c h d d y ) , soil
and topographic condition.-- It. is particularly useful in areas where there is a shortage of water and the
slopes are steep and can erode with other methods of water application. Surface - ditches and prior
land preparation are not necessalyfo~sprinklerirrigation. Also the flexible pipes and fittings can be
C_/--I
transported to remote areas easily. Sprikling is suitable for sandy soils or any other soils and
topographical conditions where surface irrigation is inefficient or expensive or where erosion of soil
may be particularly hazardous. Low rates and amounts of water may be applied such as are required
for seed germination, frost protection, delay of fruit budding and cooling of crops in hot weather.
fertilizers and soil amending chemicals may be dissolved in the water and applied through the
irrigation system. The major disadvantage of sprinkler systems are high investment cost and high labor
requirement. However, sprinkling has several advantages .
* sprinkling provides protection to small plants from wind damage and soil from
blowing, when crops such i s onions carrots, lettuce and other small seed crops are
grown on dry organic soils the soil dries out quickly and the seed may be blown away
or covered too deeply for germination. When such plants are small they are also easily
damaged by wind blown soil particles. Protection for such conditions can be provided
with sprinkler systems that will apply low rates upto 2.5 m d h . Operation at night
when wind speeds are fiinimum will provide more uniform coverage
* sprinkling provides protection against freezing injury to crops Sprinkling is most
successful against radiation frost. Water must be applied continuously at 2.5 mm/h
until the plant is free from ice. Sprinkling should start before the temperature reaches
zero Celsius, at the plant level. Tomatoes, peppers, apples, cherries and citrus can be
successfully protected from freezing injury by sprinkling.
sprinkling during the day can reduce plant stress. Plants such as lettuce, green beans,
potato, small fruit, tomatoes, cucumbers etc, can undergo stress. Maximum stress in
these plants usually occurs at high temperature, at low humidity, with rapid air
movement, on bright cloudless days, and/or with rapidly growing crops on dry soils.
Under these conditions crops at a critical state of growth as during emergence,
flowering, or fruit enlargement may benefit greatly from low application of water
during mid day. This process is sometimes called "misting" or "air conditioning".
* sprinkling can control soil temperatures. During periods of high incoming radiation soil
temperatures can rise upto 20 0 C above the ambient air temperature. Seedling
emerging through soils with high temperatures frequently die due to high transpiration.
Small application of water at this critical period often assures emergence and good
stands.
Sprinkler systems
Three broad categories of sprinkler systems can be designed for undulating land. These are :
I
I Type Remarks 1
1. Permanent systems where .the distribution High cost: requires longer length of pipe (also
pipe work (mains and laterals) are fixed for laterals), more couplers and more sprinkler
(often buried). heads.
2. Semi-permanent systems where the main Lower cost: requires shorter length of pipes
distribution pipes are fixed but the lateral and fewer couplers and sprinkler heads (lateral
pipes are movable from place to place pipes and sprinkler heads will be moved from
place to place on a rotation basis).
3 . Portable systems where the entire network Uses quick connecting couplers, sprinkler
can be moved from place to place. heads and flexible tubing (HDP or Plastic
pipes). Size and shapes of the network can be
very easily adjusted to suit requirements.
A portable system (that uses flexible soft and hard polythene pipe) is the most appropriate of the
above three for hill conditions because :
* of low cost to the farmers,
* the flexible tubing, quick connecting couplers and sprinkler heads can be easily
transported to remote areas,
* in case of blockage (which can be very frequent in systems using spring water sources)
the flexible tubing, quick connecting couplers and sprinkler .heads can be easily
dismantled and refitted after cleaning,
* all movable components (the main pipe fiom the collection tank to the irrigated area
i
will usually be buried and anchored to thd ground to prevent theft) can be removed for
safety each day at the end of irrigation. (Hill farmers of Nepal live several hours walking
distance uphill of their cultivated land).
Typical components of a portable sprinkler system are shown in Figure 8 1. Not all components
shown in the figure will be required for simple farmer systems. The requirement of costly valves, and
other components such as adopters (enlargindreducing), reducers etc can be minimized by correct
choice of design and flexible pipes. The source of water for typical hill system will usually be spring.
The water from the spring will be collected in a collection chamber, where the sediment (if any) will
be allowed to settle, the water would then be filtered (using wire screen mesh) before entering the
supply main. Figure 8.2 shows examples of some quick connecting couplers.
f
%
Figure 8.1: Typical components of a portable sprinkler system: Not all components will be will percolate below the root zone and will be lost to the plant.
needed for small farmer's systems A typical sprinkler selection table is shown in Table 8. I , for a sprinkler made of heavy duty plastic.

Figure 8.2: Examples of quick connecting couplers

r

2-way
Alternate 7-wav
/ outlet

Main line reduclng outlet tee or valve

J
b Y
Reducing elbow Telescop~ngun~on(opt~anal)
on plpe on coupler
gasket
Main line coupler

Figure 8.3: A double nozzle sprinkler

Effect of sprinkler spacing and wind on

application rate
Since one sprinkler cannot apply water uniformly over the
area within its influence, sprinklers must overlap to
Main riser
produce uniform coverage. Figure 8.4 illustrated how
outlet valve overlapping pattern of sprinklers combine to give a
relatively uniform distribution between sprinklers.
However it must be noted that wind will skew the pattern
so as to give less uniform distribution. The effect of wind
is more pronounced in high pressure sprinklers because
these sprinklers produce smaller drops of water which can
Standard- type get deflected easily by wind.
(single or double nozzle)

Sprinklers
The most common form of a sprinkler is rotating sprinkler, consisting of one or two nozzles mounted
on a body which is rotated by the action of water striking a blade. Sprinklers are manufactured by Figure 8.4: Effect of sprinkler spacing on application rate
different manufacturers and are designed to operate at different pressures. The .low pressure sprinklers
operate between pressures of 1 to 4 atmospheres. The high pressure sprinklers operate at pressures
between 3 to 8 atmospheres. The high pressure sprinklers, obviously have a higher rate of water Location of sprinklers
Correct spacing
application and cover a wider circle. The lowtpressure sprinklers have low rate of water application 0.30 7.5
of sprinklers
and a small circle of coverage. Water application rates of sprinklers are influenced by : under specljic
*
*
the nozzle size of the sprinkler,
the pressure at the sprinkler head,
:
5 0.25
0.20
% 0.15
5.0
?
2 wind conditions
Spacing
-e-= is
* and the spacing of the sprinklers.
V)
2 0.10 2.5 2
L

determined by the
U
: 0.05.
diameter of . the
. 0
Based on an ideal spacing, modern sprinklers can apply water at rates ranging from 2.5 mm/h to 40 1 6 9 12
0
15 sprinkler's circular
mrnlh. However an important factor to consider in the selection of sprinklers is the rate of intake of Distance (m; spray coverage on
the soil. If the application rate is much higher than the intake rate water will run-off and be wasted. the ground and the
Also the rate of application of water must match the rate of water usage by the plant, else the water wind velocity. The effect of wind on the recommended sprinkler spacing is given below.
 Table 8.1: Performance table for a single nozzle sprinkler

Precipitation rate (mmfh): Spacing in meters no wind 65% of diameter

Square &
rectangular spacing 2 mlsec. 60% of diameter
3.5 d s e c . 50% of diameter
over 3.5 d s e c . 30% of diameter

Triangular or no wind 75% of diameter

staggered spacing 2 dsec. 70% of diameter
3.5 d s e c . 60% of diameter
over 3.5 d s e c 3 5% of diameter
4 - h ~ ~
~di&f'-3LI;j0
n

The approach to selecting a system

The first stage in the design of a sprinkler system is the assessment of the net crop consumptive use
values (in m d d ) . A suitable irrigation interval based on the soil moisture holding gapacity (and hence
the water available to the crop), the crop's rooting depth and the consumptive use of the crop is then
selected. . The available moisture for typical soils irl d m depth of soil is given in Table 8.2. It is
normally assumed that the plant can only extract half of this.

The Water available to the crop is now calculated by multiplying the extractable water by the rooting
depth, assuming the crop has reached maturity at the peak season. The irrigation interval is obtained
by dividing the water available to the crop (mm) by the peak consumptive use (mrnld). Having chosen
P Pressure in atm. Q Discharge in m3 / h. D diameter coverage in m.
Note: Shaded area not recommended for'irrigation as the application will not be uniform. the interval, the size of each application can be calculated by multiplying the interval by the
consumptive use and dividing by the application efficiency. Typical efficiencies vary from about 6 0 to
80%, depending on wind speed, evaporation losses, depth applied, etc. Typical values are given Table
8.4. In practice, 70% would be an appropriate value.
Table 8.2: Available water for typical soils application, and hence the number of "sets" (sprinkler positions) per day.

[ Soil Type Available Water (mm/m soil) I Extractable Water (mm/m soig 1 Table 8.5: Water intake rates for typical soils

Fine sand 30 - 50 15 - 25 [ Soil type I Intake rate (mm/h) I

Sandy loam 40 - 100 20 - 50
Silty loam 60 - 120 30 - 60 Clay 1-5
Clay loam 90 - 210 45 - 105 Clay loam 6-8
Clay 190 - 300 95 - 150 Silt loam 7 - 10
Source :Small Scale Irrigation, Stern, 1979. Sandy loam 8 - 12
Sand 10 - 25 2

Table 8.3: Typical rooting depth of crops (m) Sprinklers are selected using "performance tables" supplied by sprinkler manufacturers. A typical
sprinkler selection table is shown in Table 8.1. Each sprinkler manufacturer will have his own tables
Shallow I Medium Deep 1 which are broadly similar, but will differ due to different nozzle sizes, pressure ratings, etc.The table
gives a number of options to achieve a specified application rate ( m d h ) in terms of pressure, nozzle
Beans 0.5 - 0.7 Barley 1.O - 1.5 Alfalfa diameter, coverage diameter and sprinkler spacing. In terms of layout planning, the key variable is the
Broccoli 0.4 - 0.6 Carrots 0.5 - 1.0 Cotton sprinkler spacing.The choice of spacing and whether to adopt a rectangular, square or staggered grid
Cabbage 0.4 - 0.5 Clover 0.6 - 0.9 Deciduous will depend on the presence (or not) of a prevailing wind. If there is a prevailing wind, it is.common to
Cauliflower 0.3 - 0.6 Eggplant 0.9 - 1.2 orchards adopt a rectangular grid, with the shorter side in the direction of the wind. Most manufacturers of
Grass 0.4 - 0.6 Grains (small) 0.9-1.5 Maize equipment have adopted standard grid spacing which are multiples of 3 m, so that standard lengths of
pasture 0.3 - 0.5 Peas 0.6 - 1.0 Sorghum lateral pipe can be used. For gravity systems, the selection may be directed by the available head (after
Lettuce 0.3 - 0.6 Peppers ' 0.5 - 1.0 Sugarcane allowing for losses in the piped distribution system). In these cases, it may be necessary to adopt a
Onions 0.5 - 0.7 Sweet Potatoes 1.0 - 1.5 trial and error approach, to find a sprinkler which gives an application rate suitable to the soils and the
Potatoes 0.3 - 0.5 Tomatoes 0.7 - 1.5 crop requirements, but offers a suitable pressure to suit the head available. Once the spacing of the
Rice Spinach water melons 1.0 - 1.5 grid has been established, the layout of the system can be planned. The normal approach is to try to
burce :FA0 Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24, Crop Water Requirements, Table 39. keep the laterals in the direction of least gradient, so that the pressures do not vary too much, due to
changes in pipe elevation. pressures at the head of each lateral pipe can be controlled (to some extent)
by using valves on the distribution pipe. The outlet spacing on the distribution pipes and the sprinkler
Table 8.4: Sprinkler application efficiencies spacing on the laterals are clearly dependent on the grid chosen, but the length of the laterals (and
hence the spacing of the distribution pipes) is more difficult to decide. To ensure that the discharge of
I Climate Low 1 Moderate I each of the sprinklers is kept reasonably consistent (&lo%), it is usual to limit the pressure variation
along the lateral to 20% of the sprinkler operating pressure i.e. the friction loss down the lateral plus
Hot, dry 75% 60% any elevation difference between the first and last sprinklers should not exceed 20% of the operating
, Moderate 80% 70% pressure. Inevitably, there will be several combinations of pipe diameter and pipe length which can
Humid 85% 80% achieve this. The friction loss in the lateral depends on the number of sprinklers along the line and the
friction coefficient of the pipe. Typical friction losses for soft and hard polythene pipes are given in
Once the magnitude of the required application has been established, it is possible to select a sprinkler Figures 8.6a and b, although for design purposes data should be obtained from manufacturers. The
to achieve this application for a chosen pressure. High pressure sprinklers may not be appropriate in hll discharge at the head of the lateral is used to obtain the friction loss. This loss is then factored by a
remote hills in spite of the fact that high gravity pressures can be generated by tapping the source at a coefficient (C) which depends on the number of sprinklers on the line. Values of C are shown in Table
suitably high location above the level of the command area. This is because long lengths of main 8.6. A trial and error approach is thus needed to establish a suitable length of lateral. The flow at the
pipeline (high cost) will be required and the laterals will also need to be of larger diameter pipe to head of each lateral is equal to the number of sprinklers on the lateral multiplied by the flow through
reduce friction losses (high cost). Working pressures of upto 2 to 3 atmospheres is generally each sprinkler, which is given in the selection tables .
considered suitable for hilly areas to keep costs to a minimum. A hrther consideration is the rate at
which the soils can take up the water applied. Typical take-up rates for different soils are shown in The design of the distribution pipe work should also be such that the pressure variation between
Table 8.5. outlets is limited (although some control can be provided at the valves located at the head of each
lateral). This means that the length of distribution pipe may be limited. In practice, the maximum
If the water application rate is higher than the intake rate, water will run-off and application efficiency friction loss in the distribution pipe will vary according to how the laterals have been "set", and the
will be reduced. The soil intake rate will determine the number of hours needed to apply the calculated positiohs of the operating laterals at any given time. A rule of thumb is that the friction loss in the
 distribution main should not be more than 30% of the operating pressure, to limit discharge variations. I. Compute irrigation interval
In some circumstances it may be feasible to construct a "ring main" so that pressure is uniform Available water for silty loam = 60 - 120 d m e t e r soil (Table 8.2)
throughout the distribution network (although transient variations will, of course, occur). Extractable water for silty loam = 30 - 60 d m e t e r soil (Table 8.2), say 45 mdmeter.
Table 8.6: C-factors
Crop rooting depth = 0.5 to 1.OO m, say 0.75- m. (Table 8.3)
Water available to crop = 0.75 x 45 = 33 mm.
Imgation interval = (water available to crop) / (consumptive use) = 33 1 6 = 5.5 days, say 6 days. A
I NO. of outlets I C I NO. of outlets I C I NO. ofoutlets I C rotation system is shown in Figure (8.5) above, where only two laterals will irrigate each day. These
two laterals will be moved to the next location at the beginning of each day.
Application efficiency = 70% (Table 8.4)
Required application = ( Nr. days x consumptive use) / (application efficiency)
= ( 6 x 6 ) / 0 . 7 =51.4rnmevery6days
Assuming 10 hour imgation per day the rate of application = (51.4 / 10) = 5.14 mm/h, say 5.2 mmh.
2. Sprinkler selection
From sprinkler performance table (see below) select sprinkler to deliver 5.2 mm/h.
Since there is a prevailing wing along the direction of the lateral, the spacing along the lateral must be
reduced by 60Y0 of the eter. The spacing in the other direction is 65% of the diameter.
Therefore, spacin&$ong~ Ke a lera1 t= 11 x 0.6 = 6.6 m, say 6 m. and spacing of laterals = 1lrx 0.65 =
7.15 m. = 7 m. P
Discharge per sprinkler = 0.220 m3 / sec (see table below)
Design example of a simple farmer' s portable sprinkler system Working pressure = 2 atm. = 20.68 m.

Figbre 8.5: Layout of main, distribution an'd lateral lines for rotational water distribution I Nozzle size P Q D 6x5 6x6 6x7 6x8 6x8 I

> Main line

, Distribution line

/
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
day 6 day I
- - - - - - - - - - - - - P = Pressure (Atm.)
7m Q = Discharge per sprinkler (m3 i h)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -,- - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - Irrigated area D = Diameter of coverage (m)
day 5 7m day 2
- - _ _ - - - _ _ - - _ _ _ - _ _ - - _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - Note: Shaded area not recommendedfir ideal irrigation.
7m
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . --Lateral L1
day 4 7111, day 3 3. Design o f lateral (BC)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ L a t e r a L2
l
= Maximum allowable pressure variation in the lateral = 20% x 20.68 = 4.14 m.

\?,
' Lateral line (10 sprinklers per lateral)
For 10 sprinklers per lateral, the total discharge at the head of the lateral = 10 x 0.22 = 2.20 m3 / h.
Length of lateral = 60 m.
Crop: Chilly Correction factor, C, for 10 sprinklers = 0.402 (Table 8.6).
Peak consumptive use: 6 mdday Friction loss in 25 mm Dia low pressure soft polythene pipe = (18 x 60 x 0.402) /(loo) = 4.32 . m.
%

Soil type: silty loam (high) ( ~ i ~ u8.6a)

re
Wind: 6 km/h = 1.7 d s e c Therefore choosing the next largest diameter pipe, Friction loss in 32 mm Dia pipe
Area: 120 m x 40 m = (5.4 x 60 x 0.402) / (100) = 1.30 m. (less than 4.14 m. OK).
Supply line: 500 m Assuming valve loss of 0.5 m., the required pressure at the head of the lateral
Elevation of collection chamber above irrigated land: 40 m = 20.68 + 1.30 + 0.5
= 22.48 m., say 22.5 m.

. r-T 7)
<b
 4. Design of distribution pipe (AB) bigure 8.6a: Pressure loss in soft ploythene pipe
Note: The head loss in the distribution pipe will vary according to the position of the operating
laterals at one time. When laterals LI and L2 are in operation the head loss in the distribution pipe
is a maximum. Therefore the diameter of distributionpipe must be selected such that the distribution
head loss is within acceptable limits when laterals L I and L2 are in operation.

Discharge per lateral = 2.20 m3 / h

&umber of laterals operating at one time = 2
Maximum flow in the distribution pipe = 2 x 2.20 = 4.40 m3 / h
Length of distribution main = 40 m
Friction loss of all fittings in the distribution pipe = 20% of the length of pipe. (say) = 8 m.
Recommended head loss in distribution pipe = 30% of 22.5 = 6.75 m.
Lotal equivalent length of pipe = 48 m.
Friction loss in 32 mm Dia. hard polythene pipe = (13 x 48) / (100) = 6.24 m. (Figure 8.6b)
This value is too close to the recommended value of 6.75 m.'For a greater margin of safety use the
next largest diameter (40 mm).
Friction loss in 40 mm Dia. hard polythene pipe = (4.5 x 48) / (100) = 2.16 m. (Figure 8.6b).

5. Design of supply line

Length df supply line = 0.5 kms.
Maximum flow in the supply line = 4.40 m3 / h
Available head = 40 m (collection chamber 40 m above the irrigated field)
Required pressure at A = 22.5 + 2.16 = 24.66 m.
Therefore allowable loss in the supply line = 40 - 24.66 = 15.34 m.
For 50 mm Dia. hard polythene pipe head loss = (1.9 x 500 ) / (100) = 9.5 m. (Ok).

Hence adopt 50 mm Dia. supply line.

Discharge; M X -+
Figure 8.6b: Pressure loss in hard ploythene pipe
I -
Trickle irriaation
Trickle irrigation is a method of applying water directly to plants through a number of low flow rate
outlets called emitters or drippers, generally placed at short intervals along small tubing. One of the
main characteristics of this method is point irrigation as compared to area irrigation with sprinkler or
flood irrigation. A network of laterals4with drippers supply the water and fenilizer to the plant roots.
Water is generally discharged at very low rates in the order of 1 - 2 litres per hour, although higher
rates upto 8 litres per hour or more can be achieved using special drippers. This type if irrigation can
be adopted in the arid regions for h i t and nut trees, grapes, and other vine crops, sugar cane,
pineapples, strawberries, flowers, and vegetables.

Advantages and disadvantages of trickle irrigation

Advantages
* &--the root zone of the plant is supplied with water: with proper system management
.. _.
.
.....

Z
- deep percolation losses
.~.
can
b -rmrmGinire&-
-
-
7
.
- -

: evaporation lossa axminimized because only the a portion of the ground area is
-- wetted.

* effective weed control especially for ground area that is not wetted,
* reduced percolation and evaporation losses resulting in greater economy oF water use,
* bacteria, fungi, and other pests and diseases that depend on the moist environment are
reduced as above ground plant parts are completely dry,
* because the soil is kept at high moisture level and water does not contact the plant
(above ground parts), use of more sa'line'water may 6e possible with less with less risk
of stress or plant damage, such as leaf btlrn.
* water application is not affected by wind: therefore imgation can take place at all hours,
* low water application rates under low pressure can eliminate run off,
* with some crops yield and quality can be increased by maintaining a high temporal soil
moisture level adequate to meet.the evapotranspiration demands,
* working pressure of laterals are generally less than with sprinkler systems, thus thin
walled and cheaper pipes can be used.
1
the pipes and dripper components are often less expensive than with sprinklers.

Disadvantages
* frequent clogging of drippers: constant supervision may be needed in hill areas where
the spring water may carry sediment, biological or chemical matter,
* this method of irrigation may not be suitable to some crops as salinity can develop as
salts tend to accumulate along the fringes of the wetted surface strip.(see Figure 8.7),
* root development may be restricted to the betted soil volume (see Figure 8.7) near each
emitter,
* not suitable for very closely seeded crops such as carrots, radishes, etc..
Discharge; M% -, I
I
The dripper
Many types and designs of drippers are commercially available, some of which are shown in Figure
8.8. The dripper controls the flow from the lateral. The pressure is greatly decreased by the dripper;
this loss being accomplished by small openings, long passageways, vortex chambers, manual
adjustment or other mechanical devices. Some drippers may be pressure regulated in the sense that the
length or cross section of the passageways or size of orifice can vary with the pressure to give nearly a
constant discharge over a wide range of pressures. Some are self cleaning and flush automatically
(however they are costly and will need high water pressure for cleaning and flushing, and hence not
suitable for remote hill locations). Figure 8.8: Types of drippers (a) la-line long path single exit dripper (b) In-line long
path multiple exit dripper (c) Flushing type dripper (d) orifice type dripper
Figure 8.7: Soil moisture patterns for trickle irrigation. (a) Medium and heavy soils
(b) Sandy soils. Zones of salt accumulation and restricted potential soil-root
volume Lcmg rOinl w m mtn
for .mW diuiprnan

Lateral spacing

Drv soil surface

Salt accumulation Saturated zone

lsomoirture line

w Flow line

Deep percolation

I wetted w i d l h - - 4
Orifica for pressure
paltion - dottsd lim shows

Spacing of laterals and drippers

Spacing of laterals and drippers is influenced by the type of crop and the type of soil. For orchards in
medium to heavy soils, one or two laterals per row of trees (see Figure 8.9) can be used. The dripper Figure 8.9: Lateral and dripper locations for orchards: (a) Single lateral for each row of
spacing in medium to heavy soils is 0.8 to 1.2 meters. Multiple drippers in a "spaghetti" or "pigtail" trees. (b) Two laterals for each row of trees. (c) Multiple drippers
layout may be required with some varieties of trees to ensure more delivery of water (see Figure 8.9).
Field crops on heavy or medium soils can be irrigated using one lateral per row or one lateral per two
rows of field crops as shown in Figure 8.10. The distance between the drippers can vary between 1.OO
to 1.25 meters. Vegetables on heavy or medium soils can be irrigated using one lateral when there are
one or two rows of crops per bed, or two laterals when there are four rows per bed (see Figure 8.11).
For sandy soils the drippers will need to be more closely spaced than with heavy or medium soils.

Dripper selection
Drippers are selected using "performance tables" supplied by the manufacturer. A typical dripper
selection table for factory manufactured driplines (consisting of factory inserted "maze" drippers
inside plastic tubing) is given in Table 8.7. Each sprinkler manufacturer will have his own tables.
This table gives the maximum length of lateral for a given for a given pressure (atm.), spacing (cm.),
ground slope (%), and allowable difference in flow rate along the lateral (%).

Design of laterals and mains

The design principles for laterals and mains are similar to those of sprinkler system described earlier. ("PI: r a ~ l " liner
!"Spacetfi" :uhlnql
To ensure that the discharge through each dripper is kept reasonably consistent, it is usual to limit the
pressure variation along the lateral to within 20% of the operating pressure. The friction loss in the Typical friction losses for sofl and hard polythene pipes are given in Figures 8.6a and b, although for
lateral depends on the number of drippers along the line and the friction coefficient of the pipe. design purposes data should be obtained from manufacturers. The full discharge at the head of the
 A rotation system is shown in Figure 8.12 below, where only four laterals will irrigate each day. These
lateral is used to obtain the friction loss. This loss is then factored by a coefficient (C) which depends
four laterals will be moved to the next location at the beginning of each day.
on the number of drippers on the line. Values of C are shown in Table 8.6. A trial and error approach
is thus needed to establish a suitable length of lateral. The flow at the head of each lateral is equal to
Figure 8.12: Layout of main, distribution and lateral lines for rotational water distribution
the number of drippers on the lateral multiplied by the flow through each dripper. The design of the
distribution work should also be such that the pressure variation between outlets is limited. As a rule
of thumb the friction loss in the distribution pipe should not be more a than 20% of the operating
pressure.

Figure 8.10: Spacing of laterals and drippers for field crops

One lateral per two rows One lateral per row

Figure 8.1 1: Spacing of laterals and.drippers for vegetables

-1 -lJaV .I
\ C
B
4 laterals per day: 120 drippers per lateral
ral

LAtcral 2. Dripline selection

One lateral per bed Two laterals per bed Lateral spacing = 1.5 m (determined by row spacing of the crop)
Dripper spacing = 0.5 m (determined by type of crop and manufacturers dripline specification)
Assuming dripper discharge of 2 litres per hour,
Design example of simple farmer's portable d r p system application rate = (discharge per dripper) I (lateral spacing x dripper spacinfl
Crop: Tomatoes = 2 l(1.5 x 0.5) = 2.66 m d h .

Peak consumptive use: 7 mdday Therefore the reqliired number of hours of irrigation per day = 49.5 I 2.66 = 18.6 hours.
Soil type: silty loam
Dripper efficiency: 90% 3. Design of lateral (BC)
Area: 60 m x 45 m Assuming 16 mm dia dripline and working pressure of 1 atm. (per dripper) would be used.
Ground slope = flat Maximum allowable pressure variation in the lateral = 20% x 10.34 = 2.06 m.
2
s'i-'
pC
Length of lateral = 60 m.
Supply line: 500 m
Number of drippers = 60 I 0.5 = 120.
k p T
Elevation of collection chamber above irrigated land: 40 m 2
"
Discharge per dripper = 2 11 h. L,

I. Compute irrigation interval
Available water for silty loam = 60 - 120 mdmeter soil (Table 8.2)
Extractable water for silty loam = 30 - 60 mdmeter soil (Table 8.2), say 45 mdmeter.
Crop rooting depth = 0.7 to 1.50 m, say 1.10 (Table 8.3)
Water available to crop = 1.10 x 45 = 49.5 mm.
Irrigation interval = (water available to crop) I (consumptive use) = 49.5 I 7 = 7.07 days, say 7 days.
For 120 drippers per lateral, the total discharge at the head of the lateral = 120 x 2 = 240 11h.
Correction factor, C, for 120 drippers = 0.351 (Table 8.6).
Friction loss in 16 mm dia low pressure thin walled soft polythene pipe = (4 x 60 x 0.351) I (100) =
--(Figure 8.6a). This is less than the allowable pressure variation of 2.06m (OK).
Assuming valve loss of 0.5 m the required pressure at the head of the lateral = 10.34 + 0.84 + 0.5 =
 11.68 m., say 11.7 m. Table 8.7: Lateral length of a dripline as a function of pressure, dripper spacing, ground
Note: From Table 8.7, the maximum length of 16 mm dia dripline lateral for P = i atrn., dripper slope and maximum flow rate difference along the lateral
discharge = 2 I / h, dripper spacing = 0.5 m, groznld slope D = 0% and nzaximumflow variation F =
i0%, is 85 nz. Usingfriction loss chart given in Figure 8.6a, it can be verrfied thatfor this length of
lateral the friction loss is nearly equal to 2 meters, which is the maximum permissible value (20% of
i Atm.). Thus Table 8.7 can be used as guideline to select lateral pipe diameter.

3. Design of distribution pipe (AB) Data on lateral length (metres) as a function of:
.Head pressure (P) in atm.
Discharge per lateral = 240 1 / h = 0.24 m3 / h Dripper spacing (Sp) in cm.
Number of laterals operating at one time = 4 Slope ( D ) in %
Maximum flow in the distribution pipe = 4 x 0.24 = 0.96 m3 / h Max. flow rate difference along the lateral (F) in %
Length of distribution main = 42 m
Friction loss of all fittings in the distribution pipe = 20% of the length of pipe. (say) = 8 m.

Total equivalent length of pipe = 50 m. %.

-
Maximum allowable head l b s s n distribution pipe = % ? & o f i i . I -, 2.34 m
-
Friction loss in 25 mm dia. soft thin walled polythene pipe = (4.2 x 50) / (100) = 2.1 m. (Figure 8.6a).
This value is too close to the recommended maximum allowable head loss of 2.34 m. For a greater
margin of safety use the next largest diameter (32 mm).
Friction loss in 32mm dia. soft thin walled polythene pipe = (1.3 x 50) / (100) = 0.65 m. (Figure 8.6a).
This is less than the recommended maximum allowable head loss of 2.34 m. Hence ok.
Required pressure at A = 1 1.7 + 0.65 = 12.35 m. /

5. Design of szrpply line

Length of supply line = 0.5 kms.
,Maximum flow in the supply line = 0.96 m3 / h
Available head = 40 m (collection chamber 40 m above the irrigated field)
Required pressure at A = 12.35 m.
Therefore allowable loss in the supply line = 40 - 12.35 = 27.65 m.
Friction loss in 25 mm dia. soft thin walled polythene pipe = (4.2 x 500) / (100) = 21 m. (Figure
8.6a).
Hence adopt 25 mm dia supply line

Average dripper flow-rate in lateral I/h.

1.0 atrn - 2.00 l/h.
1.5 atrn - 2.60 I/h.
2.0 atrn - 3.00 I/h.
2.5 atrn - 3.30 l/h.
3.0 atrn - 3.60 l/h.
 A temporary farmer built diversion weir
Chapter 9: Canalheadworb ~ i&$ A f ~f p & .pt , o40 ~C /Q rP d~ ~n2 4 ;~/ ? '!' g ~ ; ~ ~ Photograph
/ ~ ~ 9.1:
contemplating re-
Most water used for irrigation in hill and mountain irrigation systems in Nepal is diverted from design or improvement
streams and rivers. Structures are designed and built to capture water from its natural source, remove to a locally-built
undesirable material, and direct the water in a controlled manner into a conveyance system for deliver diversion structure
to the fields Although designing structures to accomplish these three tasks can be carried out needs to design them
separately, they are often integrated into one structure. Even when separate structures are designed so that farmers can
and constructed to accomplish the task of water capture, sediment removal and water control operate and repair
functions they are generally considered together as a part of the water acquisition activity and them easily using
collectively called the "headworks" A diversion structure is an integral part of the headworks Often locally available skills.
it is built close to the intake but in some cases it may be a few meters upstream of the intake location. Keeping excess water
The selection of design type, location and choice ofconstruction materials for building the diversion is out of a canal during a
not just a matter of engineering. Social factors influence their design For most hill irrigators water is a flood in the source
precious resource. Because diversion structures affect the water availability to iny particular canal or river is important for
neighboring upstream or downstream canals, they are regarded as very important structures by the reducing the risk of
farmers. Diversion structures which do not take into account existing inter system water rights are canal failure by
soon damaged or destroyed by farmers who are deprived of their legitimate share of the water from breaching. A stream in
the river source.
1
flood stage carries large amounts of sediment and moves a great deal of bed load which will clog the
i conveyance system or even be carried into the fields, destroying valuable farmland if the flood water
Desrgn issues m the selection of diversion danzsfor inozrntain irrlgatlon system I enters the canal. m e r s who are aware nf ~ b l e m bsu u i v e r s i o o s re

1. mterr 1.1ghts
ri~hfus@mportantissue that needs carefil consideration when choosing
the diversion site and the type of diversion structure Farmer built diversions always took into
account the need for sharing the available water in the source river according to the existing
inter system water rizhts Therefore diversion structures were designed and constructed to
capture only the required amount of water and to allow the remaining water to flow past it_-To-
an untrained irrigation engineer the diversl~nfor the firsLtime, it may seem that-
- - - inspe_c_ting
leaking diversion is something that needs repair whereas in reality it is an arrangement _tp s h e
1 aytomatically swept- away during floods thus preventing flood water from entering the canal.
Photograph 9.1, shows a temporary farmer built diversion weir using river boulders and brushwood
This weir would break up during high flood flow in the river thus preventing flood water entering the
canal. Improved diversion structures frequently depend upon the operation of gates to control excess
water and silt from entering the canal. However during a storm when floods occur these gates are
seldom accessible. While on the one hand gates may be needed to close the canal, gate operation for
flood and sediment control will be difficultto achieve, particularly if the intake is located in a remote
a area. For remote intakes an appropriate solution would- be -- to
--- incorporate farmers
--, . "automatic"
---
7 - -a-.-.

concepts descfiied earlier with modern ----materials_ _such

. ___--
as g$bis.and--m~~ncy _The "automatic"
-- --
ihe available water with the bwnstream neighborls In some hill regions in neighboring India, breach section can be kept small depending on the requirement, so that labor and materials
* - - -- for
needed
tze detailed description of the water rights includes the specific details regarding the material repairing-tKeubreach are minimized.
that can be used to construct each diversion structure The right to build a diversion with both -
stone and mud plaster rather than only stone, for example, really is a statement of rights since 3. Permanence
the former structure will capture a large volume of water Inter system 9te1- The concern here is, given the river setting at a proposed diversion, is a permanent diversion
cdmnge betw-een wet and dry seasons Farmers took care of theseFhanges by either raising or
-I-I __

structure technically feasible ? When stones, boulders and forest products are not easily
lowering the height, or lengthening or shortening the diversion weir. However when these available there is a tendency for designers to use imported materials such as gabion or cement
dams are to be replaced by more permanent and leak proof structures the flexibility to trap or and steel to construct a so called permanent diversion structure. All too often a diversion
to release varying quantities of water must be built into them, to prevent farmers having to structure that was considered "permanent" when constructed is swept away or damaged
break or chip off portions of the dam, during the next flood shattering along with it farmers hopes Farmers who once had hoped that
the newly built diversion would be permanent are now faced with an even bigger problem of
2. ' ~ e c r e a s i r iolailabiljty
~ of forest p1.od11ct.sarid irrcrmmirrg lohor r-eqlrireae~rtr
for coritirrr~al finding imported materials to repair the damage or finding an alternate location for diversion.
1-epairarid maintenarrce/ When permanent diversions are not possible, engineers in the interest of the farmers must
Most locally constructed diversion structures are subject to frequent flood damage and must cmvince t h e h t t g t-o continue ado~ting
.th_e&aditionalriver diversim-padms.
%

be continually maintained or even re-constructed. Farmers responsible for the construction

find it annoying and costly to make these continual repairs. Decreased availability of forest
products and in some cases labor to continually carry out the repairs is a growing concern
among some farmer communities. More durable structures are therefore requested by farmers
who have only had access to locally available construction materials in the past. An engineer
4. Who will be respor~siblefor the operatior,, reparr and nlainter~ance the headworks ? J ~ ( ? ~ P PAP
Frequently irrigation agencies assume that they will post technical staff to operate and
maintain the improved diversion and headworks. Later they discover that staff with technical
competence are not willing to live in the site because there is insufficient budget to provide the
 necessary incentives. The responsibility for operation, repair and maintenance of the
headworks is now passed on to the irrigators who do not have the mandate, skills, equipment,
materials, or the budget to achieve effective operation and maintenance. It is therefore
important to determine who will manage the headworks and to design structures taking into
account the technical and financial resource limitations of the operators.
Will the t.eplncen7etrt of the ten7pomy head~r~orkswith n more drraI>leoilr offset the exi.stitrg
orgnni,lnfiot~nlarrmzgen~ents.for the @ecfive operation aird n~aitrtermmrceof the irrigatiotl
sysfen ?
When an agency replaces an existing locally-built diversion with a more durable one with little,
if any, input from the persons who had built or managed the earlier structure, there is danger
that the organizational fabric essential for the operation and maintenance of the irrigation
system will be damaged. Research has shown that one of the major reasons for strong
organization and equitable water distribution is directly a result of the need for full user
participation in maintenance of the diversion and conveyance systems. Elimination of all
maintenance tasks increase conflicts over water distribution. In farmer managed irrigation
systems, overuse of water by those who have easy access to it is often constrained 6y the need
to encourage those in the far reaches of the system to participate in maintenance activities
when the maintenance requirements are high. Building a maintenance free structure or when
an agency takes over responsibility for operation and maintenance, may remove an important
reason for not over using the water which can greatly reduce the potential for expanding the
irrigable area.
6. ITar.n7et.par f icipatiotl it1 .site atrd desigtl selecfrot~qf di~~ct:siot~
~'ork.s
The local farmers are the best group of knowledgeable persons to advice you on suitable site
selection because they have observed the river over a long period of time and have intimate
knowledge of its behavior. Farmers have shifted their diversioils to take advantage of the best
location from their long and intimate experience of repairing their diversions. Sometimes their
observations extend over a period of several generations. It is not possible for a brief
engineering study to replicate such time series information Moreover, by a process of trial and
error they may have found the most effective design solution for building more permanent
diversions Over a period of experimentation lasting several generations the farmers may have
found the most perfect shape, size and orientation of the diversion weir that can withstand the
force of flowing water Better construction materials and improved construction techniques
can reinforce this design to make it more durable Improvement to diversions must take into
account existing knowledge of the farmers
7. Sqfip atrd arrton7atio11
When building diversions, farmers have relied on automation to provide safety to their canals
and canal structures. Brushwood and boulder low dams that they built in the river bed to
divert flow into the canal were designed to breach during flood flows preventing flood water
entering the canal. Thus, the farmers need not wake up in the middle ofthe night. rush through
the darkness and the pouring rain along slippery paths and bunds. to try and manipulate the
headworks gate when a sudden and hard rain comes Improved headwork designs that require
more vigilance may not be acceptable to the farmers Sufficient automation must be built into
the design to ensure its safety
8. Echtlolo~qy:Yormdiilg danms ~ ~ e r :divet.siotr
~ r ~ s dan7s
Locally-built diversions tend to divert the water to a side of the stream and lead it out of the
streambed. Frequently engineers suggest dams across the river to create water pools or ponds
for feeding the intakes. Any obstruction of this type across a mountain river can lead to change
in the river regime resulting in aggredation of the river bed upstream of the dam Very soon
the intake would choke due to the build up of river bed load upstream of it. Also, rapidly
flowing water over the dam can erode the base and the down stream bed leading to collapse of
the dam. Diversion dams prevent this from happening. When they are correctly angled to the
main direction of flow in the river and are not deeply projected into the river upstream, river
build up is minimized. Instead of damming the stream to raise the water level, a more suitable
location can be chosen upstream so that the water can be diverted to the side of the stream
without disturbing the river bed. In cases where relocation of intake is not feasible stabilization
of the river bed is a possible solution.
Design and construction materials for* d~versiondams in renzote arras
Selecting the correct type of structure for diverting mountain streams is an engineering challenge and
requires the consideration of many factors. An estimate of the frequency of likely damage and the
implications of failure must be made. Because stones for filling are usually available in the immediate
locality gabions are appropriate building materials for constructing diversion weirs in mountain river
beds. The flexible nature of gabion construction also make it a suitable choice. Arguments for not
using gabion diversion weirs are their impermeability and that they fail frequently within a few years
of construction. However if a more costly rigid structure, in the same location failed with the same
frequency and local construction materials are no longer available, gabions may still be cost effective
alternatives. Gabion diversion weirs can fail by overturning or due to foundation scour. Risk of failure
by overturning can be minimized by :
* using heavy gabion baskets in sufficient numbers to overcome the dynamic force of the
water, and
* tying adjacent gabion baskets together and anchoring the whole to strong permanent
objects such as rock outcrops in the river bed or bank.
Scour failure can occur when gabions weirs are built on erodible river beds. Failure due to foundation
scour can be minimized by founding gabion construction at the scour depth on sufficiently wide
flexible gabion aprons
Szutable types c?f'm&ke.v.fornzozdntnrn~~~~atlansyste~u
In general side intakes are most appropriate for farmer managed mountain irrigation systems although
; i i o m 6 ~ a s ~ X b o t t o intakes
m are appropriate However bottom intakes must not be used in wrong
types of rivers which carry high sand and gravel sediment loads Side intakes -- have a bi,g,gx&atltage
-
over&~tta_m_lntakesh x s e--their - design. -construction
- - and operation
- is easy compared to bottom
intakes They are also similar to farmer's traditional intakes, hence farmers can quickly learn the
principles of operation and maintenance for these intakes On the other hand, bottom intakes are more
expensive and difficult to construct and maintain Bottom intake when built on the wrong type of
rivers can choke quickly due to sand and silt entering the bottom trench Unlike in the case of side
intakes, cleaning a choked bottom trench is more difficult especially when the river stage is high A
choked bottom intake can disrupt irrigation resulting in crop failure
Proper selection and siting of intakes
Rivers are continually reacting with the adjacent landforms causing the latter to change Figure 9.1,
describes in a nutshell the river processes and associated landform changes that occur along a river as
the river flows from source to mouth, The upper. middle and lower courses of the river shown in this
 \
figure are also referred to as the mountain, lowland and outwash valleys. Some landforms change Figure 9.1 : River processes
much faster than others. A delta can be formed in one flood event while an entrenched valley may take
centuries to alter its appearance noticeably. Lateral shifting of' rivers, formation of channel bars and From source to The upper course of
islands, and erosion and aggredation of the river bed are manifestations of river processes occurring in mouth the river
a given river reach. These landform changes can have serious consequences on the performance of A valley is constantly being Downward cutting is faster
deepened and widened, so than widening. .
intakes especially if they occur near the intakes. Lateral shifting of river channels and the formation of
changing the landscape. This
channel bars and islands are predominant in rivers found in the terai, nevertheless these phenomena does not always happen River twists and turns
are also observed in some reaches of mountain rivers which behave very much like terai rivers. Certain consistently. around obstacles it has not
reaches of mountain rivers can behave exactly like terai rivers and undergo landform changes that are
usually associated with terai rivers. It is useful to note that landform changes take place during the
I Cause EfSect had time or energy to move.
I

"formative flow" in the river which usually coincides with the high flow. * Deepening V-shape / Fingers of land protrude into
faster than becomes
widening: deeper.
Proper selection and siting of intakes needs a careful study of the river reach where the proposed * Widening V-shape Interlocking spurs (large
intake is to be sited. A r r v e r h & f i n t w " s
-, the Zength o f the river lgvltlg homoge~ze_o~s&drn& faster than becomes fingers of land on alternate
charncteristics. It is unwise to locate an iritake where hydraulic characteristics such as width, depth,
________l-l- deepening: shallower. sides of the valley) make the
slope and pattern (plan form of river) are changing * Both deepening and
A reach can be characterized according to : widening take place
* gradient (bed slope of the river), simultaneously, at different
* valley shape (adjacent landform), rates in different parts of the The lower course of
* valley.
bed and bank material, and
* river pattern (plan form of river). Meanders (S-shaped curves
in the river's course) are
created as the river snakes
These characteristics determine the dominant river process occurring in a given river reach. Below is a T11e middle course of across the valley floor.
short description of how the above river characteristics affect the river process.
River carries a larger volu In places the S-shaped
,Grad- of water as tributories join course is so extreme that the
mainstream. two
meet.
bends
The water
of the takes
meander
the
The gradient of the river bed dominates the character of the river and the river reach as outlined meet. The water takes the
River erodes banks on
below : shortest route. cutting off a
* steep gradients are associated with river beds that are formed of exposed rock or large water runs fastest. C-shaped stretch of water
boulders which are not in regular movement. The river flow in this reach is very called an oxbo\v.
turbulent so that gravel and finer material travel in suspension. The dominant river
runs most slowly. If thls IS filled \\-it11water it
process in this reach is bed and or bankside erosion. The pace of erosion will depend on is an osbo\v lake.
Weathering makes V-shape
the erodibility of the exposed rock or boulder face. The reach of a river having a steep shallower and valley opens
bed gradient is referred to as a "mountain valley". out. Artificial banks called levees
* less steep river gradients are associated with river bed that are partly filled with smaller River uses much of its ,. -t/ /are
/are built to
built to prevent
prevent floods.
floods.
boulders, cobbles, gravel and sand brought from upstream. The gradient and river form e n e r a to carni a large load
of material, so has less power River no\v depositing more
in that reach are such that the main bulk of the sediment is transported hrther material than it erodes. Silt
to erode
downstream. However this reach will undergo phases of aggredation and degredation in the bottom of the bed
with an overall tendency to aggredation. This river reach is likely to be braided. The raises the water level,
reach of the river having a less steep gradient is referred to as an "outwash valley". resulting in flooding.
* mild river gradients are associated with river beds that are mainly sand and silt deposits
with occasional gravel zones. The dominant river process in this reach would be Flood nlater leaves sllt
deposited on flood pla111
aggredation and lateral shifting of river channels. Rivers are likely to be meandered in
this reach. The reach of a river having a mild bed gradient is referred to as a "lowland dclta forms \ir1lerc the
valley". river meets the sca The flon
of water slo\t.s or halls. It call
no longer c a r q its load,
\vhich is deposited in tkc sea,
or a lake.
Valley shape
aggredation. Presence of boulders, cobbles and gravel would indicate that the river reach is
Valley shapes influence dominant river processes in a given reach. Valley shapes can be broadly
undergoing a change in phase.
classified as :
* confined valleys: where the river flow particularly the formative flow occupies the full
width of the valley (see Figure 9.2 ). Plan-form of river
* constrained valleys: where the river occupies part of the valley width, being The river processes in flat reaches of the river such as in the terai, are to some extent dominated by
constrained by old river terraces which are rarely covered, even by floods (see Figure the plan form of the river,. By plan form is ineant the appearance of the river from the air. The
9.3 ). appearance is judged at the mean flow time of the river rather than at high flow or low flow which
* unconstrained valleys: where the river occupies the valley bottom and in floods could obscure the features. Formation of channel bars and islands, and their locations have a
covers the flood plains which form berms to the main river channels (see Figure 9.4 ). characteristic relation to the plan form of the river. Some reaches of mountain river can behave
exactly like terai rivers. Figure 9.5, shows the characteristic relationship that exists between channel
bars and islands and plan form of rivers. In the hills it would take a major flood event to change the
Figure 9.2: A confined valley Figure 9.3: A constrained valley plan form in a given reach.

Having reviewed the river processes that can occur in a given reach let us examine how practical
investigations can be carried out based on this knowledge. The following investigation are necessary
to decide on suitable type and location of intakes.
* Is the river bed eroding or building up ?
Review changes in the composition of the bed material near the proposed intake
location over the past few years, to ascertain if the bed of the river is eroding or
Constrained Valley building up. For example if the bed consisted of sand, gravel and cobbles some years
Confined Valley River occupies part of the valley width. being cons- before and is now gradually becoming boulders and partly exposed rock there is
River flow, particularly the formative trained by old river terraces which are rarely covered evidence of erosion. The next step is to investigate how severe the erosion is, and if it
flow, occupies the'full valley depth. even by flood. Sonle erosion and lateral shifting nlay will continue or not and what effect it would have on the proposed intake. If the bed
This type of valley is usually eroding. take place in this reach. is building up, investigate how rapidly it is building up and if it will continue or not and
how it would effect the proposed intake. The behavior of aggrading river reaches are
difficult to predict however some clues can be found from the basic relationship
Figure 9.4: An unconstrained valley between landforms and river patterns. (see Figure 9.5 ).
* Will the river course shift ?
I Review lateral shifting of the main river channel. The present course of the river is not
necessarily the river course that was last year or the year before that. For that matter it
may not be the river course after the next flood flow. The farmers may have
temporarily diverted the low flow of the river towards the side of the intake. Therefore
the present river course may be very misleading. Shifting of the river channel take
place during the 'formative flow'. Formative flows usually coincide with the high flow
periods of the river. The farmers have observed the high flow over long period of time
I Unconstrained Valley and can give useful information on high flow patterns. For every river flow pattern
River occupies the valley bottom and its flood plains which form berms to the there is an established landform. Landform in this context refers to features such as
main river channel. There is sufficient room for the development of channel channel bars, islands etc.. Rivers however are dynamic and often create the landform
patterns. through which they are flowing. The speed at which these landforms change depend
among other things, on the nature of the valley. A 'delta' can form over one flood
event, while an entrenched valley may take centuries to change its shape appreciably.
Before deciding on the location of the intake it necessary to establish how rapidly (or
Bed and bank n~aterial slowly) the landform would change. The present landforms can be in their formative
To some extent the composition of bed and bank material determine the river processes that can take stage in which case complete formation may take some years. On the other hand they
place in a given reach. Loose bed materials such as cobbles, gravel and sand allow themselves to be may be in their final stages which means that the next phase is about to begin.
easily transported either in suspension or as bed load. The present composition of the bed material is * Are river banks eroding ?
also a good indication of the dominant river process taking place in this reach. Exposed rock and large Review maximum and minimum water levels. Bank erosion takes place during high
boulders will generally imply erosion while the presence of sand and silt will generally imply flow and will affect the stability and performance of intakes, particularly side intakes.
Visualize the new water land boundary at maximum flow. Try to predict the interaction
 between the water and the land boundary, especially the effect on the intake river bank.
* Is there any local scouring ?
Figure 9.5: Character of rivers in plan
Review local scouring near the proposed intake. Assess the would be impact of this
scouring on the intake. Not all scouring is harmful, a little scour near the mouth of the
intake can help to maintain a pool of water in front of the intake during both high and
Codification of River Channel Patterns low river flow. Local scour may be associated with natural river hydraulics,
(a)
constrictions of the waterway and the presence of solid non erodible features such as
man made structures or exposed rock faces. See Figure 9.6, for more information on
causes of scour in river channels. Depending on how far into the river domain they
intrude, structural features of the proposed intake may induce local scour.

2. Sinuous General guidelines for choosing intake locations

e

In choosing- an intake site the major

- -problems to be solved are :
* _maintaining the flow to the intake works in both the monsoon and the dry season,
* -- _
-._
I_
-I-

* controlling the flow,

-__
preventing bed load ent'eing tTiecaid----.
particularly
---.. -4
during.the monsoon, and preventing' it entering or
___-. .. . - .-
daniag~ngthe canals.
C---

6. Tortuous meanders
Much can be learned fi-om observing the intake sites selected by local farmers who are familiar with
the river and, in particular. have the added advantage that they have observer the river over a long
period of time. Any movements of the main river channel over time must be discussed with the
0. None farmers.

Codz$cation of River channel Bars

1. Occasional:
No overlapping of islands, average spacing
being ten or more river widths
2. Frequent:
Infrequent overlapping, with the average
spacing being less than ten river widths.
3. Split:
Island overlap islands frequently or continuously
The number of flow channels is usually two or three
-Below are-.some
* - - --_ _ " _ _
guidelines for choosing intake locations
(c Use the outside of a bend:-- It is important to exclude as much sediment as possible,
especially coarse sediment, from the intake Secondary currents that occur at bends
1. Channel side bars 2. Point bars play an important role in sediment exclusion The flow of water round a bend causes
super-elevation of the water surface The radial acceleration, caused by the super-
elevation, results in water near the bed being retarded (due to bed roughness) with
faster water at the surface moving outward leading to secondary currents (see Figure
3. Channel junction bars 9 7 ) As a consequence, the sediment near the bed moves to the inner bank, and the
w clearer surface flows move outward as illustrated in Figure 9 7 Also, the angled bed
4. Mid-channel bars
movement encourages scour near the outside bank and shoaling at the inner bank To
take advantage of the river hydraulics at a bend it is therefore necessary to site
intakes
- at the outer bend where -the
- flow is deeper and clearer, and
5. Diamond bars - -iZZiTiFTe downstream end of the-knd __
where the effect of the secondary
-----__
6. Diagonal bars
_--currents have fully devsloped
One disadvantage of a side intake is that when a large proportion of the water is
extracted, local flow curvature tends to offset the favorable ef'fects of location on the
outside bend

4. Braided 7. Sand waves, linguoid bars, or larger dunes Use natural controls: Natural outcrops of rock can control a river in either elevation
Man" channels divided by river bars and islands or plan, and sometimes both. There are many situations where, at the bend in a valley,
a river has attached itself to a rock face on the outside bend which it will follow until
the valley curvature reverses direction or the rock outcrop ends. The downstream end
of such a reach can often be a site for an intake. In some rivers, the flow will be
constrained by a rock gorge. Intakes can be located immediately downstream of the
end of the gorge If the intake is located too far downstream, there may well be
 problems of sediment deposition. 1 . Angle of spur Nose of
/
2. Direction of spur will
,
-?
At the confluence of two river streams: ofikn, due to the additional water provided, approach flow require an
intakes are located downstream of confluences. The conditions at the confluence of the apron for
two rivers can vary considerably depending on the topography of the site. Where the protection
confluence results in forcing the flow to the far bank, a suitable site for the intake against
occurs. In many cases, however deposits occur at the confluence, resulting in scour
instability, partly due to a lag in the flood peak of the two separate river streams. Due PLAN
td this reason intakes have to be sited some distance downstream where good 1 . Degree of Large
,/conditions exist. narrowing boulders
(from land
Bank stability: Advantage should be taken of stable banks such as rock outcrops or slides)
armoured boulder banks to protect the intake from erosion. blocking
river flow
Figure 9. 6 : Causes of local scour
I

Lcause
/
I Dominatingfactors I Scour I Comments 1 1. Angle between This
afecting scgur
l.
multiplier tributaries situation can
Rigid bend 1. Radius of 1.4 - 4.0 An eroding 2. Flow ratio in each usually
Bedrock curvature bend channel occur in
2. Length of bend becomes braided
Terrace
rigid if it is gravel rivers
protected by
rip rap or ' PLAN
gabions 1. Slope of bed rock This
PLAN
sill situation can
Eroding 1. Radius of 1.4 - 2.5 River bank occur when
bend - ,r... , . curvature collapses to there is
2. Length of bend fill scour underlying
I
3. Type of bank hole Bedrock bed rock
+
material b
I I CROSS-SECTION I 1 1
I I
Control 1. Downstream depth Scour not in Down
PLAN
I I I I .strzlct~~?'e 2. Velocity terms of flow stream scour
Abrupt I 1 Degree of change I 2.0-4.0 )Usually depth may depend
change in in direction occurs when on the
flow eroding formation of
direction bank hydraulic
riprapped jump
PROFILE

PLAN Bridge pier 1 . Width of pier 1.4 times pier Scour

2. Orientation of pier width greatly
to flow (a~~rox. increased if
pier is
skewed to
approach
flow
 Figure 9.7: Flow round a bend
Photograph 9.3': . Masonry side intake built behind gabion protection
Super elevation of
Secondary current Figure 9.8, provides a
basic method of
assessing the discharge
through an orifice,
which is suitable for
Inner shoal bank small projects.
However there is a
problem in designing
the inlet orifice to limit
i
the flows during flood
periods, because its
Masonry side intake built between large boulders
controlling influence

I
will depend on the
Simple bank intake dissipation of excess
The simplest form of a energy arising fray the
bank side intake ..-
difference between the
involves nothing more minimum and maximum river levels. Unless there is a high head difference between the minimum river

I
than a cleft in a rock level and the canal water; level (of one or two meters perhaps), it will prove impossible t o design a
outcrop, a gap between fixed orifice that will control the canal flow to within say + 20% of its design value as the river level
a large boulder and an varies between dry season and flood. The double orifice intake with an intermediate spillway,
outcrop (or between I described later, is intended t o overcome this problem, but the conventional method has long been to
two large boulders) or I
an provide adjustable orifice, in the form of a simple gate.
simply a dry stone or I
I
masonry entrance to a Photograph 9.4: e intake located on the bank of the main river course
feeder canal. Side
intakes built on river
banks must be
protected against flood
i
and boulder impact.
For protection, they can be built into rock outcrops (see Photograph 9 I), built between huge
boulders (see Photograph 9.2) or behind other protection works (see Photograph 9 3 ) In some cases,
side intakes can be built away from the main river and linked to the river by means of an approach
I
canal Such intakes are safe against flood and boulder damage (see Photographs 9 4 and 9 5) The
only criteria for their design (other than their siting) is the size of the opening in terms of the flow
rate, bearing in mind any leakage from the feeder canal and any surplus flow that may be needed to
assist sediment flushing Small scale intakes of this type will probably require a cross-sectional area
about the same as that of the feeder canal they serve

The next stage of the development is to provide a relatively permanent but simple structure, consisting
of a masonry head wall with a restricted opening (i e. an orifice) This could contain a simple slide
gate, to close off access t o the feeder canal when water is not required and during flows which would
result in heavy sediment influx. The head wall should be high enough to exclude typical maximum
floods. The size of the opening needs careful selection so that it is adequate to pass the required flow,
yet small enough to provide a restriction to flow when water levels in the source river rise during
floods L!Tzl diversion
Figure 9.8: Discharge through an orifice

Orifice height D (m)

Example:
h2 = 0.35 m
I Photograph 9.5: Side intake located away from the main river course

hl = 0.50 m
A h=hl-h2=0.15m
Q = 140 I/s
If B, orrjce width = 0.40 m
q = 350 Z/s/m
Iherejore D, or$ce height =
0.29 m

Gated bank intakes can be constructed in masonry or concrete, with a simple box form of coarse
1 1 ! i ! 1 1 1 1 1
, 0
,,F,! 1 1.0 2m 300
.
:
A
400
1
500
I
600 700 000
I
9m
1
1
I
sediment trap. Such bank intakes may be in-line with the river bank ,(side intake) or angled to it, or
front facing as in insets (a), (b) and (c)of Figure 9.9. Of these, the front facing intake is likely to be the
most efficient in excluding sediment, though it is vulnerable to damage. Side intakes tend to attract
; loo
I
h

0.25 21 50 75 125 150 175 200 225 250 bed sediment because the slower flow near the bed is more readily diverted It is for this reason, that a'
m_ 0.30 30 60 90 t 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
-
-
r

E 0.35
'
35 70 1 0 5 / 1 1 0 ~ 1 7 5 210 215 280 315 350
sill and a forebay are desirable, which effectively raises the cross-section through which flow enters
from the river, so helping to exclude bed load. Two vertical lift gates can be incorporated, one
0.40 60 80 120 ). 160 200 210 280 320 360 100
45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 405 450
upstream of the intake orifice and the other downstream of the sediment trap as shown in Figure 9 9
2 0.45
-;j
L

0.50 50 100 150 200 250 300 550 400 450 stlo The gate downstream of the sediment trap is intended as main control on the canal discharge, so the
canal banks beyond it will need protecting against the high velocity and turbulence it will generate
O r i f ~ c edischarge Q (I/s)
when the river levels are high. The first gate, at the inlet proper, is intended for use when the intake is
closed entirely, for example when irrigation water is not needed or when there is a canal breach
downstream or when the sediment trap is to be cleaned manually. It is normally hlly open to minimize
velocity and turbulence within the settling basin.
I
k*ctors infiencing the design of simple hank intakes
j ~ h following
e factors influence the design of side intakes.
S/ The cross-sectional area available over the sill must be sufficient for the design flow to
enter.
1 There will be a head loss at the gated orifice which controls the inflow. The hlly open
condition with minimum river level has to be considered, and the opening size made
large enough to give an acceptable head loss.
The same applies to the outlet. The control gate will be fully open at minimum river
level, but partly closed to control the canal flows when river levels rise.
D = Orifice height The upstream gated orifice should be large enough to avoid high velocity which causes
B = Orifice width excessive turbulence in the sediment trap.
 * Assume that half the available depth of the sediment trap is for sediment storage, and
Figure 9.9: Side intake with sediment trap that the area above that level should give a through velocity in the range of O.15mls.
(for settling coarse sand) to 0.50 mls (for settling mediumlcoarse gravel).
II To
- maintain low velocities in the sediment trap, the first orifice area might be 60 percent of the net
trap cross - - The areaon the sill might be the same as the net trap cross section. T h e k d k e s
-_-section.
at these locations can thus be related
--- - to the-n5minaprap
.-
veracity and are & v G y :
.+.; \A ; -?-
First gate not essential in small head loss = K -
v
Flood level

Minimum water
- 2g
where, V = velocity through the restriction (mls),
g = gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2),
K = loss coefficient, equal to 2.5.
T 1 The size of the outlet gate controlling the flow to the canal is not related to the sediment trap
fbnction, biit ~t should not give a high velocity which might damage the canal walls or generate too
much head loss during the operation. A velocity of 0 6 m/s would be suitable nominal velocity through
the control gate ~ l l basic
e hydraulic design for a simple bank intake of the type shown in Figure 9.9,
will depend on the size of the sediment, and hence on the desirable nominal trap velocity, and is as
follows :
I I

Table 9.1: Recommended velocity and head loss across gravel traps

Coarse sand Fineimedium Mediunz/coarse

gravel gavel

Velocities (nt/s)
Nominal trap velocity 0.15 0.25 0.50
Sill velocity 0.15 0.25 0.50
First orifice velocity 0.25 0.42 0.83
Outlet gate velocity 0.60 0.60 0.60

Head Lasses (mm)

r
U.
f
st gate not essential in
small schemes
- At sill
At first orifice
3
8
8
22
32
88
Plan At outlet gate 46 46 46

These head losses determine how much below minimum the water level at the canal head will be at the
design flow. The size of the structure is dictated by the flow required by the canal and the sediment
trapping fbnction (whether sand and gravel or only gravel) The above very basic concepts should be
applied only to small projects, say under-500 11s. This yiddsa-maxim_um
- structure-.-size
- - --
gigno a
--
sediment trap cross section, Ate, of between 2 to 7 s~a_r_e_m>&rs..dependinon its sediment fbnctioz.
(a) Side intake (b) Angled intake (c) Front facing
I meters for_---
____
The length of the _- - --- trap -ldbepf
sediment
a 500-11s
18
thezdeLQf5 t o 10 time$ Ate, i.e from 7 meters to 26
M
?
.. -- flow, depending on its sediment removal fbnction.
+
Design example I v2
Head loss across the sill = K- = 2.5
0 . 2 5 ~ =0.007 m (say 0.01 m.)
2g 2 x 9.81
Design a bank intake structure for a canal with design discharge of 300 Ips. Assume that the sediment
is mainly finelmedium gravel. assume^ equals 101.00, river minimum level equals 5. Check nlinintzrnt river level
101.20andrivermaximumlevelequals103.00. F ' s ' b @ 0 =
305?67-1 Total head loss = 0.03 + 0.10 + 0.01 = 0.14 m.
Minimum river water level = 101.OO + 0.14 = 101.14 m
Actual minimum river water level = 101.20 m.
Therefore structure levels are acceptable.

6. Check stmctzrre for ntaxinzum river levels

Assume canal can take 50% extra flow, i.e. 450 11s.
For a 300 11s canal with z = 1:1 and n = 0.025 and bed slope I : 1000, B = 0.55, D = 0.55
Flow depth in the canal for a flow of 450 11s is 0.70 m.
Therefore maximum flow depth in the canal = 101.00 - 0 . 5 1 + 0.70 = 101.13 m.

Head loss through the downstream orifice = Ah = v ' = 0.23 m.

0 . 4 9 . ~ -' ~ ' . 2 g

I.. Cnlci~lntenet 11.n~ cross-sectio~i Head loss through the upstream orifice = Ah = L/ = 0.06 m
Nominal trap velocity (see Table 9.1) = 0.25 mls. 0.49.R'. D 2.2S
Therefore trap cross sectional area = Ate = 0.30 / 0.25 = 1.20 m2 Head loss across sill = 0.02 (approx.)
Assuming 2 meter wide trap, the depth of trap = 1.20 / 2.00 = 0.60 m. Total head loss = 0.23 + 0.06 + 0.02 = 0.3 1 m.
A fbrther 0.60 m depth is provided to allow for storage. Maximum river water level = 101.13 + 0.3 1 = 10 1.4q
r
Trap length = 10 x A& = 11.O m. Actual maximum river water level = 103.00
It will be necessary to provide a control gate on the canal orifice to prevent flood flow entering the
2. D e s i p ~rlpstrenm orifice canal, or to provide an escape immediately downstream of the intake.
For finelmedium gravel, upstream orifice velocity = 0.42 d s . (see Table 9.1)
hx
Thereforeorificearea= Q / V = 0 . 3 0 / 0 . 4 2 =0.71 m2 Double orifice lntake
Let orifice be 1.50 m wide, 0.40 m deep, hence area = 0.60 m2 Double orifice intakes allow more control of water entering the canal A typical double orifice intake
is illustrated in Figure 9.10 and is particularly suited to hill projects where there is an adequate fall for
Q2 the system to operate. There is a fixed opening orifice at the river bank which is ungated which affects
Using the orifice formula Q = 0.7 B D -/, , Ah =
0.49.R2. D 2 . 2 g
= 0.026 m (say 0.03 m)
the first stage control of flow However, given the variability of the upstream levels, this gate would
deliver excess flow to the canal at high river levels Therefore, excess is spilled from a side weir
3. Desi~wdoi~vir.st~.enn~o~.ifice positioned towards the downstream end of the link canal. A second orifice at the end of the link canal
Let outlet gate velocity be 1.OO d s . controls the flow into the feeder canal. Stop logs (shown removed in Figure 9 10) at the side of the
Orifice area = 0.30 / 1 .OO = 0.30 m2 link canal can be removed from time to time to sluice sediment from this upstream section of the
feeder canal The actual arrangement will depend on the local topography. Figure 9.10, shows a

Let orifice be 1 m. wide and 0.30 m deep, hence Ah =

0" = 0.10 m.
curved channel around the hill side but it would be preferable for the curvature to be reversed if the
0.49. H" D2 . 2 g topography permits, because sediment traveling through this section will be brought t o the inside of
the bend by secondary currents and this would be escaped by the side weir Also side weirs have a
4. D e s i p sill I tendency to discharge water from near the bed rather than near the surface because of the low inertia
Assume a sill velocity of 0.25 m/s of the near bed water. Thus the combination of a straight or appropriately curved length of link
channel with a side weir at the downstream end will provide good sediment control At low river'
Area across sill = 0.30 / 0.25 = 1.20 m2
levels, there will be a relatively small sediment supply, and the link channel, if properly sized, will act
If sill width = 3.0 m
Depth of water over the sill = 1.20 / 3.0 = 0.40 m. as a sediment trap which may be cleared by removing the stop logs from the sediment ejection
channel. At higher river stages continuous operation of the side spillway will dispose of a significant
proportion of the bed material being transported through the link canal
Figure 9.10: Double orifice intake
Hydraulic design of a double orifice intake should take into account
* river levels at the intake over a range of flows,
* head losses at both orifices,
* permissible range of canal discharge,
* stage-discharge curve for the canal,
* friction loss in the link canal,
* the performance of the side weir,
* sedimentation in the link canal at low stage,
* sediment transportation through the link canal at high river stage.

Design principles
For operation at the minimum river level, the layout shown in the Figure 9.10 is similar to that for the
simple bank intake in that it has two orifices generating head loss, with a link canal that may also
perform the fbnction of the sediment trap. However, at high river stages it has a spill-way which is of
considerable benefit in terms of controlling the flow passing forward to the canal. This requires
designing. When the spillway operates and it is hydraulically much more complex. The design process
- can be similar to that of a simple intake for low river discharges (though the first orifice wiit be
((I
C smalier), but with allowance for the friction loss in the link canaVsediment basin. To check
((I
U performance of the intake at high river flows requires a more elaborate computation, as there is
interaction between the required accuracy of control of flow into the canal, the two orifice sizes, the
length of the side spillway and the range of river levels fiom lowest to highest in the irrigatiotl season.
-
((I
Flow is non uniform in the link canal as it passes the side weir, and hydraulic calculations have to take
3 this into account.
, *
The design process
The design process should proceed as follows, on the basis of a tentative design, which m y require
modification, as well as repetition of the calculation process. The design symbol nomenclature is as
shown in Figure 9.11. For small schemes, the channel friction loss through the structure can be
assumed to be the same as the water levels.
The design steps are as follows :

Step 1. Assess the design and maximum allowable flows Q1 and Q2 to enter the canal
downstream of the second orifice, with corresponding water levels at the canal
entrance, WLl and WL2. Let the energy heads, hi and h2, be the same as these water
levels.
Step 2. Choose a size for the second orifice, A2, to give a maximum velocity (flowlarea) of,
say 2 m/s ( a high velocity assumed here will provide easier design conditions in what
follows), i.e. for the maximum allowable flow to enter the canal, Q2
Step 3. Using A2, calculate orifice head loss (see Figure 9.8) at design canal flow, Q1; add to
b5 hi to give energy head, h3, in the structure. Set the excess flow spillway crest level, C,
-.E f 0.05 m above this, to give a freeboard of 0.05 m during normal conditions.
-0 ((I

$5 Step 4. As there is no friction loss in the channel, the first orifice downstream energy level can
be taken as h3. Calculate the head loss at the first orifice (it is suggested that both
orifices are made the same size), and calculate the energy head, hq, upstream of the
first orifice.
Step 5. Compare this energy head loss, hq, with,the minimum river level during the irrigation
season. If there is excess available head, the system can deliver more than the require
flow. Consider reducing the orifice size or having a small drop structure in the head
 reach of the canal. If there is a deficit, reconsider the tentative design. Step 10. The downstream energy level at the first orifice can be taken as H3.
Step 11. Calculate the orifice head loss with flow rate M Q2, add to H3, to give H4 and
Figure 9.11: Double orifice intake design symbol nomenclature compare the maximum river level. If the river level is higher, there will be a greater
inflow and the side weir is too short. If the maximum river level is lower, the crest
a. Design flow in canal (steps 1 to 4) length of the weir calculated in Step 9 above is more than adequate.
Excess flow spillway Step 12. Amend the assumed value of M in Step 9 above accordingly and proceed to Step 11.
First orifice Repeat until the head upstream of the first orifice agrees with maximum water level, or
orifice
it is obvious that the design needs to be reconsidered, i.e. by changing one or both
orifice sizes, or the ratio Ql/Q2, or the relative canal and river levels, etc.

Figure 9.12: Flow over a broad crested weir

Orifice area A1 Onfice area A2

W e i r length L, (m) - -1
~ ~
.

\ Silted up

b. Maximum flow in canal (steps 5 to 12)

Excess flow spillwvaj
First orifice
m I Second orifice

Orifice area A1 Orifice area

I M . Q2 is the flow entering the structure

\ Scoured out
Q2 is the illaximum flow to enter
I
when the river is in flood the canal 100 200 300 1\00 500 600 700

Weir discharge GI,, (11s)

Step 6. Now consider maximum canal flow, Q2, with the second orifice downstream energy
level, h2 , assuming the link canal has scoured out.
Step 7. ~ a l c u l a tthe
i head loss at the second orifice and add to h2 to give H3, the energy head
in the structure.
Step 8. At maximum flows, the head, hw, across the excess flow spillway = H3 - C (from Step Design exaniple 2
Design a double orifice intake for a hill irrigation canal, for the following criteria
3).
Step 9. Assume the flow entering from the river in flood is M x Q2. The amount to be spilled Design flow in canal (Q1) = 250 11s
is therefore (M-1) x Q2 M might be tested initially at a value of 2. Maximum allowable flow in canal (Q2) = 350 11s
Calculate the required excess flow spill'way crest length, Lw, using the expression : Canal design water level (hl ) = 1 02.00
Maximum allowable canal water level (h2) = 102.11 (see below)
(M-1) Q~ =c,h:: L, Width of link canal = 1.OO m.
and choose Cd to suit the crest profile, e.g. 1.4 for a broad rectangular crest of masonry or concrete. - Length of structure = 30.00 m,
The weir length can also be read from Figure 9.12. Minimum river level = 102.50
Maximum river level = 104.00
Maximum flow entering structure = 700 11s.
For a canal with a design flow of 250 I/s, water slope of 1 : 1000, n = 0.025, Z = 1 : 1, b = 0.50, and
d = 0.50.
For maximum allowable flow in canal of 350 11s using the formula : [t] 50 ti
=
Maximum canal water level = 102.00 + (0.6 1 - 0.50) = 102.11
Vdes = 0.25 / ( 0.50 X 0.50 X 2 ) = 0.50 d s
Vmax = 0.35 / ( 0.61 x 0.50 + 0.61 x 0.61 ) = 0.52 rids
Using steps described above,
1. Fordesigncanalflows h l = W L 1 = 1 0 2 . 0 0
For maximum allowable canal flows h2 = WL2 = 102.11
2. Assume maximum velocity of 2 d s through orifice (i.e. for maximum allowable flow in canal)
For maximum allowable flow,'Q2 = 0.35 m3/s.
A2 = 0.35 / 2.0 = 0.175 m2
Let orifice width = 0.50 m. and depth =0.35 m.
( Note: The orifice width should be the same or less than the canal bed width, and the depth
should allow adequate submergence of the orifice at all flows.)
For design canal flows, see Figure 9.8
For Q1 = 250 l/s, B = 0.50 m, D = 0.35 m
Ah = 0.22 m
Therefore. h3 = hl + Ah = 102.00 + 0.22 = 102.22
To allow a free board of 0.05 m, make crest level of excess flow spillway 102.27
First orifice: Downstream energy level = 102.22. Assume inlet orifice is same size as outlet
orifice.
Therefore, Ah orifice = 0.22 m. Giving hq = 102.22 + 0.22 = 102.44
Minimum river level = 102.50. Therefore, river level is adequate
For maximum allowable canal flow, Q2 = 350 11s; h = 102.11 (see Step 1 above)
For maximum allowable canal flows, from Figure 9.8.
For 4 2 = 350 l/s, B = 0.50 m, D = 0.35 m
Ah = 0.41 m.
Therefore, H3 = h2 + Ah = 102.11 + 0.41 = 102.52
Head across excess flow spillway, hw = 102.52 - 102.27 = 0.25 nl.
Assume flow entering from the river in flood is 2 x Q2 = 700 11s. Therefore amount to be
spilled is 350 Us.
LW = 0.35 1 1.4 x (0.25)1.5 = 2.00
The downstream energy level at the first orifice is 102.52.
For maximum flow entering from river: For Q = 700 l/s, B = 0.50 m, D = 0.35 m.
Therefore, upstream level = 102.52 + 1.66 = 104.18
Assumed maximum river level = 104.00
4
giving
Therefore structure design is acceptable.
-
A bottom rack intake is a grill like openi~igI 1 ,.:I captures water from the bed of the river. The bottom
rack intake is most appropriate when there is no sediment movement along the river bed, because it
withdraws the bottom water in preference to the surface water. It is practically impossible to prevent
sediment entering the intake and it is therefore essential that effective sediment removal is achieved
using gravel traps and sediment basins located downstream of the bottom rack intake. The gravel trap
and the sediment basin will require continual flushing which means that sufficient head and surplus
water must be available. A general layout of a bottom rack intake is shown in the Figure 9.13.
The basic components of a bottom rack intake are :
* a weir to control minimum river flows and to maintain the flow towards the rack,
- * a steel rack to extract water from the river,
* a bottom trench immediately below the rack to lead the water extracted by the rack
into the canal,
* a flood control gate immediately downstream of the trench,
* a feeder canal to carry all sediment entering the intake to a sediment settling basin,
* a settling basin with a side spill and sediment flushing arrangement,
* adequate bank protection for the intake.
I1
The Weir helps maintain the minimum head required for the proper functioning of the bottom rack. ,
Permanent structures built across the river bed have a tendency to disturb the river regime. Hence the
crest of the weir should not be too high above the river bed.
The steel lzlck is by far the most complicated item in the design of bottom rack intakes. Some
designers select dimensions of the rack and the slope assuming total extraction of water equal to
design requirement, while others allow varying quantities of water to skim over the rack even at low
flow times. This coupled with the uncertain water availability in the river source and non availability of
. II
hydraulic formula to describe the behavior of rack during high flow times in the river, makes the
design complicated. At best the design defects can be offset by assuming that flood control gates will
be installed and continually adjusted to maintain hydraulic conditions for the proper hnctioning of the
system.
The bottont trench immediately below the rack serves to carry the water away from it toward a feeder
canal. The dimensions such as bed width, top width and side slopes of this trench must be chosen to
allow sufficiently high flow velocities to develop inside the trench to flush all sediment into the feeder
canal. The hydraulics of the trench during unpressurised, transient and pressurised flow (see Figure
b
9.14) have not been well documented to enable proper guidelines to be set for the design of bottom
racks. At best the design can limit the maximum size of the gravel particle that can enter the trench
through the opening in the rack and ensure that sufficiently high velocities are generated in the trench
Figure 9.13: Layout of bottom rack intake to sluice out the gravel particles towards the feeder canal.

/"\ The side spill~.tlayarid the stilling hasitr are usually combined and built at a suitable location for safely
DIVERSION WEIR discharging the excess flow back into the parent river.

BOl7OM RACK Design of steel rack

When designing the steel rack it is particularly important to check the following :
* adequacy of the rack openings to pass the required flow;
* adequacy of gradients of the submerged trench to sluice out the maximum size of gravel
FLOOD CONTROL GATE
that can pass through the grating (grill).
GABION PROTECTION
ON RIVER BED AND SlDE
6 Three methods for sizing the rack are described below :

/7pEEDER
/

Method one
This method is based on empirical formulas developed in Russia.
CANAL

GABION PROTECTION

SlDE SPILLWAY

MAIN CANAL OFFTAKE GATE

MAIN CANAL a) Freeflow

FLUSHING GATE

The relationship between Qw the flow entering the grating, L the length, and Bp the width of grating
is given by the expression:

Qw = design flow rate of the intake, (m3/s),

D) Transition Q1 = flow rate upstream of the rack, (m3/s),
Q2 = flow rate downstream of the rack, (n?/s),
Cd = discharge coefficient based on the rack dimension and configuration,
Cd = varies from 0.65 to 0.6 for Kt = 0.4 to 0.5 and flat bars,
Cd = varies from 0.6 to 0.55 for Kt = 0.4 to 0.5 and wedge shaped rods,
Kt = transparency factor, which is the ratio of the opening area to the total area of the rack
surface,(see Figure 9.15),
c ) Submerged flow
S
K, =- where s is rack opening, t is width of rack.
s+t
C

Figure 9.14: Flow condition in bottom trench

Kc = clearness factor of the rack. and is equal to 1-Kp .
I ---L w s between 0.8 and 0.85 for ordinary bottom racks,
Bp = width of the rack. (m),
L = length of the rack, (m).

156
 Figure 9.15: Bottom rack geometry
K, = - S

s+ l
s is rack opening, t is width of rack

cb = discharge coefficient for broad crested weirs,

E = energy head upstream of the rack,
= width of the rack, (m),
*P
L = length of the rack, (m).

Method three
This method is based on research carried Out by J.K.White. the
The relation~fipbetween Qe, the flow entering the grating, L, the length, and b, the width
grating is shown by the graph below.

r Ill I: (
Qe
b L p g'" w"'

( A: Rack Frame B: Cross sectional shape 01' I-ods

Method two )C
This method is based on Ven Te Chow's analysis of spatially varied flon

,
Energy line

L
Design curve valid for 6 < -
1Y
< 10 , and 0.167 < p < 0.333
Where,
I End section through bars Qe = diverted- flow
Qo = stream flow
b = intake width
L = bar length
w = bar width
s = bar spacing
The relationship between Q,, the flow entering the grating, L tlie length. and Bp the w~dthof gating
is given by the expression : p = ratio s !(S + W)
n = bar top transverse

Q1 =
LQ = 0,
K [ ~ ' ~@B/,
where I,' = (-

design flow rate of the rack, (ni3/s),

;
Q; ,I:
i slope ( for no low flow
rejection n = 2 to 3)

Cd = discharse coefficient based on the rack dimension and configuration,

Cd = 0 65 - 0 6 for Kt = 0 4 - 0 5 and flat bars.
Cd = 0 6 - 0 5 5 for Kt = 0 4 - 0 5 and wedge shaped rods,
Kt = transparency factor. which is the ratio of the opening area to the total area of the rack surface,
 Section through bottom rack
Design e x a m ~ l e3: Bottom rack intake
Design a steel rack for the following- data :
Q1 flow rate upstream of the rack = 250 Us,
Q2 flow rate downstream of the rack = 100 Us,
Qw design flow rate of the intake = 150 l/s,
s the rack opening = 0.012 m,
t the bar diameter = 0.025 m,
Kp the plugging coefficient = 0.2,
Kc the clearness coefficient = 1 - Kp = 0.8,
Cd is the discharge coeficient based on the rack dimension and configuration, 9 r ,!
Cd the discharge coefficient = 0 45.
Using the equation: Q, = 1.93 C, Kt Kc B:I3 L ,/Qy3+ Q:l3
Table below shows the variation of Bp with L For strength considerations L should be less than Bp.
Generally the rack would be made of several small units, the size of these units must be decided taking
into consideration the maximum weight that can be ported to remote hill sites.
Chapter 10: Sediment control structures
Source of sediment
Sediment load in Himalayan mountain rivers is derived extensively from mass wasting of river bank
slopes taking place in the form of landslides, mud flows and heaves. Surface erosion of the hill slopes
and river bed erosion also contribute to the sediment load in Himalayan rivers, but to a smaller extent.
Hill slope erosion can take place in the form of rill, sheet and gully erosion, while river bed erosion
can be due to degradation of river tributaries and rivers.
What causes mass wasting ?
Mass wasting in the Himalayas is due to :
* frequent Glacial Lake Out burst Floods (GLOF). Glacial lake outburst floods are due
to breaching of moraine dams and ice dams in the high altitudes. The sediment load can
be exceptionally high during a GLOF. Large quantities of material are eroded from
terraces, valley walls, river banks and previous fluvial deposits as the flood due to a
GLOF moves down the river system,
* intense rainfall leading to rapid saturation of hill slope resulting in landslides,
* in the western part of Nepal, peak rainfall intensities of upto 100 mm per hour are
common although only of a few minutes duration at most. Rain of this intensity is very
erosive, especially if it follows a period of normal rain during which the soil has
- I -0'32T
W + h ---a become well wetted. The burst of rainfall saturates the upper part of the soil profile,
sf k - t e o < l which can liquee and slide downhill in a destructive earth or mud flow contributing to
the sediment load of the river,
Kt L$ r
cd 2'orq5 * rapid weathering of the hill slope due t o the sub-tropical and tropical climates of the
- ?I?
-
I - _
--- - *
lower middle mountains and the Siwalik mountain ranges,
extreme diurnal variation in temperature leading to quick physical weathering.
J C
7 ;;-
A) 8 ?
- -
41 0.4 51s2 + 4-., What causes hill slope and river bed erosion ?
*
-- hill slope-e r o s i ~ k . _
.--A- .__
- re-&f vegetation cover due to overgrazing, large scale irrigation and road and
trial construction activities involving excavation of stable hill slopes and careless
disposal of spoil,
- lack of gu_lly~potection-measures
* r i v e ~ b e derosion,
- rigid structures across river beds affect flow regime of rivers,
- flash floods eroding river banks and river beds,
- variation in sediment load in rivers resulting in the increase of erosive power of the
water.
0.150=0.174 x B:I3 x L Seasonal variation o f sediment load in nzountain rivers
Sediment load in mountain rivers is derived from mass wasting and surface erosion. Mass wasting and
surface erosion are dependent, among other factors, on rainfall and rainfall pattern. The other factors
that influence mass wasting and soil erosion are :
i
* climate,
* soil type,
I
* type of vegetative cover, and
* land use.
 Therefore, seasonal variation in rainfall causes a seasonal variation in sediment load in rivers. Figure * surface sampling, taken normally from exposed shoals, or
10.1, shows the variation of sediment load in mountain rivers due to mass wasting trigged by rainfall. * pit samples, dug through exposed shoals.
The occurrence of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods is very erratic and cannot be predicted. Accordingly
seasonal variation of sediment due to GLOF is not easy to predict. Figure 10.2, shows the variation of Seasonal variation of sediment load due to surface erosion caused by rainfall
isre 2
sediment load in mountain rivers due to s-dace erosion caused by rainfall. The erosivity of the rainfall runoff
increases with the monsoon, but the ability of vegetation to protect the top soil also increase with the
monsoon resulting in reduced rates of surface erosion as the monsoon progresses.
\ High By mid monsoon vegetation
Sediment type and their measurement is in best condition to
The science of measurement and analysis of sediment distribution in rivers is called sedimentology.
Because sediment load in rivers depend on several factors sedimentology is a very complex science.
For our purposes we shall deal very briefly about sediment sampling methods.
<-
Relative ability of
Sediment type
River sediment consists of :
* bed load, and
* suspended load.

Bed load is the sediment which is in almost continuous contact with the bed, carried forward by
rolling, sliding or hopping. Suspended load is that part of the total sediment transported which is Just before monsoon
maintained in suspension by turbulence in the flowing water for a considerable period of time without vegetation offers little
contact with the stream bed. It the moves with the same velocity as that of the flowing water. protection for soil
Low
Figure 10.1: Seasonal variation of sediment load due to mass wasting
\ J F M A M J J A S 0 N D

High Grab sampling

Grab samples of river bed consisting of gravel and sand can be obtained using equipment such as
scoop type samplers (Figure 10.3) or digging samplers (Figure 10.4). When the river consists of
coarse material clam-shell samplers (FigurelO.5) are used. With this type of sampler there is danger of
fine fraction of the bed material washing out as the sampler is brought to the surface of the water in
the river.

Surface sampling
Surface sampling needs no special equipment and a useful procedure is sampling by grid. This consists
of picking up the particle at each intersection of a grid (say 10 m x 10 m) formed of string lines on a
framework. A method of sampling from a larger area is to sample along a line or several lines, chosen
by eye to be typical of that reach of the river. The procedure is to walk along the line and pick up the
stone under the right foot at every other stride.

Pit sampling
In gravel rivers there is a tendency for coarser material to form a layer, that is only one layer thick and
hence armoring the bulk of the bed material. Surface sampling of this reach of the river will provide
the data for assessing when the actual surface material will move, but if this is not representative of
the material in depth, then a bulk sample must be taken by digging a hole (after discarding the surface
Sampling bed material layer) in order to assess sediment transport after the breakup of the armor layer.
~ h r e emethods are available for sampling bed material of rivers beds :
* grab sampling,
Sampling bed load Figure 10.6: Basket sampler used ill gravel bed rivers for sampling bed load
It is difficult to measure bed load. Reliable data can be obtained only after 20 to 100 measurements
from 4 to 10 points across the width of the river, repeated over a range of river discharges. The
sampling method involves catching the moving bed load in a trap or basket using equipment shown in
I Fin 1
Figures 10.6,10.7 and 10.8.

Sampling suspended load

An estimate of the suspended sediment load can only be obtained by taking samples in a regular
pattern across a river at a range of depths. The sampling must be repeated for different river
discharges.

Figure 10.3: Scoop type sampler used in shallow

'-.
Figure 10.4: Digging sampler
water usually in sand bed rivers used in deep water

Figure 10.7: Helley-Smith basket sampler used in sand bed rivers for sampling bed
load

Figure 10.5 Clam-shell bed material sampler for coarse bed material

Flow

Figure 10.8: Arnhem type bed load sampler (plan view)

Bucket open whilst I 1

Latch, which disengages
when device reaches bed
I

Types of different samplers and their use are briefly explained below. i HUUDER
Instantaneous sampler
CONNEC
Instantaneous samplers consists of a horizontal tube open at both ends which is lowered to the
required depth and then the ends are closed before lifting the tube out of the water. Figure 10.9 (c)
shows two such samplers. This sampling method does not take into consideration the fluctuation in
the concentration of suspended sediment at a given point in the river.
 Time-integrating point samplers Figure 10.9 Suspended sediment sampling equipment
Time integrating point samplers overcome the problem of fluctuation of concentration by filling over a
short but significant interval of time. It is representative of one point in the cross-section only.
Samples are collected at selected depths at stream verticals representing areas of equal water
discharge in the cross-section. A time integrating point sampler is shown in Figure 10.9 (b).

Depth-in tegrating sampler

I (a) Depth-Integrating Sampler I
A depth integrating sampler measures the discharge-weighted mean concentration for a vertical
location in the river. The sampler (see Figure 10.9 (a)) is lowered into the river to the stream bed and
then raised to the surface at a constant rate. The rate of raising the sampler must be chosen by trial rod ---dl
II
Intake nozzle
\
1 C ~ a n line
d

and error so that the sampler is not completely filled on its return to the surface. The vertical location
is selected so that it represents an area of equal discharge in the cross-section. The rate of rising on a
vertical must be constant but need not be the same on other verticals.

Single stage sanzpler (b) Time-Integrating Point Sampler

Where a sample is required at high flows, a simple unmanned type of s a m p e (see Figure 10.9 (d))
can be used. The bottle is located at a pre determined location and level (above the normal water
surface) and a sample is taken slowly on the rising stage and can be collected later.
I

I I Sedinzent control
Sediment control me-
Best location for
* Sediment control within river
-
an intake about 213 - 314
of the distance around using
River \ the bend on the outside - channel curvature I (c) Instantaneous Sampler
- pitched islands
- guide vanes
- divide wall and stilling pond
- tunnel excluders
* Sediment control in the main
canal using Rubber tublng
- settling basin Hinged flap
I
I I

" I - sediment ejector Strearnllned weight

- vortex tube
Sediment corttrol using ttatzrml chamlel czir-vntwe (d) Single Stage Sampler

Sediment control using natu~~al

channel curvature
When a river flows in a bend the centrifbgal forces acting on the water create a spiral -
flow across the
. .
cross section. This spiral b w moves the sedlmPnt&unde.beab~~n~oii _bar d e ~ d t _ s
~ m e sholllds -e at tile-
--

Pitched islands
A pitched island (see Figure 10.10) is an artificial island built in the river bed and protected with rock
armor. The island causes redistribution of currents resulting in deep scour forming around the island.
The path of the bed- material movement can be changed so that material moves away from canal
intakes.
 Guide vanes built on the base of the structure (see Figure 10.13). For efficient operation the ejector discharge
Guide vanes establish localized secondary currents which move sediment away from canal intakes. through the tunnels should be about 20 to 25% of the canal discharge.
Guide vanes can be placed on-the bed (bottom vanes) or just below the surface (see Figure 10.11)
~ h t t o mvanes are generally clamped to piles. Surface vanes are attached t o a floating frame or to a Photograph 10.1: A settling basin appropriate for hill irrigation systems
barrage.

Figure 10.10: An artificial pitched island

L-
7-I Divide
pond
L wall and stilling
Barrages with under sluice and
divide wall create stilling ponds

b&se of the Island

-- Lett
divide wall
p for sediment deposition. The
sediment is then removed
throughi under sluices. A
typical layout for a barrage
with divide wall, stilling pond
FLOW
and under slice is shown in

I - surface currents 1
s
Figure 10.12.

Tzrnnel exclzrders
The main principle is dividing
the bottom layers of the river
1 Figure 10.11: Bottom and submerged guide vanes

flow through tunnels back into

the river by placing a
diaphragm at a suitable height
without disturbing the sediment distribution

Settling basin
-
A settling basin is a s t m c b r e built to trap t h e g e m after it had enjered the main- c
--
e
intake. The v&ocity of flow in the settling basin is lowered (by providing a larzer cross sectional area)
to about 0.2 mlsec. allowing sand particles upto 0.20 mm to settle to the floor The sediment collected
in side the structure is flushed periodically. The larger particles which cannot be removed by hydraulic
flushing are cleaned manually. The size of the settling basin is dependent on :
* sediment concentration of the flow~enteringthrough the intake,
* minimum size of the sediment pakicle that is to be trapped, and
* the cleaning interval.
L J

A typical settling basin appropriate for use in remote hill irrigation projects is shown in Photograph
10.1. Vortex tube
Such settling basins are appropriate in remove hills, because they are m e k--tube
* - sediment
-
ejector is a tube with an open--slot. One or more tubes can be placed either
easy to build: no complex hydraulic components, perpendicular or at some angle to the direction of flow in the canal. When several tubes are built the
* easy to operate: farmers can quickly learn to operate the structure, and
b position of the slots can be staggered as shown in Figure 10.14
* easy t o maintain.
Appropriate sediment control structures for remote hill irrigation schemes and
/
Sedinzent qierior nzountain rivers
A sediment ejector is a structure built across the main canal to eject excess.-.sediment .- .. . entering
~ . the- .-canal
, ,- -
Not all structures described earlier are suitable for use in mountain rivers and remote hill irrigation
throughEeintaice.
- .- - ... ' l/--.' h e X e ~ c a r r. ~ d i n- <---bottom
~~
h-~
e . .. .layers
.-
is a u t o m a t i c a l l y q s t & h Q ugh_tunnels systems, because of the following reasons :
 Figure 10.13: A sediment ejector
Figure 10.12: Divide wall and ur~dersluicefor control of sediment

* fiediment
control structures 5
w
Gulda Bund built across mountain rivers
are unstable and are quickly
damaged,
@ large variation in flood
intensity,
- most designs are
effective only over a
&
RlvER small range of flow
@* intensity,
large variation in size of
sediment load,
@*
ht Qulde B u n d

d&culty in construction
operation and maintenance,
HALF T o p PLAN i!r HALF FOUNDATION PLAN
a; 8
- farmer's cannot
effectively operate and r 1 2 . M
Concrete .lab 15' thkk
maintain complex ,mckm / SLOPE 1:100 m i
structures.

We shall now discuss in detail more appropriate and cost effective methods of sediment control in
remote hill irrigation systems.
1

River sediment and its affect on irrigation canals LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF SUB-TUNNEL N0.1

Large particles of sediment entering the irrigation canal can :

t
I (Reference - Up~a1.1086)
block canals by reducing canal capacity,
* block canals by assisting in the accumulation of more sediment behind them.
Smaller particles, The solution to the sediment problem in hid irrigation canals
* are more mobile and can move deeper into the canal system, block canals cause The primary source of sediment in irrigation canals in hill areas of Nepal is river borne sediment.
overtopping of canal banks leading to breach of canal segments. However. there are several other secondary sources of sediment entering irrigation canals. These
Finer particles, * sources include :
secondary
* are even more mobile and may reach the fields and affect crop yield. rainspalsh erosion and overland flow,
* drainage flows entering the canal,
Precautionary measures for minimizing sediment entry into irrigation canals * minor land slips along the canal,
There are several effective precautionary measures to reduce the amount if sediment entering the * excessive erosion of canal banks.
canal. T se include :
2 proper location for intakes,
- on the outer bend,
In some cases the above mentioned secondary sources may contribute a large share of the sediment in
the canal. Therefore the sediment problem must be tackled by :
- near a stagnant pool or pond in the river. *
identifjring the major source of sediment, and
* appropriate design of head works, attacking the problem at their respective sources.
/
- raised sill high enough to exclude bed load, # 6,
!J)P
'' f9
- vertical trash racks, This section will only deal with the problem of river borne sediment. I

- suitable settling basins or gravel traps.

appropriate operation,
4c C~wp;~,
Traditional sediment r e n y a l methods versus
- closing of intake gates during flood flow, Particles ranging in size from larger cobbles to find clay can enter the canal through the intake during
- extracting only a minor portion of the total river flow during normal operation. various times of the year. These particles need to be trapped and removed using traditional farmer
methods (manual cleaning) or improved methods (hydraulic flushing). Often it may not be possible to Gravel traps
remove all trapped sediment by hydraulic flushing and a combination of hydraulic and manual cleaning There are many situations in hill areas where gravel travels as bed load for part of the year. Ideally the
will be required. intake itself should be positioned and oriented in such a wag that gravel cannot enter it. This can be
done using under-sluices, side sluices and raised sills to control the entry of gravel. In small to medium
Figure 10.14: A vortex tube sediment ejector schemes, particularly in the hilly areas permanent structures across rivers with under sluices or
equivalent features in fro$ of the intake, will be less likely. Thus gravel can easily enter the intake,
and the use of gravel traps behind the intake becomes necessary. The design of gravel traps differs
from settling basins because they handle coarse material which enters near the bed, rather than
suspended material which has to be settled through the depth. The main design principle is that the
velocity through the basin should be less than is competent to move the smallest size of gravel to be
removed. Table 10.1 gives the nominal and design velocities through gravel traps for various particles
sizes. Gravel traps may be emptied mechanically by hand or by flushing. Hydraulic flushing of gravel
requires large quantities of water at high velocity but is easier if the gravel trap is hopper shaped, with
floor slopes of 30" if possible. Figure 10.15, shows a gravel trap that requires manual cleaning and
Figure 10.16, shows a modified gravel trap that can be flushed hydraulically.
PLAN

Table 10.1 : Flow velocity through gravel trap

Particle size (mm) Normal velocity (nz/s)jbr depths of Design velocity (m/s).for depths of
3m 1.5 m 3m 1.5 m

1)
CENTRE L I N E

1
water ."a ..dlm.nl
ELEVATION
10 d1.ch.r~.

CANAL

DEFINITION SKETCH

PLAN VIEW SHOWING

GENERAL LAYOUT OF MULTIPLE TUBES

In hill irrigation systems where river borne sediment is a major problem affecting the system during
most part of the cultivation season, a combination of hydraulic and manual cleaning is desirable. A I
I
;
- i

Storage volume of gravel traps 5

I:

settling basin will be the most appropriate solution in this case. When the problem is not so severe and
?'
affects the system only during short periods of intense rainfall and flooding, a sand trap requiring During canal operation gravel begins accumulating in the trap. The accumulation of gravel will
manual cleaning of sediment is appropriate. gradually decrease the efficiency of the trap. Therefore this gravel must be removed periodically. For
The choice between a gravel trap and a settling basin is also influenced by other factors such as : this purpose sufficient storage space must be provided to accumulate the gravel entering through the
* the availability of a suitable location for construction, intake until it is removed periodicaoy. The required storage space for trapped gravel is given by the
- gravel traps, trap only larger sediment particles and are small in size and require expression :
less construction space,
Xmax FI
.n.
- settling basins to trap finer particles are large in size and require more constructqon
.
--_ - .
v,= 3600.24.Q.
BD. 1O6
space.
* cost, where, V, = volume of storage in cubic meters, '
l

- gravel traps are less costly, = flow rate in cubic meters per sec., I , J
- settling basins are more costly. Xmax = maximum sediment concentration of the flow entering the gravel trap in (mgll),
* remoteness of location, n = efficiency of the trap',
- gravel traps may need more frequent cleaning especially during flood flow in the FI = interval between flushing or cleaning in days,
river. BD = bulk density of the sediment.
* ability of the farmers to operate and maintain the structures, r rr9 9''
- gravel traps are easy to operate and maintain compared to settling basins which can ' C
have several gates. Incorrect operation of gates can cause problems leading to
abandonment of the structure.
 Figure 10.16: A gravel for continuous sluicing
Figure 10.15: A gravel trap requiring manual cleaning -- -- .-- - -

Maximum level of deposition

I , Gravel and coarse sand trap

\
Optiorial divide wall

Plan
 @

-'&s basin
A settling basin is essentially a modification of the gravel trap in that it allows large particles and a
Figure 10.17: Typical features of a settling hasin

limited range of small particles to be trapped.

The design principle of a settling basin is as follows :
* lower the flow velocity in the settling zone of the basin to assist small sediment
particles to settle to the floor rapidly,
* create hydraulic conditions at the inlet and outlet transition zones so that eddy currents
are not formed,
* create hydraulic conditions in the basin to prevent rescouring of the sediment particle,
during normal canal operation, once it has settle on the floor,
* create hydraulic conditions in the basin for the hydraulic flushing of sediment particles
(of required size) when flushing gates are operated,
* provide an automatic spillway to allow flood water to spill over the structure (see Section A-A Section B-B
Photograph 10.1))
*
-
provide a head regulator gate to c o n t r o l f l o w of the water into the main canal
d m normal and flood thesin the source river.
Depressed floor
(to provide sufficient

The essential physical features of a settling basin to filfill the above design requirements are illustrated
in Figures 10.17 and 10.18 and Photographs 10.1, 10.2 and 10.3. $hese include the following :
head to generate ad-
equate scour velocity to
carry the silt wlhen
-
..
the
/
/
to river
A
'+

* a widened basin for lowering of flow velocity to assist in the sedimentation process, flush gate is opened)
* a sloping floor to generate adequate high flow velocity to scour the sediment when the
flush gates are operated,
* silt flushing gates,
* a lowered floor near the silt flushing gate to provide sufficient hydraulic head for
efficient flushing of the silt,
* a head regulator to control the flow of water into the main canal, and to shut off flow (to flush out sedi-
entering the main canal during repairs and emergency, ment hydraulically)
* a side spillway (optional) to automatically expel excess water entering the settling basin
during river flood. (Alternatively the flush gate can be operated as an excess spillway).

Design of settling area --- - ---

------
The design of the settling area is based on the settling velocity of the particles of sediment. The
settling velocity of a sediment particle is dependent on its shape, size, mass and viscosity of the water.
Ideally the falling sediment particle is treated individually, though in practice the re is tendency for the
particles to collide with each other during settling. The sediment process can bs significantly affected
-\
when the sediment load concentration exceeds 2000 mgllitre.

Sloping basin floor Head regulator gate

(to drive sediment towards (to control water entering main canal)
flush gate)
Figure 10.18: Typical arrangement of settling basin with,a frontal flush gate
Photograph 10.2: Settling basin with a side flush gate and head regulator

Photograph 10.3: Settling basin with a frontal flush gate and head regulator
:;

Sedimentatip theory Step 5: Estimate the trapping efficiency of the basin.

Step 6: Determine the plan area of the basin using the nomogram shown in Figure 10.19, and fix
the overall size of the settling basin.
Path of the sediment particle Step 7: Determine the minimum velocity of the settling zone to prevent rescouring of the
1 Step 8:
sediment.
Determine the minimum scour velocity needed to flush sediment particles of size fixed in
Step 3 above.
Step 9: Determine the required slope of the basin floor to generate adequate scour velocity.
Step 10: Assuming standard gate width determine the minimum required depth of the sluice invert
below the level of the settling basin floor.

I storage space
I Step 11: Determine the sediment storage volume available in the basin. Adjust the size of the
spdiment basin taking into consideration a suitable cleaning interval and making sure that
all hydraulic conditions set previously are not affected.
A solid sediment particle, P, has two component velocities : Step 12: Determine the sill level of the head regulator that controls the flow of water into the main
V = velocity in the horizontal direction, and canal.
W = velocity in the vertical direction. Step 13: Determine the capacity and the sill level of the optional side spill weir to control flood
V is approximately equal to the flow velocity of water in the settling basin water entering the main canal.

Consider a sediment particle entering the basis The settling time of the particle is, ts = YAhi The Design example
retention time of the particle, tr = basin volume / flow rate Design discharge = 0.6 cubic meters per sec.
Estimated sediment load = 1500 mg~l.
--. ASY
- Sediment carrying capacity of the main canal = 100 mg/l. .
Q Size of the sediment particle to be trapped = 0.5 mm.
If all sediment particles, having settling velocity, w, are to be trapped inside the basin, the retention Size of the sediment particle to be flushed hydraulically = 0.8 mm.
time must be equal to the settling time. ' Eficiency if the basin, q, = (1500 - 100)/(1500) = 93%.
tr = ts From nomogram (Figure 10.19), for paRicle size 0.5 mm, Q/As = 0.018.

';'
k R
Therefore As = 0.6/0,018= 33.3 square meters. J ,!. .L--
+ d"
AsY Y
giving -= - i . e . W = -Q Assuming length : width ratio of 10 : 1 C 5 j, 9 - .+
,-'

Q w' As L = 10 B: A , = 1 0 ~ 2 = 3 3 . 3 : givingB=182rn.
Where, Q is the flow rate., As is the plan area of the settling basin, and Y the flow depth. This Set basin size with L = 19 m. and B = 1.85 m.
relationship is basis for the nomogram shown in Figure 10.19. Critical bottom velocity in the settling basin to prevent rescouring of particles of size 0.5 mm equals
0.24 mlsec. (from nomogram in Figure 10.20)
Design of a settling basin Minimum flow depth in the settling basin for this velocity not to be exceeded is
/"
The essential steps in the design of a settling basin are given below : y = Q / B V = 0.6 / (1.85 x 0.24) = 1.35 m.

Step 1: Estimate sediment load (See exercise). In the absence of actual field data the following
Scour velocity required to flush out particles of size 0.8 mm and below is equal to 183 d s e c, (from,
nomogram in Figure 10.21) ,,? ,.-.,,. , i . -
- . . t

b l p 5 __- - 1

guide lines may be applicable for small to medium hill schemes. Assuming scour flow = 1.25 x Q = 1.25 x 0.6 = 0.75 cubic meters per sec. ;;.,
1 I
3 ',
.
"
Lee
,f

Poor intake site 2000 mg/l

Medium intake site 1500 mgA
Scour depth, Ys = 0.75 / (1.83 x 1.85) = 0.22 m.
Scour bed slope is given by the equation ,im P 19
(--,- :? t .2
Good intake site 1000 mg/l. )( o*O'

Step 2: Fix the size of the sediment particle to be trapped in the settling basin. Recommended size V s c =12- R 213 Ssc
112
(wheren=0.02) GivingSsc=0.013=1:75
for hill schemes = 0.5 mm.
2 *: kd b.1 ' 3 . .'.-
Step 3: Fix the size of the sediment particle for hydraulic flushing when flush gates are operated. Assuming - 1 m. wide flush gate, the head of water required at the gate to discharge 0.75 cubic meters
h

. -?
Recommended size for hill schemes = 0.8 mm. (this means that particle of size lower than per sec. is given by: 0.75 = 1.7 x I x G3I2
,-

0.8mm will be flushed hydraulically and the larger particles will have to be cleaned
manually).
Thus Yg = 0.58 m. 2
(!
4,&.f
'
\
,
6
"'
1
The depth of the scour gate sill below the floor of the settling basin = Yg + 0.05 - Ys.
Step 4: Fix the sediment carrying capacity of the canal below he settling basin Generally this can = 0.58 + 0.05 - 0.22
be takes as 100 mg/l.
,.'o f 7 3 . 1 I".'..

/' = 0.41 m.
Figure 10.19: Nomogram for determining the required surface area of the settling basin Figure 10.20: Nomogram for determining the minimum depth of the stilling basin to prevent
re-scouring of the sediment particles from the floor of the basin during normal
operation

I Pmkk Diameter (mm)

Example:
for particle size 0.5mm,
critical bottom velocrty (from above graph) equal 0.24mps
for Q equals. 0.3 cumecs,
minimum flow depth = Q / (velocity x width)
= 0.83m (say 85 cms)
Figure 10.21: Nomogram for determining the scouring velocity in sand traps

I
.I

23 r

Estimation of sediment load in the absence of local data

- q A 7 jb 7cc
1.9 .
The sediment yield from mountain catchments is related to the extent of the catchment area as shown
-
by the formulas below:
P
1.8 .
For catchment area below 150 square kilometers, Y = -
i
1.7 i
1.534
For catchment area above 150 square kilometers, Y = -
AO 263

1.6 /
h
Where Y is the sediment yield in ~ m ~ 1 1 km21year,
00 and A the catchment area in km2
2
E
V
1.5 . 1
/ For A = 18.4 km2
.-U
C

-
0
y = -0.395
3
eT,
~ 0 . 3 11
'-l
= 0.1596 ~ m 3 100
/ km21 year,
c 1.4
'C
/ 1 596 m31 km21 year.
=
C
u3
Tb , the total annual bulk volume of sediment for A = 18.4 km2 is 18.4 x 1596 = 29,) 70 m3
Assuming the density of the sediment to be 2 tlm3,
1.3 - Tm , the total annual mass of sediment equal 58,740 tons.

Assuming 60% o f this sediment is transported by the river in three months of the monsoon.
1.2 Mass of sediment carried in three months, T,' = 60 x 58,740 / 100 = 35,240 tons.
Assuming a mean monsoon discharge Q , of 1.90 cubic meters per sec.
Total water discharge during three months Q tm = 3 x 30 x 24 x 60 x 60 x 1.90 x

1.1 - = 14.774 x lo6 &bic meters.

-
-- - 3 5,240
- = tonslcubic meter
C I
Concentration of sediment by mass
1.o Qnl 14.774 x lo6

Note: Whenever practicable sedin~entload 171ensurement.ymusf be made ar the intake location of the soztrce
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 river-for an irrigation project. Failing that, infornlation specifical1~)~for
Nepal on sedjment yield-fiom
catchments related to such factors as elevation, steepness, geolog~lnnd geomorphologv should be used. Tlie
Particle Size (mm)
general method shown in this example is NOT a recommendation for general practice NOR does it provide
an excuse for failing to obtain more reliable information.
Chapter 11: Canals
Imgation Canals are aligned in one of the following ways :
De$nition and nomenclature of canals * as contour canals,
The terminology used in Nepal, for defining canals vary considerably between schemes leading to
* as ridge canals, and
* as side slope canals.
confusion. There is a need to produce a reasonable, rational set of definitions for the various
components of the canal system.
Canals can be named based on : A contour canal: is aligned nearly parallel to the contours of_the.area, and maintain required slopes
~ ~ ~

* carrying capacity, or along its length topfodficetE~diSiFeaaVelocityof flow. A contour canal irrigates only one side of the
* level of hierarchy. area, and crosses maximum number of drainages.

When canals are named based on carrying capacity, conhsion may arise between the definition of hill
and terai canals because hill canals generally have low canying capacity. A system of nomenclature
based on canal hierarchy is therefore more appropriate in that it gives a set of uniform names to canals
in the terai and the hills.
Under this system of canal hierarchy, canals are named as :
A ridge canal: is one aligned along the ridge The ridge alignment is most preferred as cross-drainage
works are obviated-and irrigation i s poss~bleon either side of the canal It would command the
maximum area to be irrigated Such canal alignments are seldom encountered in hilly areas
A side slopesaml: is onealigned roughkat-right-a~les_toothecontours.As such this canalwould
~~

* primary canals, be parallel~to-the-natural drainage, it would not intercept any cross drainage,_Since;iside slope
&
secondary canals, -alongdhe-line-of steepest slope, only canals of a lower level of hierarchy can be so
channel lies ~

* tertiary canals, located:

* quaternary canals, and
C * field channels.

Primary canal: is a canal which conveys water from the source to the command area. This canal
usually terminates at the end of the command area of may split into several secondary canals
somewhere in the command. In some instances, the flow in a primary canal may be augmented from
another source. The canal delivering this supplemental flow is known as a feeder canal.
Secondary canal: is the canal which conveys water from the primary canal to the tertiary units or, in
small schemes, directly to the farmers' fields through an outlet structure. In some cases, a secondary
canal may divided into two. The branched canals are termed sub-secondaries.
Design of canals
Canals for gravity irrigation system in Nepal, are almost always, open channels. Nthough some small
stretches, passing through difficult areas, are built as closed sections, using concrete and HDP pipe.
The off takes from canals are always from open sections. The discussions below focus on the design
of open canal sections. The closed section, from which there are no off takes, are designed using basic
hydraulic principles.
Design of canals involves the following stages :
* the determination of canal capacity,
* the determination of the bed level and slope of the canal along its length, and
* the determination of the cross-section of the different segments of the canal.

Tertiary canal: is a canal which feeds a tertiary service area (typically 10 to 50 ha) and conveys Canal capacity
water from the secondary canal to the quaternaries. Tertiaries may also convey water directly to the ,
The starting point for the determination of canal capacity is the crop water requirement of the area
fields from the primary canal in a small system. served by the canal. -
The o 2 e r factors that influence the design capacity of a canal are : .
Quaternary canal: is a canal which conveys water to field channels (typically feeding 4 to 10 ha) or efficiency of operation of the canal, and
directly to the farmers' fields. seepage losses.

Field channels: are channels which convey water to the farmers' fields from the quaternary canal. In Canal capacities are normally set to provide the peak crop water requirements. The Net Crop Water
the case of hill projects, they may be fed directly from the secondary or tertiary canals. Requirement (NCWR) (mmlday) is converted into the net discharge using the expression :

Canal layout and alignment

Layout is defined as the arrangement of canals required to achieve the water distribution objectives.
The objective of canal layout is to establish the optimum arrangements, positions and levels of
channels and structures to ensure satisfactory distribution at an acceptable cost, while taking account Tertiary level canals
of the physical, technical and social constraints. There are generally five layout patterns appropriate to At a tertiary level, the tertiary head discharge is obtained by applying the tertiary unit efficiency (qu)
hill irrigation. These are shown in Figure 12.3, of Chapter 12. All are fed by a primary canal joining to the valve of Qnet obtained from the expression above.
the command area to the source works and all use small terraced basins as the irrigation method. Recommended values for etu are :
80% for channels of good condition in light soils
85% for channels of good condition in heavy soils
 70% for channels of poor condition in light soils schematic canal l a y o ~ ~ t
75% for channels of poor condition in heavy soils
T- P
Secondary level canals
For a system using proportional division of water, the capacity of the canal can be calculated by
summing up the dischargks of the downstream tertiary units and adding in the seepage losses A
distribution efficiency, e,,is also allowed at this stage to account for operational errors and time lags
in filling the canals.
Typical values of em are :
90% for canals in continuous operation, and
80% for canals in rotation.

The capacity of the secondary canal will be :

In theory the capacity of the secondary canal will be reduced at each tertiary unit off take. In practice
however it is usual to define a reach (usually between major control structures) for which the capacity
is fixed from the maximum flow in the reach. The design capacity of a reach is thus the capacity
required to serve all the canals off taking from that reach plus the requirement of the reach
downstream plus seepage losses. The calculation of the capacity thus starts at the tail end of the canal
and builds up to the head. ~ a n a ~ e m eefficiencies
nt are best applied to the sum of the off taking flows,
since otherwise they would be compounded up the system. Example sheets for the design of canal
capacity of a secondary and primary canal for a given canal layout (Figure 11.1) are given in Figures
11.2 and 11.3.

Canal levels
The objective of setting of canal levels is to ensure that water is delivered to the fields at the required
rate and at the required depth. Establishing canal levels should thus start at the field channel level in
the tertiary units and build back up the system to establish levels at the head. Generally, in the case of
primary and secondary hill canals, there is available a wide margin of level difference between the bed
of the supply canal and the off takes, and fixing of design canal levels is flexible within certain limits.
The levels in the primary and secondary hill canals therefore are mainly influenced by :
* the ground slope of alignment of the canal, and
* the headless across structures placed in the canals.

However, the canal levels, of tertiary or lower level canals, will be influenced by the adjacent field
levels, in addition to the above factors.

Canal bed slopes

Canal slope generally refers to the water surface slope. In most distribution systems, uniform flow is
assumed to apply, and th6 water surface and canal bed slopes are taken to be the same for design
purposes. The canal slope of a primary canal will depend partly on the difference in level available
between the intake and the highest level of the command area to be considered, whereas the canal
slope of a secondary or a tertiary will depend on the topography of the command area, principally the q teniary head = 1.B I/ s / ha
land gradient and soil characteristics. Canal slopes are designed to effect non-silting and non-scouring
conditions. To minimize construction costs, the canal should follow the terrain slope as much as
 Figure 11.3: Example canal design of a primary canal of Figure 11.1
Figure 11.2: Example canal design of a secondary canal ( ~ 1 ~ of1 )Figure 11.1

a
..

.
p $
3 2
0
2 %
-

2
11)
-2
g'
2m-..
~a
I:$5
,: m
IZ$
1~~
- x-
a
o 'J6a'
oc
=-g :. c ,
" - a m " oO G$..C
gC ".-
p,?'
, . < , c r , n ~ u . i . ~ I u . L ~ I a I n
 possible; within the limitations of maximum slope to avoid erosion, and minimum slope to limit
Photograph 1 1.1: Good cut and fill balance along a canal alignme
sedimentation and/or the growth of weeds. To minimize sedimentation; the canal slopes should be
selected so that they increase in the downstream direction. The soil material condition along the
alignment determines the allowable velocity to prevent erosion. Farmers' canals often have irregular
alignments and bed-slopes are often steeper than is theoretically allowable. When considering
improvements to farmers' schemes, bed slope design requires carehl consideration.

Canal cross-sectionj
F h k design of a canal cross-section includes the design of :
* canal side sl-
* canal free board
* -ent.
* =a1 berms.

The most economical shape for a unlined canal is theoretically a semi-circle. In practice, a trapezium is
normally used for practical construction reasons, but the ideal hydraulic shape for a trapezoidal-
leads to a deep and narrow section.-
-----..---- Such sections are only possible for small capacities. Unlined
canals with high discharges are generally wide and shallow with large bed widthldepth ratios. In the
hills wide sections are not usually feasible, particularly for primary canals, and a narrow section has to
be used. However, this is not usually so critical, since canal capacities are generally small. Photograph 11.2: Bad soil disposal destroying existing vegetation he
Thefollowing
- -- points should b e borne in mind when designing ._ canal cross-sections in hill areas +
.__
down hill slope of the canal
Canals should be in cut wherever possible, or at least with design waterlevel below
ground level Fill sections should only be used where absolutely necessary If the
excess material is used for banks, these should be adequately compacted. Photo~ral>ll
1 1.1, shows a good cut and fill balance along a hill canal alignment. Surplus material
should not be dumped, but placed in a site carehlly chosen to avoid any likelihood of
instability. Photograph 11.2, shows how bad disposal of excess soil during canal
excavation can induce instability of down hill slopes by destroying existing vegetation.
Photograph 11.3, shows how bad disposal of soil can destroy valuable fertile land
along canals.
ii. For deep cuts, berms should be provided.
...
111. Canal banks should be designed with a suitable seepage gradient, if the canal is not
lined or in rock.
iv. Canal banks should be turfed and, if possible, the slopes above and below the canal re-
afforested, to improve stability.
v. For primary canals, an access way should be provided along the whole length of the
canal, for inspection, maintenance and canal operation.

Canal side slopes
The side slopes of a canal depend mainly on the material in which it is cut and of which its banks are
made. To limit excavation and expropriation (land acquisition) costs, side slopes are usually designed
to be as steep as possible according- to the soils, and whether the canal is in cut or in fill. For erodible
soils, the slopes should be checked against the criterion of maximum permissible velocity or by the
principle of tractive force. Other factors to consider include the method of construction, depth of
canal and the level of the ground water table
Suggested side slopes for cut and fill in different soil types are given in the Table 1 1.1
Canalfrt ?eboard
Freeboard is the difference in elevation between the canal bank top and design witer lev 'reebloard
is intendedI to allow for :
* water level being above design water level (e.g. in emergencies),
* deterioration of the canal embankment.
Water lev€:Is may rise above design levels due to unplanned / uncoordinated gate closui r infl OWS
of run-off into the canal. Freeboard should be suficient to prevent normal fluctuati in firater
surface ovrerflowing the sides.Freeboard in primary and secondary canals is related i le de:sign
discharge (3f the canal. Suggested values are given in the Table 11.2.
Table 11.1: Recommended side slopes (V:H) for canal embankments Seepage gradients for different soil types
Table 11.3:
1

Soil Type Side Slopes Side Slopes

(cut) (compactedfill)
Soil Type I Gradient (V:H) I
-

Clays 1:3
RocWconglomerate (loose to hard) 1:O.5 to vertical Loams 1:4
Heavy clay, stiff clay, hard clay ' 1:0.25 to 1:0.5 Coarse sands 1:6
Loam, loesses, stiff peat 1:1 to l:1.5 Fine sandy, silty materials 1:7
Sandy clay, cohesive sandy soil, sandy loam 1:1.5 to 1.2
Silty sand, sandy earth 1:2 to 1:2.5
Soft peat, loose sandy earth porous earth 1:2.5to 1:3 Canal seepage
Gravely earth, stiff or loose conglomerate 1:0.5 to 1:l Seepage losses occur in unlined canals due to infiltration of water through the soil mass along the
Gravel and boulder mixed q r t h (soft and loose) 1:1.5to 1.2 canal boundary. These losses are dependent on :
* the soil type,
* depth of water in the canal,
Note: These values may be affected by the water table condition and moisture condition. Values given are for *
low moisture content and water table below canal bed. Slopes will need to be flattened fthese conditions are depth of the water table,
not achieved.
* soil moisture content,
* the degree of compaction of the fill,
Table 11.2: Canal free board
* the shape of the canal,
* length of time the canal has been running,
Design Discfiarge Q (m3/s) Free board (m)
* sediment load in the water, and
* salts contained in both water and the soils.

Seepage rates can vary widely in the hill areas. Therefore seepage rate measurements need to be
carried out along the canal alignment for determining the allowances that need to be made for seepage
looses in canals. Several field seepage measurement procedures are available. A simple procedure,
called the Ponding Method that gives accurate results is described below.
Canal embanhents
The top width of embankments for hill canals depend on : Figure 11.4: Ponding method of seepage measurement
* the size of the canal,
* the type of soil,
* the seepage gradient, and Ponding method of
* the available room for embankment construction. seepage measurement in
canals
t
In hill canals, the bank width of 2m along the main canal and 1 m within the distribution system, is The ponding method involves \
recommended although this may not be possible throughout the length of the canal. Where the measuring the rate of fall
embankments are in fill with canal water level above natural ground level, the seepage gradient needs of the water surface in a pond
to be considered for the stability of the embankment. In such cases the bank width should be created in the channel section.
sufficiently wide to retain the seepage gradient below the toe of the outer face of the bank. Seepage Though an objection is often
gradients vary from 1:3 for clay soils to about 1:7 for alluvial soils. Recommended gradients are given raised that still water may seep
in Table 11.3. at a different rate than flowing
water, the difference is
Canal berms probably small in comparison
For canals in deep cut (>5m) in the hills berms are provided to maintain the stability of the canal slope. to the errors associated with
Common practice in Nepal is to provide such berms at about half the cut depth. Berms are provided in + other methods for seepage rate
hill canals for ground cross slopes steeper than 1:3 and cuts exceeding 5 m. Typically, the width of measurement. When the
berm is 0.50 - 1.OO m.For very deep cuttings, several berms are provided at vertical intervals. Slope geometry of the canal section is known it is possible to compute the seepage rate according to the
stability analysis of proposed berm arrangements will generally be necessary. In hill areas, a following formula.
geotechnical specialist should be consulted when deep cuts are being considered.
 Figure 116 : Recommended canal sections on unstable hill slopes

where SR = seepage rate (cmslday)

E = drop in the water surface elevetion during time T (cms.)
SWa = average water surface width (crns.)
WPa = average wetted perimeter (crns.)
T = time interval (hrs.)

Irrigation canal on stable hill sldpes

Carrying canals across a side hill terrain requires special care. On a stable side-hill it is advisable to
carry the canal along the flatter slope in a shallow cut (Figure 11.5a) or partially in a cut and fill
(Figure 11.5b). On a steep but stable side-hill, the possible solutions are either deep, narrow canals
(Figure 11 . 5 ~or
) canal sections with masonry wall on the down hill side to reduce the amount of hill
cutting (Figure 11.5d).

Figure 1 1.5: Recommended canal sections on stable hill slopes

I'
Figure 1 1.7 Canal section on mild rock slopes Figure 11.8: Canal section on steep
rock slopes
I

Irrigation canals on unstable hill slopes

Unstable slope should be checked for danger of uphill slumping due to canal excavation (Figure
11.6a) and downhill creeping of the slope due to seepage. A shallow cut for the uphill bank
(Figure1 1.6b) may cause creeping of the ,downhill canal bank bearing the load of the outer bank. In
The influence of rock structure and construction technique on irrigation canal built on
such a case construction of a flume (Figure 1 1 . 6 and
~ Photograph 11.4) or a canal on a retaining wall rock slopes
founded on firm foundation (Photograph 11.5) can be considered. The most of appropriate a ~ ! ! l t i ~ ; i The stability of the bare rock slopes, often with slope angles in excess of 60°, is dependent on two
would be based on several factors including the cost. factors, viz. :
* the effect of rock structure, i . e orientation of discontinuities such as bedding and joints, on
the stability of the rock face,
Irrigation canals on rock and rock cllffareas * excavation technique for the construction of irrigation canals.
Carrying a canal on rocky sloping terrain is extremely difficult. On base slopes or mild slopes the canal
is normally carried in a half-cut with a retaining (breast) wall (Figure 11.7 a and Photograph 11.6) on
The effect of rock structure on the stability of the rock face, and the influence of rock structure on the
the down hill bank. In the presence of an alluvial stratum overlying the rock, a second breast wall to t
type of canal cross-section is shown in the Figures 119a and b.
prevent sliding of loose material into the canal (Figure 11.7b) is provided at its uphill bank. On very
steep, almost vertical slopes, canal can be carried in a half-tunnel (Figure 11.8 and Photograph 11.7).
The slopes and the bottom of the effective section of the canal may be lined to reduce seepage and
rugosity, if necessary.
 Figure 11.9a: Effects of rock structure on Photograph 11.3: Bad soil disposal affecting high value irrigable land below
Figure 11.9b: Cross sections for irrigation
stability of rock faces and canal
canals in rock
recommended excavation .- . 1
techniques

Secflon
1. Rock Structure Dlps lnto sedion
Mountaln
no risk of sliding
slopes > 75 * : half tunnelling
slopes < 75 ': open bench and
masonry wall

rock faces with

high risk of

1. Full Tunnel wilh holes lor e x c a v a h debris and light

and air al suitable intervals

?&
2. Rock Structure Mps Out of
Mountaln
- a < lSD:lowriskofslidng sadion
slopes > 75 a : hall tunnelling
slopes < 75 * : open bench and Photograph 11.4: A flumed canal
m n r y wall
- a 15 - 25 *: roderate risk of silding:
- --- - a > 25 a :high riskfull
oftunnelling
sliding:

full tunnelling with

,
permanent
shunering onlhe
updip side slope and low
"k of failure

2. Half Tunnel with optional supporfng walls

3. Rock Structure Mps Mote and outer masonry wall
Steeply than Rock Face
- no risk of sliding.
- some risk of toppling:
open bench and masonry wall with
covered canal in areas ol toppling

, ensure nr,
Ov;hrtSglng

I
4. Rock Structure Dlpr Steeply

-
-
lnto Mountaln
no risk of sliding,
high rlsk of t o p p w
slopes > 75 : full tunnelling
with permanenl
shunering on
updip side
slopes < 75 : open bench and
masonry wall wilh
k: llnat cut

rock faces ~ 7 5 '

Jope and some
risk of failure PmSh
on kvw slope
Construction technique
Hand excavation of full tunnels and open bench with outer masonry walls by chiseling cause little
disturbance to the rock face. Pre-split blasting for open benches is a more appropriate use of
explosives which increases the accuracy of cut and reduces the disturbance of the rock face. On the
other hand, uncontrolled blasting for half tunnels and open benches loosens rock materials and leads
to slope failure, danger to human life and high seepage looses from the canal.
covered canal in
I areas of loppling 3. Open Bench wilh outer masonry wall
Irrigation canals in erosion prone hill slopes
I
Freshly cut hill slopes and embankment slopes of hill canals are subjected to rain splash and overland
flow erosion. Erosion begins when the vegetation cover on a hill slope is broken or removed. Rain
drops falling on the bare soil loosen the individual particles of the soil, and the overland flow that
Photograph 11.5: Canal built on a masonary retaining wall Photograph 11.6: Open bench cut on rock with outer masonary wall

occurs after intense rainfall erodes the soil particles

and trmser them downslope. Open irrigation canals
lying below such hill slopes can quickly choke with
sedimentary material made up of washed down soil
and debris. The solution therefore lies in the quick re-
vegetation of the fresh hill slopes. Another solution
would be to cover the canals to prevent entry of
washed down soil and debris. However this would be
an expensive solution and may not work at all times,
because severe erosion of the hill slope can still
damage the canal alignment (Photograph 10.8).
Photograph 10.9 shows the effect of erosion on
freshly excavated hill slopes above the canal.
Photograph 10.10, shows the use of vegetation for
erosion control on the down hill slope a canal.

Vegetative techniques for the stabilization of Photograph 11.7: Half tunnel construction
hill slopes along canals
Vegetation can be very effective in protecting and
stabilizing unstable hill slope. To be more effective
they can combined with inert engineering structures
built with gabion or stone masonry. Figure 11.10,
shows how vegetation and gabion construction can be
combined to produce more lasting slope protection
structures. Bush and shrub species such as Asuro,
Nilkanda, Siuli, Bihaya, Sajiwan and Simali are
commonly used in vegetated gabion construction. The best construction period is during the dormant
season just before the monsoon (Baisakh, Jesth). The beneficial effect of vegetation can be klly
realized only after the vegetation has taken root and has begun to propagate.

To obtain maximum benefit from vegetation the following points must be considered : 1
* re-use of fertile top soil; by piling it before the start of canal excavation and spreading iI
it on newly excavated or formed slopes above and below the irrigation canal to re-
establish vegetation,
I
I
* the choice of species that are locally available, I

* the correct choice of vegetative species and technique taking into consideration the
I The correct use of vegetative techniques

*
nature of instability of the hill slope,
correct timing of the vegetative construction work, and
1 The following vegetative techniques are usekl for the different instability problems that can be
encountered on hill slopes. Chapter 2 provides a brief summary of the different techniques listed
* below :
correct technique of construction. * Brush layer * Brush matting * Live stacking
* Seeding * Jute netting * Grasslshrub plantation
* Jute netting * Sodding * Poineer plantation
* Vegetated gabion * Vegetated palisade
* Vegetated dry masonary walllrip rap
* Brush wattles (slope fascine)
* Brush layering of gullies (living)
 Photograph 1 1.8: A canal covered with RCC slabs to prevent wash down
debris entring the canal * jute netting with seeding, or
* jute netting with grass and shrub plantation, or
* sodding.

River bank protection works along irrigation canals (plant species used most tolerate
* flooding and water logging)
periodic
brush wattles (slope fascines), or
* vegetated dry masonry wall / rip rap, or
* vegetated gabion.

Prevention of mass wasting and minor land slides

* brush layering , or
* live stacking, or
* brush wattle (slope fascines), or
* pioneer plantation.

Control of gullies (in combination with engineering structures depending on the

Photograph 11.9: Erosion on a freshly cut hill slopes above the cana11 *
seriousness of the problem)
bamboo planting, or
* branch layering (live), or
* vegetated palisade.

Figure 1 1.10: Vegetated gabion

Lining of irrigation canaILs

Sketch Justrfcation for canal lining
Earthen canals in hill irrigation schemes need
lining for the following reasons :
* to prevent seepage losses, and/or
* to prevent scour and erosion in the
canal.

. . .
.D...O.. . . Canal lining is expensive whatever material is
plants
cutting or rooted
'
used, either local or imported, and there must
Depc:riding n the nature and the intensity of the instability problem the above techniques (:an be used therefore be clear justification for lining a
sepal-ately I in combination, as shown in the examples below. canal. In other words, the seepage and erosion
problems must be significantly severe to justify
Pret )entic of soil erosion on spoil /new fill areas lining. If the problem is less serve, is unlikely
* brush layering, or I to become worse in the fbture, and / or can be
* brush matting, or tackled by the farmers tfiemselves, then the
* live stacking with seeding, or expense of lining the canal is not justifiable.
* live stacking with grass and shrub plantation. However, the farmers should be given
technical guidance and advice on how to solve
Pret rentio of soil erosion on newly cut areas the problem on their own. The presence and
* grass r shrub plantation, or severity of seepage and erosion must be well established before deciding whether to line a canal or
not. In existing canals it may be possible to visually verify the presence and magnitude of any seepage.
When visual verification is not possible, but the presence of a seepage problem is suspected,
measurements must be carried out before deciding whether to line the canal or not. Simple discharge Table 1 1.5: Recommended canal lining materials and their applications
measurements at upstream and downstream points of the stretch of the canal suspected of seepage can
help t o establish the severity of the problem. In the case of new construction, seepage areas along the Application Lining Type
proposed canal alignment can be identified visually but the decision to line these sections must wait
until the bench cut and percolation tests are made on the surface of the bench itself. When seepage Bank stability Dry stone
does not threaten the local stability of the canal and d o e m t take away large quantities of canal water Seepage Stone masonry, buried membrane
which would result in inadequate supplies to the tail end of the canal, lining the canal to reduce Seepages and bank stability Stone masonry
seepage is not justifiable. Such cases of mild seepage can be effectively handled by using local Scour I erosion prevention Stone masonry
traditional methods such as soaking the canal base and sides with clay slurry, .slate lining, etc. Providing sharp curvature Dry stone pitching, stone masonry
Alternatively, when canal water seepage appears likely to induce local stability problems and when Sealing fractured rock zones Shot Crete concrete.
there is a significant loss of canal water affecting deliveries t o the tail end of the canal, then canal
lining is justifiable. Erosion can easily be visually verified. High flow velocity due t o a steep canal bed Concrete: Concrete lining can be laid either in-situ or can be precast. Because the surface is smooth,
slope can cause erosion in existing earthen canals. Erosion will occur when flow velocity exceeds concrete lined canals require small cross sections, nevertheless they are expensive to construct.
permissible limits. Permissible limits of canal flow velocity depend on the parent materials of the canal Typical thickness of in-situ concrete lining ranges from 75 mm to 150 mm. The durability of in-situ
(see Table 1 1.4). concrete Kpends on :
/* the quality of the concrete mix used,
Table 11.4: Permissible canal flow velocity for different canal materials

Material Velocity (mps)

/: *
the workmanship and construction quality control,
the stability of the sub-grade, t o resist swelling or shrinkage, and
the stability of the foundation.

Coarse sand 0.60 The principle disadvantages of concrete lining are its high maintenance cost and possible damage by
Sandy loam 0.85 soil chemicals, freezing, thawing and falling stones from uphill slopes.
Loam 0.90
Clay loam 1.20 Shot Crete: Shot Crete is a specially proportioned concrete mixture which is applied using
Gravel 1.20 pneumatic equipment t o force the mix onto and into the surface being lined. In Nepal, its principal
application is seen as the provision of stability and elimination of seepage in fractured rock zones in
Slightly higher velocities (in the order of 10%) can be allowed in smaller canals because a small body hill canals. The plant required for application of Shot Crete is reasonably small and portable.
of water has less erosive power than a large stream. Erosion can be controlled by reducing the Thickness of Shot Crete ranges from 25 to 50 mm. For steep side slopes (steeper than 1:1.5) it may
existing canal bed slope or by lining the canal. Stone and slate lined canals shown in Photographs 12.9
and 12.10 of Chapter 12 is very effective against erosion. By introducing a series of small drop
structures in the existing canal alignment, the slope of the canal between the drop structures can be
v-
C
be necessary t o provide a wire mesh reinforcement to prevent the fresh concrete from slumping.

reduced. Whichever is the cheaper and more practical of the two methods should be adopted for
erosion control.
Types of canal lining
Table 11.5 shows some appropriate materials for canal lining and their applications.
Dry stone pitching: Dry stone pitching can be used for providing erosion protection and bank
stability of canals. It is not effective against seepage loses. The stones generally will need to be placed
on a gravellsand filter backing, to prevent fine materials being washed out from the underlying
subgrade. Typical thickness is 0.20 to 0.30 m.
Stone masonry: Stone masonry is effective against seepage and is preferred where local stone is
available. With carefully pointed joints, good water tightness can be achieved. Typical thickness is
0.20 to 0.30 m. 1:4 cement mortar is commonly used.
Earth lining: Earth linings are principally used to reduce seepage, since they offer no savings in
canal section, nor do they improve stability. Suitable materials for earth linings are inorganic clays of
low t o medium plasticity, sandy clays, silty clays and lean clays. Where suitable materials are locally
available, earth is the cheapest from of lining for seepage control. Earth linings are usually compacted
and are classified as thick linings (0.3 - 1.0 m) or thin linings (0.15-0.3 m), Thick compacted earth
linings are preferred for several reasons, including easier construction, better erosion resistance and
better resistance to damage during maintenance. In practice, thick linings have been shown to be more
economical than thin linings in the long term, due to the high cost of maintenance of thin lining. Thin
linings are also susceptible to damage caused by periodic wetting and drying (e.g. in canals operating
on rotation). For these reasons thin earth linings are not recommended.
Buried membrane linings: Buried membrane linings are used to reduce seepage since, as with earth
linings, they offer no other advantages, There are a number of membranes which are commonly used
* canals. They include :
for lining
low density polyethylene,
* high density polyethylene,
* PVC, and
* butyllrubber.
 photograph 1 1.10: Contour plantation of vetiver grass to control surface
Thickness ranges from about 0.2 mm up to about 2 mm, depending on material used and application. erosion of embankment slope below canal
The lining is vulnerable to damage when exposed to direct sunlight and subjected to careless
maintenance activities. They need to be covered with a protective layer of stones to prevent damage.
Typical thickness of cover is 0.30 m.
The major advantages of buried membrane linings when compared with concrete linings are :
* no special sub-grade preparations required (e.g. compaction),
* no specialized plant required,
* material costs are usually lower.

The disadvantages of buried membrane lining, apart from no saving in channel section over an unlined
canal, are :
* low durability,
* removal of the cover material (sfich as compacted earth) through scour, gullying or
maintenance operations makes the lining susceptible to damage, and,
* The membrane forms a weak plane in the embankment along which slips may occur (in
some instance channel side slopeshave to be flattened to provide adequate stability).

Despite these drawbacks, membrane linings are often found to be a more economical compared to
hard surface linings.
Slate lining: The advantages of stone-slates as a lining material are its strength, impermeability, and
relatively low cost. The disadvantages are the difficulty of making durable joints, and the associated
problem of theft of slates. Thicker slates (40 to 50 mm) present less difficulty with joints than thin
slates. The traditional practice is to join the slates with 5 to 10 mm thick layer of mortar "pointing".
When cement is not available slates can also be overlapped to reduce seepage of canal water.
Learning from the farmers' experience
Through centuries of experience in canal construction, mountain farmers have found several effective
techniques for building good canals on mountain slopes. These techniques may seem contrary to
popular engineering ideas but are nevertheless effective. The engineer will need to incorporate these
techniques for effective canal construction in the hills. Table 11.6, gives the different techniques used
by the farmer and the engineer.
Cost of canal construction in hills
In hill schemes, generally primary canal construction costs are high compared to the total cost of
distribution canals. Usually there is a large margin of head difference between the level of the canal
near the intake and the start of the command area, and conservation of head along the primary canal is
generally not an issue. This means that there is a large flexibility to adopt suitable bed slopes in the
different reaches of the primary canal taking into consideration the
* stability of the hill slope,
* nature of canal bed material, (rock, earth etc.)
* erosion factors affecting the canal bed and side slopes.

The flexibility to change canal bed slopes in the different reaches of the primary canal gives a greater
freedom to choose canal dimensions including the hill cut above the canal alignment and thereby to
control cost of canal construction in the hills. By controlling the overall dimension of the canal the
cost of excavating of the canal and all other related works such as vegetative slope protection for
fresh hill cuts and fill, canal lining , retaining walls for supporting canals, retaining wall above the
canal alignment to support fresh cut slope etc. can be minimized. Also in rock, costs can be greatly
minimized by reducing the canal section thereby reducing the quantity of rock to be excavated and the
area to be plastered (in fissured rock).
 Table 11.6: A comparison between the engineers' and farmers' canal building techniques
I Engineers' Technique
I Bed Slope :
-
Engineers generally propose bed slopes that
reflect their experience in ' lowland irrigation
where topographic relief is limited Engineers try
to maintain uniform bed slope over long
stretches of canal
,
I
Canal layout :
Engineers propose cutting thr'ough difficult
sections such as rock faces, with the same canal
cross section (bed width) and bed slope.
/ Canal size :
Engineers like to combine irrigable areas into one
group and design large canal to serve the large
irrigable area, not realizing that large canals harm
the environment and are potentially risky on
unstable hill slopes.
I Building materials :
I Engineers are quick to propose the use of
imported construction materials such as Cement,
Hume Pipe and HDP pipes, not realizing that
repair and maintenance of canal built using
imported materials may be difficult in remote
II areas and also beyond the financial capabilities of 1
the farmers.
Farmers' Technique
Bed Slope :
In mountain areas farmers vary canal bed
slopes to match the soil conditions. In rocky
areas where cutting a large canal is difficult
they often use a steep gradient to minimize
excavation and reduce the gradient when
excavation is easy and high velocity would
erode the canal.
Canal layout :
Farmers overcome difficult sections such as
rock outcrops, by providing a drop in the
canal to take advantage of an easier route.
They adopt smaller canal sections with steep
grade, across difficult areas such as rock
outcrops.
I Canal size :
Farmers prefer to retain the irrigable areas
separate and cut parallel canals which take
water from different extraction ooints on the
- - ----
same river source to irrigate the separate
areas. Thus their canal are narrow. more
stable and do not damage the environment
severely.
/ Building materials :
/ u
Farmers use local materials such as- stone
.
.- - - -- -
slate, brick or clay and local skills to
their canals Repair and maintenance of
canal is easy and is within the control of the
farmers.
I The layout of the canal system is influenced by the scheme size and other factors such as :
Chapter 12: The distribution system
1 &..nition and objectives of distribution systems
The distribution system of an irrigation scheme is defined as a network of canals and associated
stmctures which cany water from the source works to the cropped area in a controlled way. Many
schemes have a drainage system, complementary to the distribution system, for removal of surplus
water, particularly excess rainfall and canal escapes.
Figure 121, below shows an idealized representation of an irrigation system layout. An actual layout
of the distribution system for a large irrigation scheme in the hilly Syangia district of Nepal is shown in
_ the right_amount
Figure 12.2. The objective of a distribution system is to deliver
----. _ of water to the right
place, at the n a k w - t o meet crop needs. Ideally water should be distributed equita6ly among the
T i e r s according to their needs. It should be noted that in existing systems farmers may have
developed senior and junior water rights, and unequal distribution of water may be considered
equitable
- -
by the farmers.
*
Characteristics of distribution systems in hill schemes
Topography, and
* scheme size
control the hierarchy and layout of the canal network of hill irrigation schemes while
* system operation,
*
*
water management practices,
topography, and
* the nature of the hill slope of the cropped area
influence the type of structures in the distribution system.
(
.Hierashy-and
- layout of canal networks
. in hill--r-.
irrlgatioqschemes
-
- - - - 4 -
There are eeneraG five layout patterns appropriate to lull irrigation. These are illustrated in Figure
12.3, and summarized in Table i 2 . 1 All are fed by a primary canal linking the command area to the
source works and all use small terraced basins as the preferred method of irrigation in. the hills. The
number of levels of canal hierarchy is clearly dependent on the topography and scheme size. A
I comparison of the canal layout of 'alternative 1' with that in 'alternative 2' of Figure 12.3 clearly
shows the influence of the hill topography on the required levels of canal hierarchy. A moderate slope
of the terraced land upto 10 to 15 degrees favors alternative I, with two levels of canal hierarchy,
while a steeper slope of the terraced land favors alternative 2, with three levels of canal hierarchy.
/
* - - __--
the geographic nature of thg-drainage-gullies in the command area,
* the need for supplementary water from drainage streams in the command area, and
* the ability of the drainage gullies in the command area to serve as conveyance channels
for irrigation water.
When a scheme is small and consists of small isolated pockets of land to be irrigated along the path of
the primary canal, a very simple layout as shown in 'alternative 4' of Figure 12.3, is generally
sufficient.Although, for larger schemes, a more complex layout similar to alternative 1,2,3 or 5 will
be needed.
Depending on whether supplementary water is required from drainage strkams, or whether the
drainage gullies will be required to serve as conveyance for irrigation water canal layouts shown in
alternative 2 or 3 of Figure 12.3, will need to be adopted.
Figure 12.1: Idealized representation of an irrigation system Figure 12.2 :in actual canal I;lyout of a large hill irrigatio~~
system in a remote hilly district of
Kcpal

I HEADWORKS(WEIR OR DAM AND INTAKE ) I

SUPPLY RIVE A Compensarlnn waler (tor f ~ s h r r ~ c&sdownslrcorn users)

WEIR (for qauging diversion clow)

CULVERT ( c r o s s drainage)

1) LlNlNG ( t o reduce seepage)

I
AQUEDUCT(lor crossing vallrys)
I
LAND
9

GRADIENT
I
I
1:I T
11-
> ESCAPE (=RAIN WEIR)

RETAINING WALL(to increase stability)

U N N E L
lUNNEL LINING
,r

CHUTE(to accommodate
short. very steep
slopes)
-
chute) 1

.c

CASCADE
( A l t c r r ~ a t i n qchannel R mcl sonry
drops to accomrnodale continuous steep slopes)
Figure 12.3: Layout patterns appropriate to hill irrigation
1 I Primary
1 Alterr~alivc1
' Tars a1l d rnoclt!rately sleep
t c r ~ a c e dland (up 10 10-19 )
wheredownslope canals are
relatively easy to t)k~ild.
I!
Alternative 2
Steep terraced land (<30°)
(down/across syslern)
Usedwhere cross drainage
cl~anr~elsare relalively small
andcanL,e bridged with srnall
aqueducts and where down
slopecanals are difficult.
I ,Canal
TI- Sleep terraced land (<30°)
used wtler e down slope
carlais are dilf~cultand
I
I ( Allerriatlve 4
Often used in head
Alleriialive 5
Priniary canal runs along
a ridge, feeding land eac
side i s i n g melhods of
alternalives 1 . ?: or 3.
Table 12.1: Alternative hill irrigation layouts
1
canal runs along the contour secondary Used for tars and mode=/
/ canal takes water down the slope from the primary I steep land upto 15 degrees. I
: g canal and distribute it direct to the fields through
L;2
I In
distrib-
I u
Primary canal runs along the contour. Secondary Used in steep land upto 30
--1 5 canals take water down the slope and feed tertiary degrees where downslope
I
*
canals which carry the water along the contours. canals are relatively easy to
Water is fed to the fields from outlets on the tertiary build, and cross-drainage
canals. streams are fairly small and
incised and can be easily and
I cheaply bridged tertiary
... a,
\,.-- a canals.
u
C
Similar in principle to alternative 2 except that Used for steep land upto 30
.....
I Terraces .. .......
...........
...........
,Possible
.............
.....
drairls
. natural streams are used to convey water instead of degree where downslope
secondary canals. Intake structures are built on the canals are more difficult to
I streams to convey water to the tertiary (contour) build.
b
canals. Intercepted drains can be used to return
surplus flows to the stream. Where water from the
._...............
.........
................
........_................
stream is not required to supplement flows the
tertiary can extend across to the next (major) channel
(which would remain as a drain). Thus only every
..................
................
other channel would be canalized.
Small pockets of land are fed directly from the Used where available land is
primary contour canal. There may be some field located in a strip along the
channels to distribute the water, but in most cases a canal route. Often occurs in
pipe from the canal would feed directly to the fields the head reach of a canal,
I
I prima^ contour canal ,;. Isolated pockets of land
alona line of canal I If there are a lot of off takes, it may be preferable to before it reaches the main
build a small parallel canal with a single outlet, to command area.
i protect the stability of the main canal.
/
Primary channel runs along a ridge with secondary Used where suitable ridge is
canals running down the slope and feeding the land available (rare). . Economic,
each side of the ridge through tertiary canals having a double feeding
1 arranged as in alternatives 1 or 2. ( primary.
Designing the layout qf the distr-ibzltion network
Two important aspects need to be taken into consideration when designing distribution systems for
hill irrigation schemes. These are :
* engineering aspects: governed by topography and water distribution principles,
-----_ _ _ _ _
* social aspects: such as cooperation or lack of it among farmers, ethnic differences,
social boundaries, junior and senior water rights (in existing schemes).
A good distribution layout (from an engineering standpoint) can fail to distribute water effectively
because of conflict between farmers or farmer groups. Unwillingness of fanners to allow canals to
pass through their land to irrigate land belonging to other farmer groups or ethnic groups is quite
common. The distribution system, in this case will be governed by the social situation prevailing in the
area. While efficiency of the distribution system is the major concern of the engineer, farmers may be
willing to sacrifice hydraulic efficiency (by building longer canals that follow irregular ownership
boundaries) for gains in managerial efficiency (e.g. less transaction cost in dealing with neighbors).
Distribution canal layouts for new hill irrigation schemes are best prepared using existing aerial
photographs (enlarged to 1:2000 scale) and, existing topographic maps of the area. Aerial
photographs and topographic maps of the required scale may not be available for most hill areas. In
such situations, for small to medium (FMIS) projects a simple traverse survey showing the command
area, natural drainage paths, ridge lines and boundaries (social and non-irrigable area) etc. will need to
be prepared. However, for larger projects a more detailed contour survey showing the same details as
above will need to be prepa;ed. These maps while documenting the canal layout of the project will
also help to plan modifications and improvements to the distribution layout in the hture Farmers can
also use such maps to make day to day operation schedules and maintenance plans. The layout is best
prepared on site because it is possible to clear any doubts that may arise durin the planning o w
layout by immediate inspection,
-
The engineering stepwise procedure for designing the distribution layout for a new system is given
below :
* mark natural-- drainage paths, -
ridge
--
lines, boundaries
--- around--non-irrigable
.- - --.- --- -
areas
-.
and
/-- --
social b w d a r i e s on aefial photo.qaphs or maps,
* based on topography decide which of the five layouts shown in Figure 12 3 is most
suitable, combinations may be appropriate in some cases,
* Selection qf structures
identifjl and group social / village based land holdings,
* make an initial sketch of the layout keeping in mind the following points,
- the social set up in the village that may require the distribution layout to be
adjusted or modified to reduce conflict among farmers or farmer groups,
- secondary 1 tertiary canals should ideally serve approxinlately the same areas,
- canals running down the slope should be located on the tops of ridges between
natural drainage channels,
- how existing canals (if any) might be incorporated into the new system,
- whether drainage is needed,
- whether canal escapes should be incorporated, and how the escape water can be
removed,
* identifjl preliminary locations, of regulators, drops structures, escapes etc.
* discuss the proposed layout with farmers, particularly :
- the distribution principle and the method of canal operation,
-
the incorporation of existing canals and how and whether these can be
improved,
-
the extent of the command area and upto what level the channels / structures
will be provided,
- the canal alignment,
- the irrigation units (blocks) and the social groupings,
the location of the structures,
* redefine the layout in accordance with the agreement reached with the farmers,
* plot the layout in detail on aerial and top0 maps, distribute copies to farmers for
comments,
* conduct line (strip) surveys of the primary and secondary canals for outline design
purposes.
For large projects, a full topographic survey will need to be done at the detailed design stage for
confirmation of the canal layout. For medium / small projects, it may be appropriate to complete the
topographic survey at the time of the canal line surveys.
Structural components of the distribution system
In hill areas the definition of the extent of the distribution system can vary depending on the location
of the cropped area in relation to the source works. For a small scheme with isolated pockets of
irrigated land along the primary canal, the primary canal itself will be the distribution system. When
the cropped area is at the tail end of the primary canal, and is served by a network of secondary and
tertiary irrigation canals, the definition of the distribution system would generally exclude the primary
canal. Sometimes in hill projects small isolated pockets can be found in combination with the main
command area. For the remaining discussion let us exclude the primary canal from the definition of
the distribution system.
The structures required in a distribution would typically be :
* turnouts (also called head regulators), for extraction of water from parent canals,
*
*
flow division structures, for proportioning flow between two or more canals,
distribution boxes, for dividing the flow among the tertiary canals,
* structures for the control of canal erosion and seepage,
* structures for control of water diversion for efficient water distribution,
* farm outlets, for delivery to individual or to a group of farms.
lirrnouts (or regulators)
A turnout is a structure built at the head of a secondary or tertiary canal to extract water from the
parent canal. In its simplest form a turnout is an opening in the canal bank of the parent canal In the
most complex form it may consist of a head regulator 1 cross regulator combination with gates (see
Photograph 12.1). The selection of the most suitable type of turnout must take into consideration the
following factors.
* who will operate and maintain the structure ?
*
is water extraction on an "onloff' basis, or does it require frequent adjustments ?
* is flow measurement required ?
*
will 'there be large variations in the water level of the parent canal upstream of the
*
structure ?
will the structure be built near or combined with a cross regulator ?
* will 'drowning' of the structure (through the rise in the down stream water levels as a
result of bad maintenance) affect the flow ?
* does the head loss through the structure need to be minimized 7
*
what percentage of the flow is extracted from the parent canal 7
* how much 0 & M will the structure need ?
*
how robust does the structure need to be ? Is it likely to be tampered with ?
* how expensive will the structure be?
Most important of all the above factors. ~articularlvin remote hill areas. is the oneration and
-
3 1
~ ~ > - -- ...-.
- - - - ~~ ~ - --
maintenance of the structure. The chosen design must be flexible to accommodate the farmers'
 Table 12.2: Selection of head regular types based on design criteria

Photograph 12.1: A turnout consisting of head and cross regulator,

operated and maintained by the irrigation agency

N N Y N N Y Y Y Y N N Y

Frequent flow adjustment needed N N N N N Y Y Y Y N N N

IFlow measurement needed

Constant flow needed even with variation of

N N N Y Y N Y Y N Y N N

N - - Y Y - - - Y N N N
water level in parant canal

Minimum head loss Y Y Y N N Y N - N N Y Y

Table 12.2, below, can be used to select head regulator types based on design criteria *
Suitable for both small 81 large intake flows Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y - - -

Flow division ,~tructures

The allocation of ifrigation water among sub-areas below the turnout is usually done using a division
structure. The hydraulic requirement of a division structure is that the available water is shared on an Suitable for fa~nieroperatioil Y Y I ' N N Y N N Y Y Y -
equitable basis. Determination of equity in sharing water among portions of the scheme must take into
consideration the :
* existing water rights, I1
Robust 8:tanver proof

~ e s expensive
s 81 easy to build
Y

Y
Y

Y
-

-
Y

Y
Y

Y
N

-
N

N
N

N
N

-
Y

Y
Y

Y
-

-
* any supplemental source of water downstream (e.g. springs, drainage streams),
* the relative size of each area, Needs to pass silt Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N
* soil type, and
* the type of crops.

The flow division structures must also operate automatically under variable circumstances and divide
I Needs to pass trash

Notes:
Y N N N N N N N N Y Y Y

Y achieves ciitelia well

the flow proportionally at all times. Both traditional and contemporary flow division structures are in
N achieves ciiteiia badly
use in the hill areas of Nepal. - neutral
,On/Off gates can be ilash boards or stoplogs
Design and construction details qf l'Saachols"
A traditional flow dividing structure is shown in the Photograph 12.2, and is called a Saacho in Nepal gab Bhutan
Traditional flow dividing structures have been used in a wide variety of hill environments, from arid karahankota Central Srilanka
sub-tropical to humid tropical. In Asia they go by many names. tae wai, tae nam, kiang nam Chiang mai, Thailand
chaukat Gilgit, Pakistan sabang Simelungun, North Sumatra, Indonesia
pantung Pithoragarh, U P , India paraku Lintau, Western Sumatra, Indonesia
thelu Kangra, Himachal Pt-adesh, India takuak, kalimbatang Baso, Western Sumatra, Indonesia
saacho Palpa, Nepal \
 penaro Muara, Enim and Lahat, Southern Sumatra
cowal Sumedang, Western Java, Indonesia not needed, the flow over the Saacho is continuous. Fluctuations of flow in the parent canal are
pemaroan, tembuku Beli, Indonesia automatically translated by the Saacho into proportional reduction or increase in the flow to all
tablon, padila Ilocos Norte, Phillipines downstream branches.
In the different areas of Nepal, the following names apply : -

saacho, pani dhara Palpa, Western Nepal Adaptation to accommodate rotation and high-flows
khat bunda Gulmi, Palpa, Western Nepal Figure 12.4, shows a design to make rotation easier. During low flows, one side can be closed (see
gahak Balewa, Baglung, Western Nepal Figure 12.5) to implement a rotation schedule. During high flow conditions, one side can also be
gari Puthan, Mid Western Nepal partly blocked off with a narrow flash board, both to protect that side from flooding and to send
excess water down through the system to an extension area, (see Figure 12.6) The same structure can
It consists of a wooden log with rectangular slots (notches) of various widths, laid in the canal bed be used in places where a canal branches but in which one side has primary water rights The side with
perpendicular to the flow of water. The width of the slots is determined by the agreed proportion of subordinate water rights can be blocked off to a level which sends all water under low and medium
the water to be delivered to the respective sub-areas. Usually all slots will be cut to the same level. To I flow conditions through the primary location. High flows overtop the flash board and serve the area
I
ensure correct division of flow "free flow" conditions will need to be created. Therefore these with subordinate water rights while automatically preserving the water rights of the main canal This
structures will need to be placed a little upstream of the required diversion point. Thus the branching feature is not possible in standard gated designs
of channels will run parallel to the parent canal, for a short length, before they separate into the
different sub-areas. Figure 12.4: Figure 12.5:

Photograph 12.2: A traditional flow dividing structure

Figure 12.6:

Designs for increasing the irrigated area in the

tail end section
New designs are now being developed to take better
advantage of higher than normal canal flows. One such
design is show11 in Figure 12.7. This structure is designed
so that under low and normal flows one set of
The sills of the slots are generally kept at the same level and the width of the notches are calibrated to proportions is preserved, while under high flows a
divide the flow correctly into the branches. Because the velocity of flow in a shallow irrigation canal different rule is observed. This structure might be
increases across the canal, from the bank towards the center, and the loss of energy through small appropriate in cases where it is important to prevent flooding of fields served by one opening on the
openings are greater, design compensations are necessary to achieve correct proportioning of flow right side while also sending excess water down the left canal to serve an extension area which has
with slots cut in Saacho's. These design compensations may include: subordinate water rights. An alternative design would be to cap the top of the right opening to limit
* the provision of stilling pools upstream of Saachos, more severely the amount of water sent to that side (Figure 12.8). In both cases, the sill heights of the
* making the central openings smaller then the edge openings, or openings remain level. The need for the type of designs shown above will become more evident when

en * adopting special shapes for slots

qfsaachos
The operation of a Saacho is automatic, there are no moving
- parts.
- Except for land preparation
- - when
farmers may close off some of the Saacho with mud to rotate water, or during weeding when water is
improvement to head works increase the water available to irrigation systems, allowing the possibility
to extend irrigation areas at the tail end of the irrigation system. Either of these designs can be
combined with pipe outlets for very small plots located near the division device (Figure 12.9).

Contemporary adaptation of saacho principles

Photograph 12.3, below shows a contemporary adaptation of the simple water proportioning
principles of the Saacho. This structure was built in the Andi Khola project in Nepal. The advantages
Figure 12.7 Figure 12.8 Photograph 12.3: Flow division using side weirs
I I Wooden stoplogs are placed on the outlet side of the
structure to shift the flow among the three different
downstream channels. There are nine possible
configurations of the stoplogs. The adjustable steel
sheets allow adjustments to the flow rates among the
three downstream channels. The primary purpose of
the stoplogs is to facilitate rotational flow.

Structures to control canal erosion and

seepage
Figure 12.9 Erosion
Most parts of the distribution network of canals will
of this structure are : consists of earthen canals. With time, these canals,
* it employs flow division concepts familiar to particularly the canals running down hill slopes, and
farmers: the division of flow is open and clear, canals having steep bed slopes, will start to erode due
* it does not require as much space, as its to high flow velocities, making water distribution to
traditional counterpart built by farmers. fields difficult. Canal bed erosion would normally
begin where the canal bed drops sharply, and work its
There are three side weirs in the structure. The first weir way up the canal. These locations will need to be
as seen from the bottom of the picture, serves one protected against erosion. For small to medium sized
distributory canal, the middle weir another distributory canal, and the last allows the water to continue canals carrying small flows, simple protection in the
along the main canal through a short concrete pipe tunnel. All the weirs are gated with wooden planks form of stone paving would generally be sufficient.
that slide smoothly inside iron grooves built into the masonry walls. Each gate is made up of several However for larger flows and increased U h s ,
removable narrow vertical strips of wood, permitting a wide range of flow control. more rigid structures such as vertical, chute and
cascade type of drop structures will be required.
Warning Photographs 12.6, 12.7, and 12.8, show simple vertical, chute and cascade types of drop structures
Flow division structures, for that matter all structures, that in the hture will be operated and for control of canal erosion, suitable for hill areas. When long stretches of canals need protection
maintained by the farmers themselves, should be designed and constructed in close consultation with against canal bed erosion, stone and slate paving as seen in Photographs 12.9 and 12.10 are
the farmers. When the design of such structu?es do not allow farmers the flexibility to vary the flow appropriate and cost effective.
through them according to requirements, farmers will have no option but to modify the structures by
breaking them (see Photograph 12.4). Photograph 12.4: A non flexible flow dividing structure damaged by farmers

Distribution boxes Seepage

. . Seepage is common in
A distribution box is a flow dividing structure built to d l v m e flow among eto-r farm
can also be used in secondary canals in small to medium hill irrigation schemes to divide most earthen canals.
A l T h e Photograph 12.5 below shows a simple design that allows a high When it occurs from
z g r e e of flexibility to vary the flow among three downstream branches. This structure, also built in canals within the
the Andi Khola project, has been successf%lly operated by the farmers. The water entering the distribution network,
structure drops over a level sill made of brick. Two heavy gauged galvanized steel sheets dividing the the water is not entirely
stream of flow as it drops over the sill. The brick sill is covered with cement mortar plaster to reduce lost, it is in most cases,
leakage. The upstream ends of the steel sheets are adjustable. They are held in position by a slotted available to crops at a
angle iron and the relative portion of the flow can be adjusted by loosening the angle and deflecting lower terrace.
the steel sheet to either side into the desired slots thus changing the relative size of the openings. Therefore only very
high seepage rates
affecting canal flow and
canal stability need to

be considered for structural improvements. ,Nepalese farmers traditionally controlled seepage by
excavating their canals at a steep slope, and lining them with stones to reduce erosion. This technique
is very affective and must be considered in design.
A distribution box operated and maintained by farmers
Photograph 12.5:
Structures for
control of water
diversion
In hill schemes, where
there is usually a large
margin of head
difference between the
level of canal near the
intake and the start of
the command area,
conservation of head
along the primary canal
is generally not an
issue. However to
control diversion of
water to off takes effectively, regulating structures may need to be provided at every off take location
in the primary canal, especially in large schemes. Regulating structures are also needed, in the
distribution network, particularly on distribution canals that are dropping steeply because they are
running across the main slope of the land. These are required for control of water level for efficient
water diversion into distributary canals. Regulators (also called checks) built in the distribution
system, are usually combined with drop structures for maximum economy. Photograph 12.11, shows
a series of cross regulator cum drop structures for controlling water level in a branch canal laid across
the main slope of the irrigated land in the Bhorletar Project area, in the Lamjung District of Nepal.
Photograph 12.6: A small vertical drop sturcture
Farm outlets
A farm outlet is a small
but important structure
at the head of the water
course, a farm irrigation
canal, or a farm or field
ditch, which connects it
to the parent canal.
These structures are
essential for water \
distribution, and have a '\
decisive influence on
\ modified arrangement
the proper hnctioning
of the irrigation system.
Appropriate design and
correct location of
these structures will ensure that the farmers receive their share of the water at the right time,
Appropriate design of an outlet structure is necessary to :
* allow farmers to apportion the available water among themselves in a manner that is
clear and agreeable to all,
* allow farmers maximum flexibility of outlet operation during normal and low flow
periods in the supply canal.
Photograph 72.7: A chute drop structure
Water levels in the
supply canal are
proportionately
lowered during low
water availability.
Water levels in the
supply canal which are
lower than design levels
lead to reduced flow
rates through the
outlets. Outlets will
therefore need to
remain open for longer
periods in order to
deliver the full quantity
of
- water
. . -- - -
- to the users.
Under these conditions farmers will need to wait longer for their turn. The waiting time can be
reduced by proper design of outlet structures with provisions for flash boards or checks across the
supply canal to head up water, so that the outlets can hnction hlly even at low flow in the supply
canals.
Photograph 12.8: A cascade drop structure
A simple modification
to the wooden gate and
the closing arrangement
of an OnlOff type of
outlet, as shown in the
Photograph 12.12, can
provide more flexibility
to the farmers to
control the flow
through the outlet This
design shows a
of grooves and
supports for placing
strips of wooden plank
vertically to make gates
for the outlet. with this arrangement complete shut off, by positioning all vertical strips to close the
opening, as well as partial flow, by removing one or more vertical strips, is possible.
,
, irrigation systems in Nepal. Flumes and weirs are two appropriate devices that can be incorporated
Photograph 12.9: A stone paved canal
Modular outlets
It is not wise to use modular type of outlets in hill
irrigation systems, these are appropriate only to easily
accessible flat areas. These structures are rigid in that
they are fully automatic or mechanized and require
specialists to modifjr the settings to increase the flow
beyond the normal working range.
Other suitable types of farm outlets
The farm outlet shown in Photograph 12.12, is the
most appropriate for hills. However, in some systems
saachos are also used as farm outlets, especially in
systems with scarce water supply and heavy
maintenance needs ( thereby having led to well
defined water rights among the irrigators).
Depending on the design requirement, other non-
modular and semi-modular outlets can also be
adopted in hill schemes, . As described earlier, these
outlets will need provisions for flash boards or checks
across the supply canal to head up water, so that the
outlets can function fully even at low flow in the
supply canals. The positioning and proportioning of
all farm outlets must be finalized in consultation with
the farmers
Modular Outlets:
In a modular outlet the discharge is, within reasonable working limits, independent of the
water level in the parent canal and the downstream water course.
Semi-modular Outlets:
So long as a minimum working head is available for the device to operate, the design
discharge of a semi-modular outlet is independent of the water level in the down stream
water course, but dependent in the water level in the parent canal..
Non-modu lar Outlets:
i'he discharge of non-modular outlets depends on the difference in water level in the
parent canal and the water course. \ sharing. These traditions should not be changed
\ lightly, unless there is good reason to do so.
Water measurement and distribution systems
Water measurement provides a basic tool for prudent water use. Although much has been said about
the need to conserve water use in irrigate, water measurement devices have yet to be introduced in hill
\ into the distribution system for water measurement purposes. Because water measurement is not yet
widely practiced in the hills, it may not be wise at this stage to include these devices in small outlets
supplying small sub-areas. It would be worthwhile, however, to include them in larger off take
structures, and to train the users in water measurement techniques, thereby slowly introducing the
concept of water management and control to hill farmers Flumes and weirs built across canals for
water measurement purposes, often appear to farmers as restrictions to flow and are quickly
destroyed. Such devices can therefore be only slowly introduced at the distribution level, along with
appropriate education of farmers. One way to introduce the idea of water measurement to farmers is
to calibrate weirs built in existing structures such as drop structures, head and cross regulators.
Upgrading distribution systems of existing schemes
The key questions that need to considered when upgrading existing systems are :
* how is the existing system related to water rights that have evolved in the system ?
$
should the distribution philosophy be changed ?
* should the control systems be changed ? (by providing more flow regulating and
measuring structures.)
* how should the capacities, slopes and levels of the canal system be revised?
Photograph 12.10: A slate lined canal
Changing the d~~stribution
philosophy
The key questions are:
* how well does the distribution system allow
water to be distributed according to senior and
junior water rights ?
* how well does thedistribution system allow
efficient use of water (including the reuse of
water wherever possible) ?
* how well does the distribution system allow
quick application of water to the fields (using
the continuous or rotational system of
distribution) ?
* how well does the distribution system serve
the particular goals of the farmer users ? and,
* how m i ~ h itt be improved ?
Changing the way in which a distribution system
operates not only calls for structural improvement to
the system, but will also call for changes in the way in
which farmers have traditionally managed their water
Good reasons to change distribution philosophy might
include .
 * failure to distribute water over the full extent of the scheme, although
- there may be I
*
other reasons for this, rather than the distribution principles,
wastage of water and inefficient water distribution. I present water distribution pattern in the scheme.

Photograph 12.12: A farm outlet with a modified

Where it is proposed that substantial changes will be made to the system, these need to be discussed
arrangement for flexible flow
with the farmers so that they appreciate the potential benefits. If this is not done, there will be no
incentive for the farmers to change the way they have been operating in,&past.
( control using strips of vertical
wooden planks
\

I
Photograph 12.11: Cross regulator cum drop structures to control \
Changing control systems
water level in a branch canal for efficient water
If the distribution philosophy is to be changed, then
distribution
control system need to be modified. This involves the
following :
* modifying replacing head regulators,
* modifying / replacing / adding cross
regulators,
* modifiing canal capacities and levels,
* training canal operator and farmers in new
procedures.

It may be necessary to introduce additional

measurement devices at key locations in the system,
where these are needed for operation. In some cases it
may be necessary to introduce gates. For small
schemes, distribution boxes may be added to rotate or
divide the incoming flows. In large system, the
upgrading may involve the improvement of on-farm
distribution through the introduction of simple
structures and regrading of channels. Maximum use
Modtfving the distribution system to match the water rights that have evolved in the should be made of existing structures. This may
system over a period of time involve raising or lowering of weir crests, adding to
Cases are common in the hills that after some years of operation, farmers find that they have more wall heights, breaking up or widening openings,
water than they need and allow extension of the command area. The extension areas can be part of the ,
adding / removing gates, etc. Each case has to be
contiguous land below the existing main area (see A in Figure 12.10) or can lie below the original tail considered on its merits.
of the system (see B in Figure 12.10). These extension areas are given only junior water rights
because the farmers owning this land did not participate in the building of the original system. They Chunging canal capacities slopes and levels
may or may not acquire equal water rights over time. ( Over a period of time, because of proximity Changes in canal slopes and levels are usually required to.
and close family ties with the original appropriators, or for some other reasons, areas with junior * reduce silting,
water rights may become eligible to senior water rights) In a situation where senior and junior water * prevent scouring,
rights co-exist the goal of the farmers would be to allow only water in excess of the requirement of * provide increased command,
the original command area (with senior rights) to flow into the junior areas. To an engineer unaware * provide increased capacity.
of the history of the scheme, the distribution of the water, particularly to the junior areas, may seem Where canals are silting, the possibilities which might be examined are :
unequal. Also within the main command area the farmer users may apportion the water according to * to introduce sediment removal structures at key locations
each's contribution of resources (therefore water distribution may not be equal according to land * to increase canal slopes by changing structure levels and/or operation,
holding size) or equal according to land holding. Unequal distribution of water (when water is * to change the canal section to provide higher velocities.
apportioned according to each's contribution of resources during the construction of the scheme, Where canals are scouring, options to be considered include
purchased water shares etc. ) may be considered equitable by the farmers. Engineers considering * introduction of fall/drop structures to reduce slopes, and hence velocities,
remodeling of the distribution system of existing schemes must not erroniously confuse inequality in * introduction of channel protection by pitching, lining etc.
water distribution with ignorance or inequity, but must study the historical context that led to the
 I

I
'\
Figure l 2 lo: Junior and senior water rights in a typkrl f a m e r constructed and managed hill Canal escape structures for hill irrigation projects
irrigation system Chapter 13:
I Canal escapes are structures that allow
- -unwanted canal water to spill safely into natural-ed
d r h s They are safety stflcturesto protect canals and canai banks m m a g e due to overtopping
of canal water. Overtopping canal water can lead to a major wash-out leading to severe gully erosion
and failure of canal (see Photograph 2.1 Chapter 2).
* of canal banks can occur when :
Overtopping
when excess water gets into the canal,
* canals become blocked due to landslides or landslips, or
* flow control and regulation structures are not p r o ~ l operated
y by farmers
and other operators.

/ During normal canal operation excess water can enter the canal thrwgh the intake if the latter is not
gated or if the gates are not operated properly. During the rainy season, excess water can enter the
canal :
a: Original command * through the intake,
area built (19 10) * by bypassing drainage crossing structures that are not well constructed,
* at level crossing,
c: Extension canal and area (1925)
* as surface runoff, or
b: Areas aded between * from springs that become active in hill slopes above the canal alignment.
a: Most senior water rights. Saachos may be used to divide water among the original water right
holders and their decendants. Choking of canals by landslides and minor landslips cannot be prevented, these can occur without any
b: Junior water rights, but by 1990 virtually the same as senior water rights because of proximity warning and cause canal water to overtop. Therefore, to reduce the risk of failure, safety
and close family ties to original appropriators. arrangements must be built along the hill canal alignment in order to facilitate safe disposal or
diversion of excess canal water. During emergency, a portion of a canal may need to be drained
I c: Junior water rights and farmers here are kept in junior position because they did not contribute to
constructing the original system. quickly, escapes can serve as outlets to drain canals safely and quickly. Canals will also require
emptying for maintenance work and escape structures are again usefbl.
I d: Junior in right but defacto given good water supply by virtue of their head-end position. Pipe
outlet may be used to limit offtake.
Photograph 1 31: Escape spillway designed to spill water in excess
of the design flow capacity of the canal
Providing increased command is usually achieved by :
*
* modifying control levels at structures or introducing additional structures,
regrading canal banks to suit.
Providing increased capacity can be achieved through :
!
* increasing canal slopes, '

* increasing canal bed widths wherever possible,

* increasing depths of flow,
* improving canal condition by cleaning and through continued maintenance,
* lining the canal.

Field tofield irrigation

When there is an abundance of water hill farmers choose to irrigate their rice crop using the field to
field method of irrigation. Field to field irrigation is not efficient and can result in major water losses.
On the other hand when water is scarce they may be willing to sacrifice valuable land for a very dense
network of farm distribution canals to increase their water control. Hill farmers in general would value
their land high (because land holdings are small and getting smaller) and will not be willing to
compensate land for the sake of improved efficiency. Engineers need to take this into account when
designing distribution networks.
of the canal (see ~ h o t o g r a ~i3.1).
h Structures required to divert the canal flow during emergency,
 Photograph 13.3: Escape spillway designed for automatic spilling
need a gated opening on the outer bank of the canal (see Photograph 13.2). However in some cases a
structure for spilling excess water during normal canal operation may be required to divert entire canal
flow during emergency. One possible arrangement for a dual fbnction escape is shown in Photograph
13.3 and Figure 13.3.

Photograph 13.2: Escape spillway designed to divert all or part of

the water from the canal

Escapes need to be designed incorporatingfarmers traditional practices

During heavy rains, contour canals on hill sides act as catch drains intercepting rainfall runoff
streaming down the hill slope. The rain water entering the canal must be safely channeled into existing
or constructed drains, or it will breach the canal bund. Hill farmers are aware of this dangerous
situation and have often incorporated simple and effective designs that are acceptable to all farmer
users. They may intentionally weaken a short segment of the outer canal bank so that the canal will
breach at the proper place. Another practice is to use a hollow tree trunk aqueduct to limit the flow so
excess water can safely spill as it crosses the ravine. Frequently, where a side stream crosses the canal
at a level crossing, the outer bank is made to breach easily when excess water (flood flow due to
excess rain fall) enters the stream. These designs are fully "automatic" in the sense that farmers do not
have to rush to the structure to open a gate.or cut a canal bank to let the rainwater escape. After the Spilling starts automatically when the water level rises above the masonav sill. The spill capacip
rain storm has passed, the farmers would go and repair the breach. Although this is an annoying can be increased by removing the gate. (the wooden gate is not in place in the photograph). Escape
labour intensive nuisance, it is low cost and very effective. Such methods have many generations of skuctures based on this concept are specially suitable for remote location because they allow
testing. By building gated escape structures in remote locations, escapes structures in the wrong mfficienl lead time for the farmers to remove the gate.
locations, or providing too few escapes structures, design concepts that have proven successful over
centuries may be neglected. Therefore, for maximum effectiveness the design and location of escapes
must be planned jointly with the farmer. Depending on the remoteness of the location, hll or part
Automation
automation may be required. Photograph 13.4, shows a gated escape structure built in a remote Automation in this context, means the ability of escape structures to spill excess water automatically
location. For this system to work, the gate must be removed manually at every down pour of rain. In without human intervention when the level of water in the canal begins to rise above the design flow
practice, this seldom happens, especially if it means farmers having to hurry in the rain along a slippery level. Although complex mechanical devices can be installed to achieve automation, these are not
path to remove the gate. At night the gate may never be operated. Escapes that function automatically appropriate in remote areas, because mechanical devices are difficult to maintain and may get
are required at remote locations such as shown above. damaged quickly, Full and part automation can be achieved quite satisfactorily using concepts
described in Figures 13.2 and 13.3.
Figure 13.1: Escape spillway with gate designed for manual operation
/
Figure 13.3: Escape spillway with a raised spill crest and gate designed for part automation
I NO automation / /

Masonry wall built Part automation

upto bind top level

1XTnn.a A.. "+-A

V V UUU U1 3LCG1 / / I I

canal bed

The gates have to be renroved or lifled t~rariuallyto allo~oIvnter to escape.

Iftlie top edge of the gate is set to $111 szpply level in tI1e canal sortie overflow Spilling starts as soon as the water level in the canal rises above the fully supply depth
can occur but, because of restrictions in gate \ilidtl? adequate overflow capacities in the canal, giving sufficient lead time for the farmers to open the gate to increase
cannot be achieved spilling capacity (see Photograph 13.3).

Figure 13.2: Escape spillway with a low spill crest plugged with mud Location of escapes
I
Excess water entering the canal must be disposed of quickly and not allowed to spread along the
Full automation system. Therefore escapes must be located near problem or possible problem areas. Problem areas
are classified as localized or non-localized.
Masonry wall built Localized problem areas will require escapes to be located close to the problem area. These problem
the bund top level areas will include :
I *-dy -intake%
unprotected drainage cros---
* springs
--above
- --- - a
--canal,
* landslide prone stretcfies along the canal,
Ic canal structures with narrow water ways which are likely to retard canal flow,
level crossings that are likely to allow flood water entry.

The contour canal acts as an intercepting drain and collects rain water all along its length. The
problem here is not localized but spread along the canal. Therefore several escape structures will need
sill to prevent to be placed at regular intervals along the canal. As a rule of thumb, escapes will be required at
erosion of canal bed approximately half kilometer intervals.
 Photograph 13.4: A gated escape in a remote location:
A system bound to fail
Diversion channels for water spillingfrom
escape structures
Locations for escape structures are usually chosen so
that excess canal water can be safely diverted back
into an existing drain or back to the river source (see
Photograph 13.2). Large rock outcrops along the hill
side can be used to dissipate the energy of the falling
water before it is led into existing or constructed
drains. When rock out crops are not present, gabions
(see Photograph 13.1) may be used. When escape
structures are located near existing drainage gullies
diversion of water is easy. The excess water will spill
directly into the drainage gully below. In some cases,
a side channel may need as shown in Figure 13.4, to
divert the spill water safely away from the canal.
Escapes can also be incorporated into aqueduct
structures using a spill on the side wall of an
aqueduct.
Figure 13.4: A constructed escape channel to divert water safely away from the canal
Escape spillway
I I
I Sectional elevation
Chapter 14: Drop structures
Droplstructures are required in a canal to achieve a drop in the water level in the canal, while
dissipating energy, so that the canal is not eroded. Drop structures are also built in canal to reduce the
slope of the canal so that canal erosion is minimized.
The principal features of a drop structure are :
* the upstream transition, .
* the crest, *
* the glacis,
*
*
-
the stilling basin, and
the downstream transition;.
Upstream arld dowrzstream trarlsitiorls
A majority of drop structures can be desigped as rectangular _- structures. Therefore an upstream
__I_-
transition is required to connect the trapezoidal channel to the drop structure. Similarly a downstream
transition is required to connect the drop structure to the channel below it. In addition to their basic
hnction*of connecting the channel with the drop structure, smooth transitions :
- r
* eliminate cross waves and other t u r w
* @reamlineflow-
* p r o v i d e d y for the structure and the waterway.
Upstream crest
An upstream crest (sill) is generally required for structures carrying large flows, to reduce the "draw
down" effect of the upstream of water. Rapid flow of water caused by the draw down effect can
induce erosion of the upstream channel. When flow intensities are low a simple crest is appropriate.
For high flow intensities profiled crests will be required to achieve high discharge coefficients. Profile
crests are designed to match the lower "nappe" of the over flowing water so that sub-atmospheric
pressures are not developed. Profiled crest will be required for drop structures with a glacis (chute
drovsL
' ,, while a crest with a crest with a upstream rounded nose with a nominal curvature will be
appropriate for a vertical drop.
Glacis
The sloping floor of a chute drop is called a glacis. In large hydraulic structures, such as spillways for
dams, profiled glacis are provided to maximize the flow and safety of the glacis. However, in drop
structures, the slope of the glacis is often determined by the required drop height and is dependent on
the topography. Construction of profiled glacis is difficult in remote hill areas because good
construction skills are not readily available.
Stilling basin
The stilling basin is an important part of the drop structure. It is here the excess energy of the water is
absorbed or dissipated before it is returned to the channel below. If sufficient energy is not dissipated
within the stilling basin erosion of the down stream channel will occur. Several methods are available
for dissioatine
1 - - --a excess energy. Not all of them are appropriate for use in the hills. The methods for
energy dissipation will be discussed later in this chapter
 Types of drop structures and their hydrmlic design - constant supervision of construction work is difficult due to lack of experienced
The common hydraulic principle in all types of drop structures is the dissipation of excess energy of
staff,
the water as it drops from a higher level to a lower level. All excess energy of the water must be - construction skills for making complex stilling basin structure in masonry or
dissipated inside the drop structure before water is allowed into the downstream channel. Energy can
concrete is not eadily available in remote districts.
be dissipated by the formation of a hydraulic jump, by allowing the flow to strike baffles or by using * heavy excavation are undesirable,
water cushions. - large drop structures require heavy excavation leading to unstable hill slopes.
The following types of drop structures are suitable for remote hilly areas :
* * difficulty in maintenance,
vertical drop (see Photograph 14.l), - complex stilling basins are difficult for farmers to repair and maintain.
* cascade drop (see Photograph 14.2),
* It is therefore desirable to limit the drop height of drop structures for hill areas to :
chute drops (see Photograph 14.3), * below 2 meters for vertical drops, and
* pipe drop (see Figure 14.11), *
* below 4 meters for cascade and pipe drops.
pipe drop with baffles (see Figure
- 14.12) The choice of structure type is influenced by the slope of the natural ground surface. Generally chute
However in remote hilly areas the con,struction of largd drop structures are is difficult and undesirable
drops are recommended for slopes upto 1:2 (V:H), Cascades for slopes from 1:2 to 1:1 (V:H), pipe
for the following reasons :
drops for slopes greater than 1: 1 (V:H) and vertical drops for near vertical slopes.
Photograph 14.1: A vertical drop structure
in a lined canal 6
Photograph 14.2: A cascade drop
structure in stone masonry
Vertical drop structures
Vertical drop structures are the simplest and most appropriate type for drops upto 2 meters, both in
the hill and flat areas. In the hills , this structure is usually built using 1:4 cement masonry and the
stilling basin is plastered with 1:3 cement plaster to withstand the erosive and impact forces of the
rapidly flowing water. Photograph 14.4, shows the signs of erosion on the side walls, the crest and,
particularly the floor of the vertical drop structure. The floors of vertical drop structures are subjected
t o heavy impact and turbulent forces . Gravel particles carried by the canal flow, and accumulating on
the floor of the drop structure, can also contribute to rapid wear and tear caused by abrasion. Hence,
the masonry work, plastering and PCC in a drop structure must be of very good quality and high
strength t o prevent quick wear and tear.

The following design considerations must be made in the design of vertical drop structures :
* difficulty in construction,
- good quality local construction materials for making strong walls and floors
required for large drop structures is often not available in remote districts.
* the crest of the drop structure should be made approximately equal to the upstream
canal bed width. The sill level of the crest should be set so that there is no draw down
effect in the channel upstream of the structure.
The following formula for discharge over a broad crested weir applies.
Q= 1 . 7 ~ h ~ " ~ ,
where Q. - - is the flow in rnjper sec., w, the crest width in meters, and, h, the depth of
flow over the crest in meters,
* the stilling basin should be of rectangular section and be slightly wider than the
upstream crest by 20 centimeters (typically), so the "nappe" can be aerated. If baffle
blocks are required in the stilling basin, rock slabs cast into the floor can be a cheap
solution in the hills. The length of the basin should be checked for loo%, 50% and 10%
of the design flow,
* the drop structure should be checked for safety against uplifting and piping failure
downstream. For a preliminary design the seepage path should be made at least four
times the maximum hydraulic gradient,
* lining should be provided downstream of the stilling pool to prevent erosion of the canal
bed and bank. Dry ston5 pitching on gravel backing upto a length of five times the
water depth in the downstream canal is recommended,
* vertical drop structures are preferable designed in multiples of 0.5 meters, i . e 0.5, 1.O,
1.5, and 2.0 meters.
 Photograph 14.3: A series of chute drop Photograph 14.4: A drop structure For practical reasons, allow 0.05 m. Thus p = 0.05 m.
structures showing signs of erosion damage of the Step 2: ~ i d i of
h stilling basin
concrete floor and masonry walls Width of stilling basin = UIS bed width of canal + 0.2 m. = 0.8 + 0.2 = 1.0 m.

Figure 14.1: Definition sketch (vertical drop)

A

Y = (d2-TW) + Drop + p

Step 3: The design calculation from this point onwards is of a trial and error nature. The main
hydraulic calculations for determining the length of the drop, length of the jump and the
sill height, require that an assumption is made of the parameter d2 - the conjugate depth
of the hydraulic jump - and compared to the same parameter d2 as extrapolatkd from
Hydraulic design of a vertical drop structure formulae and graphs. When the assumed value of d2 and the extrapolated value of d2
are equal, then one can proceed with the remaining calculations. This is explained
The different steps in the design of a vertical drop structure are explained in the following example.
graphically in Figure 14.2.
The Figure 14.1 shows the definition of symbols used in the design calculation.
For Q = 0.4 m3 per sec.
Design example I
Design a 1.5 meter vertical drop for a canal carrying 0.4 cubic meter per second of water. Assume d2 = 0.7 m.
U/S and D/S canal parameters of the canal are : Then, Y =(dl-TW)+Drop+p = ( 0 . 7 - 0 . 5 ) + 1 . 5 + 0 . 0 5 3 =1.75m.
BW = 0.80m Bed slope = 1500 q, the discharge per unit width in the stilling basin = 0.411.0 = 0.4 m per sec.
FSD = 0.5 m V = 0.75 mps
Side slope .= 1:0.5 (V:H) Q = 0.396 cubic meters per second. i'
n = 0.025 Drop number, D = - = 0.003046
gy3
Step 1: Crest width and level d2
Crest width = canal bed width = 0.8 m. From Nomogram I, for 5 = 0.003046, - = 0.347
Y
Head of water over crest, h is given by the expression
Q = 1.7w)h3I2giving h= 0.44 m.
Upstream flow depth in the canal = 0.5 m. Therefore to prevent draw down effect the
crest must be set at 0.5 - 0.44 = 0.06 m above the bed of the upstream canal.
 Note: the expression 5 = 1.660 -0.27
may be used in place of the graph for more Figure 14.2: Flow chart showing the major design steps in the calcunltion of the length of
Y drop, the length of jump and the downstream sill height of a vertical drop
accuracy.
structure
Therefore d2 = 0.347 x 1.75 = 0.607 m.
Assumed d2 t computed dp Hence the above calculations are repeated
Repeating the process for a new assumed d2 = 0.6 m.
Then, Y = (d2 + TW) +Drop + p = (0.6 - 0.5 ) + 1.5 + 0.05 = 1.65 m.
For max. Q calculate L, & LI using the For max. Q / 10 calculate d, using steps I
steps of the flow chart below. of flow chart below
I
- q
Drop number, D = - = 0.00363 assume d,
gy3
assume 1
From Nomogram I, for 5 = 0.00363,

d2 = 1.660
Note: the expression -
-0.27
4
Y
= 0.364
1 I-!-]
a s ~ ~ ~ e calculate Y

may be used in place of the graphfor more

Y
accuracy.
Therefore d2 = 0.364 x 1.65 = 0.601 m.
Assumed d2 = computed d2,
Ifrom n%F;gram 1
From Nomogram I, for 5 = 0.00363, -
dl = 0.049
Y calculate d,

d, -0425
Note :the expression -= 0.54D may be used in place of the graph for more
Y
accuracy.
Therefore d l = 0.049 x 1.65 = 0.08 m and d4 = d2 - TW = 0.60 - 0.50 = 0.10 m.
Hw = 0.44 m.
Therefore, hd = Hw + p + drop - TW =0.44+0.05+1.5 -0.5 =1.49m

giving 4= 34.
Hw . -
extrapolate extrapolate
From Nomogram 1, for ?? = 0.00363, &- = 0.94 from - from set
Y nomogram 1 t- nomogram 1
calculate LP '
d3 d,
Note :the expression -
-0 27
L d = 4.3D
may be used in place of the graphfor more d, and F calculate L,
Y
accuracy. 4
Ld = 0.94 x 1.65 = 1.55 m. extrapolate
from
nomogram 2
Froude number, Fr = -
s/d, =5.64 L,/d,
Jgd, I L, I d
Note: L, = Length of Drop Note: is a theoretical parameter called
L. i
Drop Number and has no relation to any
from Nomogram 2, for Froude number of 5.64. 2 = 612 L, = Length of Jump
d, L F = Froude number physical dimension of the drop structure.
Thus Lj = 6 . 2 x 0 . 6 5 3 . 7 2 m.
Total length of basin = Ld + Lj = 5.27 m. = 5.5 m. (say)
Figure 14.3: Nomograms for the design of vertical drop structures
Nomogram 1, for determining the length of drop and the height of the downstream sill
Step 4: Depth of downstream sill
The depth of the downstream sill must be set to ensure the formation of the hydraulic
jump inside the basin when the water is just beginning to flow across the drop structure.
A discharge of 1110th. the design discharge is used in the calculation for this purpose.
dl. must be set equal to, or greater than the conjugate depth of the hydraulic jump.
- 3I

Repeating the calculations shown in the above step.

For TW = 0 m., d2 =0.17 m., q=0.04 m3 per sec.
= (d2 + TW) + Drop + p = (0.17 - 0.0 ) + 1.5 + 0.05
Then, Y
= 1.72 m.
. - q2
Drop number, D = - = 0.000032
gy3

For 5 = 0.000032, 5
Y = 0.101
Therefore, d2 = 0.17 m.
Assumed d2 = computed d2
Therefore set d, 2 d,, set d3 = 0.20 m.

Design example 2
This example describes an analytical method for determining the length of drop and length of jump in
a vertical drop structure.
Design data:
- 6' % 0
3 , 2
. ; "- U/S and D/S canal parameters of the canal are:
8 0 BW = 0.80 m Bed slope = 1:500
-P NU"=" 6 - 99 y1J FSD = 0.5 m
v = 0.75 mps
Q = 0.396 cubic meters per second.
Side slope = 1:0.5 (V:H)
n = 0.025

Ho = H + Y"
2g' H~ = 0.4 + 0.029 = 0.43 m.
Total head over the crest,
Nomogram 2, for determining the length of the jump

5
Critical velocity, Vc = unit discharge / depth of flow = q / h
w h e r e q = Q / B = 0 . 4 / 0 . 8 = 0 . 5 cubicmetersper sec., and h = 0 . 2 9 m .
(Note: The unit discharge can also be calculated using the discharge formula for sharp crested weirs,
2
1 1 4 5
taking Cd = 0.6 1, in the formula q = -
3 C, &Hy , where Ho = 0.43m. )
FROUOE NUMBER
-
Therefore, Vc = 0.5 / 0.29 = 1.724 mps.

From the laws of motion, X i = v, 2J'l ,where Y 1 = drop height + Y + h/2 = 1.70 m.
 9
Therefore X1 1.724 The sequent depth, using the specific energy formula, dl =
= = 1.015 m. d2gEo'
Thus the length of the drop, Ld = Xo + X1 = 0.129 + 1.015 = 1.144 m.
0.5
The next step is to determine the length of the jump, Lj and the level of the stilling basin. Thus d l = = 0.077 m
The stilling basin must have sufficient length and be lowered sufficiently so that the hydraulic jump is 4 2 x9.81x2.129
contained and is submerged.
The depth d2 , is now computed using the formula (A) and the expression (B) above
Figure 14.4: Definition sketch (vertical drop: analytical method)
Using formula (A):
Using formula (B): d2' = 0.50 + 0.20 = 0.70 m.
The values do not match, therefore the calculation is repeated using a new value of do.

Figure 14.5: Definition sketch (stilling basin: analytical method)

The procedure for determining the length of th; jump and the level of the stilling basin floor is of a
trial and error nature. For a chosen value of do (see Figure 14.5), d2 is computed using the formula

and the expression d2' = TW + do .........................(B)

For do = 0.30 m.
The chosen value of do is correct when the two values of d2 match. E ~ =' 2.229 m.
To avoid confusion the terms d2 and d2' are used to diffdrentiate between the values computed by the
formula (A) and the expression (B) given above. The correct value of do, is obtained using a
graphical method. A sample calculation is shown below.
For do = 0.20 m.

The critical depth ,hk =

c = 0.294 m. Using formula (A):
 Using formula (B): d2' = 0.50 + 0.30 = 0.80 m.
The two values are almost equal.
For practical reasons the value of do is taken as 0.3 m. Z = step height (m), the distance from the crest to the floor of the step,
The length of the jump can now be computed using either the Bakrnetev-Martkse formula or the q = unit discharge (cubic meters per sec.)
Pavlov formula. The greater of the two is adopted for design. The length of the step should be set 10 crns. longer than Ld.
Using the Bakrnetev-Martkse formula Lj = 5( d2 - dl ) = 5(0.79 - 0.075) = 3.57 m.
Using the Pavlov formula Lj = 2.5( 1.9x d2 - dl ) = 3.56 m.
Adopting the greater of the two values, *
Length of the basin, Ld + Lj = 1.144 + 3.57 = 4.71 m = 4.75 m (say). height of the step,
/' - the step height must be limited to a maximum of 1 m.
* height of the side wall,
d a s c a d e drop structures - the height of the side wall should be set at least 20 crns. above the water level.
The disadvantage of vertical drops and pipe drops is that the energy collects at the bottom of the drop In most cases however, the topography of the site will influence the height of
where it need to be dissipated at a single point. This normally requires large and expensive stilling the side walls. The side walls must prevent earth, stones, ~ebblesand boulders
basins. Cascade drops overcome this problem by dissipating energy at every small step of the from falling into the structure. Stones, pebbles and boulders trapped inside the
structure. They also have the advaatage of allowing small gradual changes in the direction of flow as structure can contribute to rapid wear and tear of the masonry used in the
shown in ~hotogriph14.5. structure due to abrasion.
The essential features of a cascade drop are shown in Figure 14.6. The following design * overall slope of the structure,
considerations must be made in the design of cascade drop structures. the overall slope of the structure must match the ground slope, else the structure
* width of the structure,
-- the width of the structure must be between 0 8 and 1.25 times B, the bed width
will require deep excavation or heavy filling, both of which is undesirable (see
Figure 14.7). Ld is dependent on D, which in turn is dependent on q , the unit
of the canal. discharge per width of the cascade chute. By varying the width of the structure
* length of the step,
within reasonable limits, and the height Z of the step, it is possible to arrive at a
- the minimum length of the step is determined by the position where the upper suitable combination of step height and step length such that the overall slope of
surface of the nappe hits the base of the step. This position is calculated by the the structure matches the existing ground slope of the site. The example below
expression: shows how this can be done.
Figure 14.6: Cascade drop structure
Design example 3 ,'..
L s - L .
? I

. ; /v:,
A cascade drop is required to lower the water level in the canal by 3 meters. The bed width of the UIS
canal is 0.60 m. Select suitable step height and step length so that the overall slope of the structure
matches the existing ground slope of 1V : 2H. The values of Z and L, derived using the formulas and
recommendations given above are tabulated in Table 14.1.

Table 14.1: Relationship between structure width and overall slope

I Structure width (m) ( Z (m) I L (m) I Structure slope (H: V ) I

SEC'I'IONAL ELEVATION
Photograph 14.5: Cascade drops allow gradual changes in the direction of flow

typically /- 1:3 cement plastered on gavel bed

1:2 masonry
SECTION

Figure 14.7: Choosing the correct depth to length ratio of the step of a cascade drop structure
U
to match the existing ground slope PLAN

Existing ground slope

Figure 14.9: Chute drop with overflow weir

Heavy excavation required

SECTION

203 min 1.50 min

P--it-+
The shaded area of Table 14.1 shows that when the width of the structure is 0.7 m and the drop
height is 0.55 m, the step length is 1.10 m. Under these conditions the overall slope of the structure
matches the existing ground slope.

Chute drop structure

In the hills where there are steep sections in the canal chute drops can be used. Chute drops are
recommended for slopes upto 1:2 (V:H). In a chute all the energy collects at the base where it is
dissipated by stilling. Two methods of stilling are possible; a normal stilling pool (Figure 14.8), or an
overflow box type (Figure 14.9). The overflow box is preferred because it allows more efficient PLAN b
energy dissipation.
 The flow depth at B is given by Y, = -. The velocity and the depth of flow at B are now known,
The following design considerations must be made in the design of chute drops :
* the width of the flume must be made the same as the upstream bed width or slightly
VB

narrower,
* a crest sill should be provided at the top of the chute to prevent draw down in the
upstream channel,
* the size of the chute can be based on "mannings equation". although this is strictly not
accurate the error is on the safe side. A free board of 30 cm. is allowed in the chute
section,
* the stilling basin should have adequate length to dissipate excess energy effectively,
* if an overflow box is used, the overflow wall should be built strong having at least 40
cm, thickness. The outside wall height should be at least 50 cm: above the top of the
overflow wall. The box should be made of adequate size to allow stilling to occur,
* original ground level should be at approximately chute wall level.
Hydraulic design of a chute drop
Figure 14.10: Definition sketch (chute drop)
VB
hence Froude number can be calculated using the expression, FrB = -
JgVa
Y 1
Using the equation =- ( - 1) ........................ (iii)
\ YB 2
and the known value of Froude number, YC can be computed.
Using Nomogram 2, and the known values of Froude number and YC , the length of the jump Lj can
be obtained. The downstream sill is set equal to YC minus the downstream depth of flow.
Pipe drops
Pipe drops may be used for falls of upto about 4 meters. Energy dissipation in a pipe drop is achieved
by either causing a hydraulic jump to for at the pipe outlet or by allowing the water jet from the outlet
end of the pipe to impinge on a fixed baffle block. Some examples of pipe drops are shown in Figures
14.11, 14.12 and 14.13. The maximum velocity in the pipe (flowing hll) depends on the outlet
arrangement. For earthen transitions a pipe velocity of 1 meter per second is recommended. When
baffles or other arrangements are used to ensure better stilling, a pipe velocity of upto 3 meters per
second can be allowed. Inlet control will be required to prevent draw down at the upstream end of the
structure.

Figure 14.11: Pipe drop with simple box outlet (low velocity)

...........
. , .'
The velocity at B, the base of the chute can be estimated using the energy equation: '7
a/
.\I-
f

VB= ................................................. (0 I ,

Where Vb = velocity at the point B ,

H = total head at A Comded inlet

hf = friction loss in the chute
I 5 x cia (min) Outlet
(ii) i ! ,
\.

Where q = flow per unit width of the chute,

L = horizontal length of the chute, and Bafle type basin for pipe drop structures
K = Strictler constant (= I / Mannings constant) Energy dissipation in a baffle type basin is accomplished by the impact of the incoming jet of water on
a vertical fixed baffle, and by the eddies formed from the change in direction of the water jet afier it
The design procedure is as follows strikes the baffle. The generd arrangement of the baffle and the dimensions of the different
H is known from desi~ndata. hence hfcan be determined by trial and error using equation (i). Now components of the basin are shown in Figure 14.14.
VB, is computed usins the equation (i). i
Figure 14.12: Pipe drop with baffled outlet (high velocity) Figure 14.13: Pipe drop with baffled outlet

I I
Rrtmwahle c a v e r 0.3 03
&reen -7

.
C o d e d inlet
1:4 cement-
Steel w HDP pipe
-Onr)l 1:4 cerr~entmasonry/
a w b blocks
SECTION B -B

Wkd artlet or still~ng well

I
- I
This design is valid for discharges upto I1 cubic meters per second; for larger discharges multiple --
basins can be placed side by side.
--- - .
The following factors should be considered in the design of this type stilling basins :
~

* the capacity of the basin should be limited to the feasibility of the structural design and
the theoretical maximum velocity of 15 mps,
* the pipes should be sized assuming a maximum velocity of 3 mps.,
* for maximum stilling effect the basin should be set so that the tail water in the
downstream canal is halfway up the height of the baffle,
* the bottom of the baffle should be at the same level as the invert of the incoming pipe,
* dynamic and turbulence forces must be considered in the structural design of the basin.
Location of drop slructures
The location of drop structures in a canal depends on the topography of the land through which the
canal is passing. In the case of primary canals (which usually do not supply water directly to farms)
the positions of drop structures are fixed from consideration of the cost of excavation in the canal and
the construction cost of the structure. The size (drop height) of each drop will depend upon the
number and the position of the drop structures. The position of the drops and their heights are
interdependent. In the distribution system, drop structures are located from considerations of
command area. Construction costs can be controlled and the effectiveness increased when existing
stable rock outcrops in the path of the canal are used to locate drops as shown in Photograph 14.6.
Use of small drop structures to control erosion
Earthen canals with steep gradients can erode due to high flow velocity in the canal. Canal bed and
bank erosion in such canals can be controlled by either :
* lining the canals - an expensive solution when long canal stretches need to be lined, or
* by reducing the canal gradient to more gentle slopes - a cheaper alternat.ive.
By providing a series of small drop structures at different locations along the canal a steep canal
gradient can be reduced to a more gentle slope. The number of such small drop structures required
will depend on the required correction to the canal gradient, and the drop height of each drop
structure.
PlAN
Notes kJet o: outlet wirdth dependen? o n canal section and/or number of pipes.
Ak &xion6 a metres
When several drops are required in a canal, for control of erosion, drop height may need to be
standardized for ease of construction. The foundition and the stilling basin of the drop structure must
i
be cut into the ground and the crest on the upstream end of the structure must be built slightly above
. the existing canal bed to achieve a reduction in the canal gradient as shown in Figure 14.15.
Use of drop structures to control water level
For branch, field and farm outlets to function effectively, the water&el just upstream of the outlet
----" be maintained
must at design level at all ~ b d canals
n carrying small flows farmers can effectively
-- _--_ -
control the waterlive1 in the parent canal to allow the off take to draw adequate water from the
parent canal. In larger canais, farmer control of water level is often difficult. Control of water level in
larger canals can be achieved by the use of small drops structures - also called check structures In
hilly areas, because the canals are relatively steep, every off take may need a check structure to
maintain water level in the parent canal to ensure proper hnctioning of the off take When several
check structures are required in a canal, for effective water distribution, the drop height may need to
be standardized for ease of construction. As for all drop structures, the foundation and the stilling
basin of the drop structure must be cut into the ground and the crest on the upstream end of the
structure must be built slightly above the existing canal bed level as shown in Figure 14 16
Figure 14.14: Design parameters of baffle type basins for pipedrop structures. Figure 14.15: Use of small drop structures to control erosion

Canal bed upstream of the drop

structure will silt upto the design
bed level in due course

\
-- -- \
Bxisting eroding canal bed.

- - -/
-- /"'

Drop structure.
----_
New canal excavation at more /
gentle slope. h o p structure.

II
Figure 14.16: Use of small drop structures to control water level in the canal

Canal bed upstream of the drop

y Plan
L 4 structure will silt upto the design
bed level in due course
~ a -

- - 0, -h
-------- P xisting eroded canal bed.
outlets can no longer draw
adequate water from the canal)
---- --- 0
* _-
+
------
Drop structure.
Level of the drop suucture
--
set to control water level /
I \ required for the offtake. Drop structure.
Section Bedding
10
9
8
7
6 i\
1
Good quality construction and appropriate desigti are needed for making strong,
durable drop structures in remote hilly ataec~.v
5
4
.
D Drop structures are subjected to high turbulence and impact forces and therefore have to be built
2 . strong to resist these forces. The walls and floors of drop structures can erode due to high flow
velocity and abrasion caused by suspended gravel and sand. Air pockets associated with high flow
2 velocity can cause cavity erosion. Cavity erosion begins at certain locations in the structure and
Note See Chapter 4.8 of M8, spreads to neighboring areas with time The areas of drop structures vulnerable to cavity erosion are:
Part 2 of the PDSP Design (see Figure 14.17)
* raised sills,
1 Manuals for more details. * lowered sills,
1 2 3 4 5678910
* sharp changes in curvature of a sill-face,
Froude number VIJSa *
W =the inside width of the basin 4 sharp changes in slope of a sirr~ace.
* grooves on the floor,
D =the depth of flow entering the basin and
* rough surfaces,
is the square root of the flow area * protruding construction joints
V =the velocitv of the incomina flow
It is difficult to completely avoid cavity eros~onin drop structures, but it is possible to reduce its effect
by :

+ -
 ? Figure 14.17: Areas of drop structures vulnerable to cavity erosion
Photograph 14.6 : The upstream end of the drop structure located on the top of a stable rock !
outcrop. The water drops through a height of about 5 meters flowing over the steep rocky face i
and is collected at the base using a chamber built in strong masonry. The water is then led into
the downstream channel through a submerged weir. 1
I
* using strong masonry, cement plaster and
Flow Flow
concrete, ___L Air cavlties A Air cavities
* ensuring a smooth finish on all surfaces that
will come in contact with rapidly flowing
water, and ......

* regular maintenance. Damage

Abrasion erosion in drop structures is - caused
. by :
. . Damage
* suspended silt and sand, A Raised Sill An Abrupt Depression in the Floor
* trapped sand and gravel that are in circulation
inside enclosed structures such as stilling
pools, etc.
It is difficult to completely avoid erosion due to
-
Flow
-
Air cavities -Flow
Air cavities

abrasion in drop structures, but it is possible to reduce

its effect by preventing stones and gravel debris falling
into stilling pools. Inadequate design of drop struc-
tures can cause failure of the structure due to erosion An Abrupt Change in Curvature An Abrupt Change in Slope
of the downstream canal leading to collapse of the
downstream walls and floor. As a safety measure
sufficient canal protection in the form of stone Flow Air cavities Flow
L
Air cavities
pitching must be provided below the structure. 1.5 to
3 meters of stone pitching will need to be provided
depending on the flow in the canal.

Transverse Grooves in the Floor ~ d u Surfaces

~ h

-
Flow
/
'
Air cavities

Protruding Joints in Structures

Chapter 15: Drainage crossing structures Photograph 15.1:
A reinforced concrete
aqueduct crossing a gully
A gravity canal built in mountain terrain must often cross streams in deep gullies. Open channel sections grade level of the canal
must loop deep into the gullies in order to cross them at a uniform gradient A gully, in the mountain,
often has steep, unstable slopes making it difficult to maintain the canal. Frequently the slopes are hard
rock which is stable but difficult for farmers to excavate a bench for the canal. The canal segment
crossing a stream is exposed to damage and siltation whenever it rains unless a structure is built to
protect it. Alternatives to open channels that loop into the gully are aqueducts at grade level supported by
some type of bridge, or 'inverted siphons' which are pipes that dip down and cross under the stream and
then up again to the level of the canal on the other side of the gully
Thus there are four possible way to cross a gully
* an aqueduct,
-
Y a siphon,
* a super passage, or
Y: a level crossing.
Photograph 15.2:
These structure types are illustrated in Photographs 15.1, 15.2 and 15.3. The choice of structure type
from among the four can vary depending on the location of the crdssing point as indicated in Figure 15.1.
A farmer built level crossing with
Factors affecting the choice o f drainage crossing structures dry stone outer wall arid orifice
The factors that influence the choice of the most appropriate type of drainage crossing structure are: control to prevent flood water
* type and size of drainagechamel stream in relation to the canal size, entry
* usehlness of the drainage stream as a supplementary source of irrigation water,
* sediment and / or debris load carried by the drainage stream when in flood,
* relative levels of canal water level, canal bed and stream bed,
* foundation conditions in and adjacent to the drainage channel at the proposed crossing
point,
* the strategic importance of the structure, in terms of the scheme performance (i.e. whether
loss of the structure will put l a r ~ eareas of the command area out of production for an
unacceptable length of time). rnorograpn 13.3 A super passage in dry stone masonry with RCC cover slabs
Table 15.1, below is a simple guide for making a preliminary guess of the most suitable type of structure
based on relevant criteria such as:
* drainage stream width,
* drainage stream bed level in'relation to canal bed level,
* nature of flood flow,
* nature of bed load when the stream is in flood,
* usefulness as a supplementary source of irrigation water,
* cost of the drainage crossing structure,
* durability of the structure, and
* simplicity of construction.
T11e final choice of structure type, however, should be taken only aficl. careful consideration o f .
* maximum probable flood intensity, and the duration of tlooding in the gully,
* type and size of bed load when the drainage stream is in flood,
* the stability of the drainage bed and bank slopes at normal and flood flow times,
 * the stability of the drainage channel above and below the canal alignment,
Figure 15.1 The most appropriate type of cross drainage structure depends on the location * the hydraulic compatibility (meaning that there is adequate hydraulic head to drive the canal
flow through the structure),
* the cost, and
* the willingness and ability of the farmers to operate and maintain the structure, when the
Structure Types Changes as You Move From Location 1 to 4 irrigation project is turned over to the farmers.
4. Super Passage
Table1 5.1: Cross drainage structure choice
Needs only little maintenance
if properly constructed.
Covered conduit must extend several Criteria 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 1
metres beyond the gully banks for
the structure to be Stream width
Wide (> 15 meters)
Medium (5-1 5 meters)
3. Level C r o s s i n g Narrow (< 5 meters)
Suitable only across streams Stream bed level in relation to canal bed
with very low intensity of flood :; level
flow and low flood frequencies. ,;. Same level
In some farmer canals le Little below ( < 3 meters)
crossings also act as safety ,i Much below ( > 3 meters)
valves to safeguard the canal Above x x x Y X X y ' x x
during monsoon. For every Stream subject to flash floods s x + Y Y Y X I + +
level crossing replaced ' Stream flood bed load
by another type of crossing,
an additional safety valve
must be built in the canal. p p p l e m e n t a r y water source Y X Y X X X X X X
1Cost ( relative cheapness ) y+ +
+ + x x x x
/ Durability
-. .. . -
I x l + ) + l ~ ( ~ ) y l y ( ~ ) ~
2. Aqueduct I Simplicity of construction
I
I y l + l + l + / x x I x
Needs only little mainte x l x
if properly constructed. Y suitable + could be considered x not suitable
Cost can be controlled 1 level crossing 2 culvert crossing 3 drop and pick up crossing
by suitable choice of 4 super passage 5 sipl~onshallow 6 siphon deep
construction materials. 7 cross drainage siphon 8 aqueduct single span 9 aqueduct multi span

I
......

1. Inverted Siphon
A complicated structure requiring
a lot of maintenance.
Generally more expensive than
other types of structures.
 However the non availability of timber is making it necessary to replace forest products with a viable
Efects of erosion of drainage channels on stability and durability of drainage cross~ng alternative.
structures
Many drainage channels suffer from erosion either above or below the canal line. If this erosion is not
halted, the stability of the canal line and the cross could be affected. he drainage HDP pipe aqueducts
channel should be inspected upstream and to check if erosion control When durability cost and ease of construction in remote hill areas are main factors to be considered, m p
structures are required. Gabion, or stone masonry weirs (checks), or vegetative measures may be used pipe aqueducts will rank high among the possible alternatives. Two design variations are possible with
for erosion control, depending on the nature and intensity of erosion. photograph 15.4 below shows the HDP pipes. The row of HDP pipes can be simply supported on a bridge (see Photograph 15.6) or can be
use of weirs (checks) to control erosion in a gully. suspended (see Photograph 15.7).

Stone weirs for erosion control of gulleys Photograph 15.6: HDP pipe aqueduct supported on a wooden bridge
Photograph 15.4:

Photograph 15. 5: Traditional wooden aqueduct

Hydraulic and structural design considerationfor HDP pipe aqueducts
Aqueducts The hydraulic design consideration for both types of HDP pipe crossing is the selection of appropriate
pipe diameter based on the canal flow and the available head loss. This loss will depend on the flow rate
Traditional Aqueducts in the pipe, pipe friction losses, length of pipe and inlet and outlet losses. Structural design considerations
Hollow logs have been used by hill farmers in for a suspended HDP pipe aqueduct must includethe total load, point load, sag and stability during high
Nepal as aqueducts for centuries. winds. On the basis of the above the size of the cables and the design of the anchor blocks can be
Photograph 15.5 shows one such wooden finalized. Guy wires will also be needed to keep the pipe from swaying in the wind. Structural design
aqueduct. Such log aqueducts are frequently considerations for a simply supported row of pipes must include the total load, the load on the abutments
also used as flow limiting structures. All 1 piers and the bearing capacity of the foundation of the abutments I piers.
excess flow in the canal overtops the
aqueduct and spills into the stream below; a Special d e s i g ~consideration -fi)rsuspended HDP pipes
safe location for disposal of excess canal The constant swaying movement of the pipe is translated into a longitudinal 'in and out' movement of the
water. This fact must be remembered when ends of the pipe at the inlet and outlet portions of the structure. A simple and effective arrangement for
new structures are built to replace existing small structures is to allow the ends of pipe to pass through slightly bigger circular openings cast in
traditional structures. masonry as shown in the figure so that free lengthwise movement of the pipe is not restricted The
opening should have a smooth surface to prevent wearing of the pipe due to abrasion.
 Figure
- 15.2: Loose fitting end joints for TYpe Recommended Maximum Span
suspended pipe crossings (single span)
Reinforced concrele ayzredzlc~s HDP pipe on wooden truss or bridge 6 m.
Reinforced concrete aqueducts are effective. Concrete pipes on timber, steel or concrete beams 6 rn.
economical and durable in remote hills only if Reinforced concrete 10 rn.
they are constructed with strict quality control of Steel flume on timber beams 6 rn.
construction materials and workmanship.
I Masonry wall
I Without proper quality control the desired
Suspended HDP pipes 20 m.
strength and hardwearing properties of concrete
cannot be achieved This will lead to quick Advantages and disadvantages ofaqueducts
deterioration and subsequent failure of the
structure. Construction of reinforced concrete
Advantages
aqueducts can be difficult across deep gullies
because of the difficulty in the erection of form * Minimum -- head
- --
loss Head loss can be easily adjusted with only a marginal increase in cost
work In shallow gullies, however the -.--

'1 Suspended HDP pipe

construction does not pose a major problem
Depending on the span to be crossed, single (see
Photograph 15 8) and multispan aqueducts (see
Photograph 15 9) can be built.
*
*
*
by varying the cross-sectional area of the aqueduct,
Flood flows and sedimentfrom the- drains.-e
~ a c e o n c r e t aqueducts
providing decking,
e can
- -

-often
-
=Lp-
channel cannot enter the canal,
_I__--

be used as a pedestrianbridge for local access, by

Safe against hydrological uncertainties when built well above the maximuin probable flood
level in the drainage channel In deep gullies, the base of the abutments will be well above
the maximum flood flow, hence constitute no eros~onhazard
Photograph 15.7: HDP pipe aqueduct suspended on steel cable
Disadvantages
Typrcal design malcr~als
and szlgges~ed 111axin1un.l * high cost,
spans of aqzredzlcts * -require construction skills which inay not be available locally in remote villages,
The table below summarizes * difficult construction, especially in deep gullies,
the different design materials * &&-ot be used as pedestrian bridges. (even when not designed or suitable for such use),
that can be used for aqueducts * in wide shallow gulliezhe fou~ldationof abutments and I or center piers may be subjected
and recommended spans. For o%
t-
- ..
erosion. '
small crossings, steel pipes Photograph 1 5.8 : Reinforced concrete single span aquedr~ct
may be used to span directly
(see Photograph
15. 10) For longer spans the
pipes should be supported on
wooden, concrete or steel
beams In some cases, the
pipes could be carried below
the foot bridge, spanning
I between the abutments (see Photograph 15.11). HDP pipes deteriorate in sun light and must be covered
!
or put below the deck as shown in the Photograph 15.11.
 Photograph 15.11 HDP Pipe aqueduct supported below deck

What can go wrong wit11 aquedz~cts:).

Phtograph 15.10: Single span steel pipe aqueduct Pro blern Preve~~tio~~

* Timber and timber products used in * Use seasoned timber.

the construction can deform or rot * Coat all titnber with wood preservatives.
quickly.

* Galvanised sheets may corrode. * Apply anti-rust paint.

* HDP pipes can disintegrate if * Put pipes below the deck away from sunlight or cover
exposed to strong sunlight. pipes with suitable lightweight materials.

* HDP pipe butt joints may start to * Insist on good jointing using correct equipment.
leak. * Insist on good quality pipes conforming to standard
specifications.
* Insist on a guarantee of durable workmanship from the
firm assigned to do the job.
* Concrete base slabs and walls can * Insist on strict quality control of construction materials
leak. and workmanship.
* Provide good expansion joints.
* Cure all concrete well.
 * Cracks can develop due to uneven * Do not build foundations very near the edge of hill Photograph 15.12: Outflanking of super passage resulting
foundation settlement or inade- slopes. in silt and flood water entry into canal
quate bearing support. * Provide sufficient bearing area between foundation and
soil beneath.
* Provide sufficient bearing area between bearnlslab and * superpassage structures (see
piers. Figure 15.3a and b.) built on
non-erosive rock outcrops need
\ little stabilising structures.
* Reinforcement bars can corrode * Proyide sufficient concrete cover around steel rods.
quickly. * Avoid kinks in steel rods. * superpassage structures (see
Figure 1 5 . 3 ~built
) on erosive
* High flow velocities in the conduit * Provide adequate transition structures with smooth, drainage channel beds will need
can erode upstream and contoured surfaces. stabilising structures.
downstream earthen canals. * Provide stone paving beyond transitions: especially
downstream. Depending on site conditions and the
* Key the structure well into existing ground. width of the drainage channel, short and
long superpassage may need to
* Inadequate flow area of aqueduct * Design aqueduct section allowing for future expansion constructed. These can be built using the
section can induce backwater in command area. following materials.
effect and possible overtopping of * Provide sut'ficient flow area for "canal bank top level"
upstream canal bank water to pass without backwater effect.
* Provide an escape structure before the aqueduct as a
safety measure. In the case of an existing aqueduct
increase the flow area by raising aqueduct walls if there
is no danger of spilling in the upstream canal, or * HDP pipes
increase the slope of the downstream canal over a long * Hume pipes
reach to induce rapid flow in the aqueduct. * monolithic box sections in concrete
* masonry sections with removable concrete cover slabs.
* Closed conduits can choke * Design for silt-flushing flow velocities in the conduit Photograph 15.13: Undermining of foundation
* -
Pavide screens to prevent large debris entering the of super passage
conduit.
_~-.--
Long super passage conduits may become choked
/ S u p e rpassage with sediment and allowance should be made for
A super passage is a common and effective method for crossing drains with heavy bed loads. They are cleaning. Removable cover slabs or man holes that
used where canals cross relatively steep streams or small rivers. The stream is usually kept on the same allow easy access for cleaning will be required in
grade and the canal is cut into the ground below the bed. Often the canal is flumed and the drainage such cases.
stream is carried in a lined channel over the flume (see Photograph 15.12). It is important that high side Advantages and disadvantages of
walls are provided to prevent overtopping during floods and that these walls are sufficiently embedded super passages
upstream to prevent out flanking of the super passage. Photograph 15.12, shows a situation where Advantages
outflanking resulting in silt and flood water entry is occurring. As far as possible the drainage channel * minimum head loss: Head loss can be
must be kept on the same grade and the water way of the drainage channel not restricted. Too much easily adjusted with only a marginal
narrowing of the water way to decrease the cost, as shown in Photograph 15.13 can result in heavy increase in cost by varying the cross
undermining of the foundation due to rapid flow of drainage water. sectional area of the conduit,
* easy to construct,
* no foundation problems if built on firm
rock out crops.
- Figure 15.3a: Super passage built on non erosive rocky bed Disadvantages

i foundation problems if stabilizing structures are inadequate,

* must be designed with a high margin of safety when drainage stream characteristics are
I----. I r REINFORCED CONCRETE
*
unknown: not suitable across streams carrying heavy flood flows.
conduits can get choked with sediment and debris,

a%
.' .. . b .
...
.a,. .,
..*: , ,. . .
. a *
r CEMENT MASONRY WALL

-MASS CONCRETE
t
* unsuitable for deep gullies as it may involve long diversion of the alignment to find a
suitable crossing point:

What can go wrong with super passages?

CEMENT MASONRY --/
1 0 Problem Prevention

* Excessive narrowing of the * Provide adequate waterway.

\
waterway can lead fo flood water
overtopping the sides.
Figure 15.3b: Super passage built on non erosive rocky bed'
* Narrowed waterways lead to very
I r CEMENT MASONRY WALL high flow velocity in the narrowed
portion resulting in downstream
MASS CONCRETE
erosion.
* Do not restrict drainage flow width.
* Provide sufficiently high wing-walls
* Provide adequate waterway.
*
*
Do not restrict drainage flow width.
Provide adequae erosion protection immediately
downstream.

* Breaching or outflanking can occur * Select suitable crossing points which have stable bank
SEE NOTE 2 ) when the wing-walls are not
' slopes and key the wing-walls well.
W E L L COMPACTED
SELECTED FILL
--/ '
properly keyed into the slopes. * Provide gabion or stone revetments on the inner slopes
near the upstream ends of the wing-walls.

* Top cover slabs or the wearing * Insist on good quality concrete castings.
surface over the super passage * Insist on good quality masonry for wing-walls.
Figure 15,3c: Super passage built on erosive bed-requires protection conduit can wear out quickly due
to abrasion.
* Top cover slabs tend to move out * Cast slabs to correct size and shape, and anchor the
1- '.OO r REWFORCEO CONCRETE of place creating gaps allowing slabs well.
debris to get into the canal below. * Provide lifting handles in cover slabs for easy handling
I PLASTERED CEMENT
WALL
M ASONRY
during readjustments.
10.18 I * Seepage flows under the * Provide upstream cut-off wall.
CONCRETE
structure can cause undermining

Siphons
FLUME
OR
HUME PIPE
-t Inverted siphons are used where it is preferable for the canal to cross the drainage channel directly, rather
than by a detour up the drainage channel to an aqueduct or super passage crossing point. (see Figure
15.1).
 What can go wrong wilh siphon crossings ?
* Shallow siphons (limited use in the hills), and
* deep siphons, can be used to cross drainage channels directly. Problem Prevention
Shallow siphons are used in flatter parts of the hills, particularly where the canal runs along river terraces * HDP pipe joints may start to leak * Insist on good jointing using correct equipment.
of a larger river whose tributaries are wide and gravel filled from upstream landslides. Photograph 15.14 * Insist on good quality pipes conforming to standard
shows a shallow siphon built using rectangular reinforced concrete sections. specifications.
/ I * Insist on a Suarantee of durable workmanship from the
Photograph 15.14: A shallow siphon firm assigned to do the job.
I

* HDP pipesljoints may burst
* Steel flanges may get stolen.
* Select and use the correct class and diameter of HDP pipe
according to pressure along the siphon
* Use steel pipes at the bottom of the sipllon if tIDP is
inadequate.
* Insist on factory made HDP "butt" !olnl\ \ v i l 11 guarantee
Use "tlange" joints for in situ conllcctlo~i\
. * Case flange joints inside concrete : i ~ \ ~ , l l r \blo;!,s
i

* Joints at sharp bends may * Water in the pipe exerts heavy thn~sts011tllc walls of the
leakhreak. pipe. At sharp bends these thrusts are big and have to be
provided for. Provide special anchor block\ to withstand
these thrusts.

* HDP pipes can deform or * Bury pipes below ground.

Deep siphons are used-in hill schemes to cross rivers in deep valleys. The siphon pipes are taken down the disintegrate quickly.
valley side, anchored by heavy anchor blocks and cross the river and then up again to the level of the
canal on the other side of the gully. The siphon pipes can cross under the stream or on a short span bridge * Hume pipes can leak at joints. * Uneven settlement of heavy conc~.c.~c
hr~rne pipes can
over the stream. Depending on the requirement siphons can be built using rows of HDP pipes, steel pipes, strain the joints. Provide rigid baheh on compacted
concrete (hume) pipes or monolithic concrete box sections. foundations to support the hume pipes
The main disadvantage of siphons (shallow and deep) are: * Hurne pipes can leak * If the concrete used for making the Iiunle pipes is porous
* significant head loss,
leaks can develop, especially at the l ~ otom t of the siphon
* pipes can b e c a e choked with sediment and debris carried by the canal unless the pipes are
wllere \vatel-pressures are high.
flushed regularly to remove the silt entrapped inside the pipe, " Llse oood c o ~ ~ c ~ ~ -I c'llc\,en
~tc layel- of bonding mortar
* unusual flood in the drainage gully can damage the siphon pipes laid across the river bed,
* I)et\+cerl 1l1c 111.rrnc pipe allti cx)lla~-can lead to leaks.
aggredation of the river bed can making silt flushing difficult, (when the pipes become
I;I\.cI. of11101 I ~ I I .
3:lainlain a i111ilb1.1i1
buried dee~er).
-. , ,,
* require constant maintenance and clearing also during the non irrigation season. * Steel pipes can corrode. * Coat steel pipes with osi\ c
i ~ ~ l Ct iO ~ I pilint

Level Crossing
The level crossing is a cross drainage structure where a canal crosses a stream at [lie same level. It is a
kaditional structure in which the stream flows into the canal so that stream aug~uentsthe flow in the
canal, but high stream flows overtop the outer bank of the canal and continue down the hill side. Farmers
use level crossing structures for duel purposes to: Figure 15.5. Orifice control st~.uctureto limit flood e n t ~ y
* supplement irrigation canal water, and I
*
1 Drainage
I

to act as a safety valve during heavy rains. flow Control orifice

The use of a level crossing as a supplemented source of water has been explained earlier. During heavy
rains the temporary mud I earth outer embankment over the level crossing structure (see Figure 15.4) will
breach, thus increasing the,ovedow d i s c h d e capacity of the structure.

Figure 15.4: Breach section of level crossing

Excess flood water entering the irrigation canal

through the intake (whose gates are accidentally
left open during a heavy rain) and rainfall r u n ~ f f flow
entering the canal from the uphill canal slope can
' ' I
now be safely discharged through the widened OuLer mud wall
/ Dry-stone and gabion wall with
water way created by the breach in the temporary
mudlearth embankment over the level crossing I-2 centrally located weir

structure. Thus level crossings can act as safety 7'he co~~recl

valves during times of heavy rain fall and flooding
in the source river.
Sectional Ekvation
Advantages and disadvantages of
level crossing structures
The advantage of this structure are its simple
construction using local construction materials
(see Photograph 15.2) and ease of repair and maintenance.
The disadvantages are that it allows flood flows carrying heavy sediment loads, which may damage or
choke the canal to enter the canal. In addition, heavy seepage losses may also occur, when the drainage
channels have gravel and sandy beds.
Flood control at level crossings
On orifice control structure (see Figure 15.5) should be provided down stream of the structure to prevent
excess flows passing down the canal. The width and depth of the orifice opening are usually set to match
the bed width and flow depth in the downstream canal. A second orifice control structure should be built
on the upstream side of the drainage, if flood flows are likely to cause damage to the canal upstream. A
spillway is built opposite the inflow with its crest set at the design water level of the canal. In most cases
the spillweir and the outer wall can be built using dry stone a cement masonry. The spill weir is usually
plugged with loose mud t o increase the flow capacity in the canal. The mud will wash away during flood
flow in the drainage channel thus increasing the spill capacity of the spillway. Gabions may be used in
situations where strong outer walls are required.
uppronch lo decision ~ n a k ~ ning/he-fie/~/
Ilecide at the .site
The most suitable type of cross-drainage structure for a given location must be decided at the site and not
in the drawing ofice because only at the site is it possible to confir~nthe hydrological. topog,raphical and
geological conditions required for the safety and proper functioning of the proposed design Involve the
farmers in the decision making process. Also, when the type of proposed design is known, it is much
easier to decide on the measurements to be taken and the observations to be made whilst still at the site.
It is advisable to take nleasurements and observations using the appropl-iate checklist for the chosen
structure. Checklists make it more difficult to forget irnporta~~tdata In cases where more than one type
of structure appears to be feasible, exact locations for each structure type much be identified and field
data collected using the appropriate checklists. Having all the data to hand will enable quick decisions to
be made later when costs for the different options are known.
As.sesc-fanaer/s1capah~l~ty lo nlaInta,n and opcr.lr/e llle .v/rzichrre
When choosing between two or more stn~ctitretype options. or between two or more constn~ction
material options for the same type of structure, it is necessal y to assess the capability of the farmers to
maintain and operate the structure Farmers do not appreciate the need for constant maintenance and are
often unable to maintain the structure when materials used in the construction are not easily available i the
village Little or no maintenance is done dunng the non-cult~vationseason Structures which need year-
round maintenance, such as siphons, may become choked because of the lack of maintenance in the non-
cultivation season Structures such as siphons need to be operated according to rigid operational rules
e.g. inlet submergence during use, regular silt flushing, etc The farmers need to be informed about these
rules and should be willing and prepared to follow them
- Figure 15.6: Friction loss in pipes flowing full ( K=0.003) Design of aqueduct
Design a 6 meter long aqueduct to carry a flow of 300 Ips.

Data:
UIS and DIS canal parameters
DISCHARGE O (1/$) l o r P I ~ E S1 / s : v , n 7 F U L L BW = 60 crns.
FSD = 50 cms.
Side slope = 1:2 (H:V)
Bed slope = 1:500
n = 0.025
Velocity = 0.70 mps
Discharge = 0.300 m3per sec

I. Calculate the head loss through the structure.

For a preliminary design, assume the flow velocity through the aqueduct to be 1.5 mps.
Then the flow area of the aqueduct should be 0.30011.5 equal 0.20 square meters.
If the flow depth in the aqueduct is to be the same as that in the canal, then the bed width of the aqueduct
should be 0.2010.5 equal 0.40 meters.
The contraction in bed width is 0.410.6 equal 0.66
Ideal contraction should be between 0.7 to 0.8
Assume contraction ratio of 0.75, then the bed width of the aqueduct equal 0.6 times 0.75 equal 0.45
meters.
Flow area through the aqueduct equal 0.45 times 0.5 equal 0.225 square meters
Flow velocity through the aqueduct equal 0.3 divided by 0.225 equal 1.33 mps.

v
Froude number (for flow in the aqueduct) , Fr = -= 0.6
43
(Froude number upto 0.6 is acceptable)

2. Calculatefriction loss through the aqueduct.

Friction loss = Friction slope x length of aqueduct
Friction slope = "mannings" bed slope, for uniforn flow
Using the manning equation and manning n = 0.02, the friction slope is obtained as below

The aqueduct is 6 meters long, therefore the friction loss in the aqueduct equal 6 x S equals 0.051 meters.
 Design qf inverted siphon
3. Calculate entry and exit losses.
Vaqueduct = 0310.225 = 1 3 3 mps Design a 60 meter long siphon aqueduct to carry a flow of 300 Ips. Maximum head loss not to exceed
Vcanal = 0.7 mps 1.5m.

/ Data:
UIS and DIS canal parameters
BW = 60 cms.
FSD = 50 crns.
Side slope = 1 :2 (H:V)
Bed slope = 1:500
n = 0.025
Total losses = Friction loss + Entrance plus Exit losses
Velocity = 0 70 mps
= 0.051 + 0.098 = 0.149 m. = 0.15 m. (say)
Discharge = 0.30 m3per second

Thus the bed level of the downstream end of the aqueduct must be 0.15 meters below that of the I. Determine diameter of pipe to rise
upstream end. Assume velocity in the pipe equal 2 mps
Therefore required flow area of pipe is 0.312 equal 0.15 m2
Alternatively if it is necessary to keep the grade of the aqueduct the same as that of the canal. the flow Required diameter of pipe 0.437 m.
area of the aqueduct must be adjusted accordingly. * This diameter is not available commercially hence adopt 3 nos 250 mm internal diameter HDP pipe
Flow in one 250 mm dia. pipe equal I00 Ips, hence velocity of flow 0.110.049 equal
Overall head loss over 6 meters of aqueduct = 61500 =; 0.012 m.
Assume minimum entry and exit losses.

Flow depth in the aqueduct = 0.5 m

Flow width = k x D = k x 0.5 2.1: Frictioz?loss in pipe
Flow area = k 0 . 5 ~= 0.25 k Friction loss in the pipe for Q = 100 Ips, pipe diameter 0.25 m equal 1.2 nl per 100 m of pipe
Wetted perimeter = 1 + 0.5 k (using Figure 15.6).
Therefore friction loss in 60 meters of pipe equal 1.2 x 60 1 100 equal 0.72 m

2.2: Lo.ssr.s due tojoirlts 1r1 the pipe arld shcrrp be/lds in /he plyc

Assume 11 number ofjoints and four sharp bends

by trial and error, for k = 2 Q = 0.447 Assuming friction loss at each joint to be equal to the friction loss through a pipe of l e n ~ t hI m .
k = 1.5 Q = 0.303 having the same diameter, the total friction loss due to I 1 joints is 1.2 x 1 1 1 100 equal 0.132 m.

Hence width of aqueduct = kD = 0.75 m v-

Assuming friction loss at a sharp bend = k- where, k is a factor depending on the angle of bend
Velocity of flow = 0,310,375 = 0.8 mps 2g

Entrance and exit loss = 0.007 m. ,p2

For k = 0.1, total friction loss due to sharp bends equal 4k- = 0.0851~1
This can be allowed for by slight backing up in the water level of the upstream canal 2g
2.3; Entrcrtlce and exit losses at the inlet and outlet of the siphon
Chapter 16: River behavior and river bank protection works
Himalayan rivers originate from mountains. Many derive their water from snow melt and springs,
2 while a few are fed only by springs. Near its source a river is small and carries less water and little
(v ,, - 1~c'7,,";)
m
Entrance and exit loss,= 1.5 = 0.28 sediment. As its flows down it collects more water and sediment supplied by the eroding slopes of the
2g catchment. The rivers capability to move sediment varies as it runs down varying slopes along its path
giving rise t o :
* erosion,
\ -1
-- * transportation, and
Friction loss at a washout ( t l u s h i ~ i \~al\,e
) is usually calculated as friction loss in an equivalent * deposition zones.
length of pipe. Figure 16.1, shows an idealized representation of three zones of a mountain river.
I Figure 16.1: An idealized water shed showing zones of erosion, transport and deposition
Taking - = 7 , where 1 is the equivalent lenglli of pipe and D the diameter of valve,
D
equivalent length of pipe equal 1.75 m. and the fiiiction loss in the valve is 0.021 m.

2.5: Friction loss it?the t~.a.rl?

~aack

Assume nominal loss of 0 05 in

Total losses through the siphon = 0.72 + 0 1 3 ? i- O 0 8 5 7 0.28 + 0.021 + 0.05 = 1.288 m

Erosion zone
River bed erosion occurs when a river can transport more bed material than the water can supply.
Erosion in this zone may continue until the non-erodible river bed is exposed.

Transport zone
In the transport zone, the river transport capability matches the supply of sediment and the river is
relatively stable.

Deposition zone
In the deposition zone, the river cannot transport all the material supplied and form bars, and islands.
The river is unstable in this zone and changes its flow direction frequently after every flood.

In practice, however, all three processes (erosion, transportation and deposition) occur in any given
zone but one of the three would be dominant.
The interaction between the sediment moving along the river bed and the water causing the movement
results in changes to the river channel and its banks.
* Lateral shifting,
* degradation,
* SCOUT, and
* aggredation are manifestations of changes occurring in the river bed and banks due to
the interaction between the river flow and the river channel.
 Late]-al.s*hifting
Lateral shifting refers to the side-ways movement of a river channel due to erosion of the river banks.
Lateral shifting is common when the river channel is wide and partly confined. They mainly occur in Scour
alluvial flood plains, alluvial fans and deltas. Lateral shifting occurs when the banks of a river channel Scour refers to the lowering of a river bed locally, that is, the lowering takes place over a limited
undergo continuous or sporadic bank erosion. For regular meander channels, the rate of lateral length of a river reach, of the order of one channel width. Scour usually occurs due to the
shifting (progressive down-river movement) can be roughly predicted and is usually based on a study development of strong secondary currents or vortices.
of the river over several seasons. The rate of lateral shifting can sometimes be related to the radius of *
The common causes of scour are (see Figure 9.6 of Chapter 9) :
curvature of a river bend. However, for braided rivers the bank erosion is sporadic and prediction of rigid bends,
the extent and location of shifting is difficult to predict as shown Figure 16.2 below. * eroding bends,
* abrupt change in flow direction,
Figure 16.2: Lateral shifting in a n t d e r i n g channel and sporadic shifting in a braided * obstruction,
channel * constriction,
* confluence,
* sub-surface sill,
* control structure, and
* piers.

Scour holes develop during high flow conditions and are usually at maximum size at bank-hll flow -
then the scour holes fill up as the river flow recedes. Therefore, scour hole dimensions measured at
low flow are usually much smaller then the potential scour depth. For design of river protection
works, the possibility of a scour hole occurring at the toe of the works must be designed for.

Aggvedation
Aggredation refers to the progressive rise of a river bed over a long reach. Aggredation usually occurs
when the river cannot transport all the sediment that is being supplied by the upper watershed.
Aggredation can result in the rise in flood levels with time, which, in turn could mean that spurs and
revetments can may be overtopped and subsequently destroyed. The common causes of aggredation
Meandering channel i i r , iided channel
are tabulated below

Degradation Downstream progressing aggredation.

Degradation refers to the progressive loweriiig uf a live1 bed over a fairly long distance, many times Decrease in flow.
the width of the river. This process can occur i l l t\vo directions : Increase in bed material size.
* doynstream progressive degradation, and
Upstream progressing aggredation. Raising of base level, such as a dam.
* upstream progressive degradation.
'
Increase in bed material supplied to the river.
The common causes of degradation are tabulated below :
Erosion of river banks
I Type ofdegradntioir Pi-inrary cazrses
Erosion of river banks results in the loss of valuable property including irrigable land. Bank erosion
can trigger landslides leading to the destruction of canals built on hill slopes. Also, bank erosion can
Downstream progressing degradation. Decrease in bed material transport. destroy irrigation intakes, particularly side intakes. River bank protection works are therefore required
Increase in flow rate. to protect valuable land, canals and intake structures. Bank erosion can take place at one location
Decrease in bed material size. along a river reach, say a bend, or at many locations depending upon the type of the river and the
Upstream progressing degradation. Lowering of base level. dominant water- sediment process in the river.
I ( Decrease in river length, such as by cutoff. I *
The common causes of bank erosion are :
1 Removal of control point, such as rapids. I isolated river bends,
* meandering of rivers,
* deposition of bed material in the middle of the river channel,
* high river velocity - particularly during flooding,
* degradation of the river bed
 -
/
Erosion at isolated river bends
The river bank at the outside or a river bend erodes because the river bed is lowest at the outside and
the bank eventually slumps down into the scour hole. The momentum of the flow at a river bend
establishes a super elevation at the outside of the bend and sets up a helicoidal current which moves
bed material from the outside to the inside of the bend. As the bed level is lowered, the outer bank
height increases until it becomes larger then critical and undergoes slumping or caving. The slumped
material is quickly removed by the flowing water and the bank will cave again and continue to erode.
Bank erosion due to lateral shfiing of nzeandering ~-iver..c.
A river having a regular meander pattern, generally sinusoidal, is usually moving down a valley slowly
by erosion at the river bends and deposit,ion of point bars. (see Figure 16 2). The existence of meander
s~rollson the active flood plains is evidence of the down stream later shifting of rivers In such rivers,
protection works because all rivers are not identical in behavior Rivers can be described and classified
in a number of different ways depending upon the purpose of classification For river bank protection
works, the rivers will be grouped into three simplified classes :
* straight, fast-flowing mountain rivers,
* meandering, single-channel rivers, and
* braided rivers.
Straight, .fast-flowing ntountain rivers
Rivers flowing within mountains generally flow in deep valleys and although there can be sharp
changes in direction, the sinuosity ratio (river channel length divided by river valley length) is
relatively low indicating a straight pattern.
Rivers in mountains generally have the following distinct characteristics '

the river banks are undergoing attack at several locations and would require extensive protection in
* the river slope is fairly steep with fast flowing water and local hydraulic jumps occur
order to stop the pattern from shifting The protection of one river bend will not stop the down valley indicating that the flow is critical or supercritical,
* the channel is relatively narrow and deep as compared to river channels on flood plains,
shift, but could result in a distorted shape to the meander and possibly Iiiore severe erosion at bends
* the bed is generally lined with large boulders and the banks are either boulders or
directly downstream from the protected bend
. bedrock,
* h e r bars and islands occur infrequently,
Erosion due to deposition * there are frequent boulder rapids which serve as slope controls during low flow
The deposition of bed material within a river channel results i n [lie ci-eation of bars and islands which
conditions
serve to divert flow. Bars are channel deposits that are unve~etatedand islands are more permanent
than river bars and have well established vegetation. I n p a n ? cases. islands are part of the flood plain.
When deposition occurs in the middle of the river, the lowel ()arts of the cross section are near the Figure 1 6 . 3 River channel patterns
river banks and these under go rapid erosion whenever flo\\ \,clociticr exceed critical values. The
locations of the most severe bank erosion is difficult to pretlic~a,\ tl~escdepend upon the number of Meandering, single channel rivers
islands and bars which will result in a split or braided clla~~nel atte tern During "bar-top" or "island- Irregular meanders Meandering rivers generally take on several patterns :
top" flows, the fast flowing channel can shift rapidly l'lx ~~rorection of river banks in this situation
would be expensive - it may be worthwhile to consitier- blockage of channels adjacent to eroding k * regular, single meanders,
* confined meanders,
* tortuous meanders, and
banks.
* irregular meanders.
Some general characteristics of meandering, single
Erosion due tofloods channels are :
In Nepal, flash flood or Glacier Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF) occur comparatively frequently and ,
* the bed is usually composed of sand, with silt
cause extensive damage to long lengths of river cliannels Ricer- bank erosion due to flash floods and Regular meanders
and clay mixed with sand as bank materials,
GOLF usually occur on both sides due to excel~tionallyhigh flood flow, although at river bends the
* the most common types of bars are point bars
outer banks are more susceptible to erosiori The pr-otection of river banks against erosion during which develop at the inside of river bends, (see
these events is almost impossible. If these events are anticipated along certain river reaches, then Figure 16.4),
infrastructure such as irrigation canals should be located well away from the river * the meanders pattern generally shifts
I Tortuous meanders I downstream as a unit by eroding the outside of
Erosion due to degradation of river bed river bends,
The degradation (lowering) of a river bed can occur in a downstream direction or in an upstream * the meandering rivers are usually located on the
direction depending upon the cause of the degradation. Bank erosion, or slumping, generally follows I
I Terai or within wide valleys, and
after degradation has taken place - the bank heights are increased and sometimes the moisture content I
* protection against erosion should be at the
within the bank is increased until the bank is no longer stable. Prevention of bank erosion in this outside of river bends.
situation is usually handled by the placing of erosion checks along the degrading river. These works
hold the bed at a stable level and sometimes add to the stability of the bank by trapping coarse Braided rivers
material above the structures.
A braided river has many channels flowing between islands and active river channel bars
Some distinctive characteristics of braided rivers are .
River bank protection
A brief assessment of the type of river being dealt with is worthwhile prior to planning bank
 Spurs serve to deflect flow away from an eroding bank and should generally be constructed as a series
of spurs, three or more, since one spur may not adequately divert a flow channel to the other side of
* the braided reach is usually a deposition reach where bed material is dropping out over the flood plain. Spurs, as for revetments, can be made from a variety of materials and requires toe
a wide area, protection (apron) at their noses to protect against scour.
* the bank are eroded sporadically, that is, a portion of a bank may be attacked during
one flood season and then not attached for several seasons because the main flow Figure 16.6: Riprap and gabion revetments
channels would have shifted to the other side of the river,
* braided rivers are common to alluvial fans, and
* erosion protection of banks could involve relocation of several main flow channels as
well as the construction cutoffs.

Figure 16.4: Point bars Figure 16.5: A braided river

Many channels divided by river bars and islands

. .. .

Rip rnp rcvetntent with apron

\
I."..""

1 Cutoffs
Gabion revetment with mattress

.- the path of a river channel and divert the main channel away_frfl_an eroding
Cutoffs shorten
--C--c- --
-- bank.
The construction-of a cutoff. while protEZing-=-eroding bank, results in upstream progressing
degradation
Types of river bank protection works
In Nepal, the traditional type of river bank protection works are primarily revetments, spurs, and
Retards
cutoffs.
Retards are similar structures to spurs except that they are permeable allowing water and sediment to
Revetments refer to an artificial surfacing of a river bank and part of the river bed in order to make
flow through them. The structures reduce flow velocities resulting in deposition of suspended
the bank resistant to erosion. River spurs are structures constructed into the river channel in order to
. sediment and eventually the natural buildup of the river bank in front of the eroding bank. Retards can
deflect the main flow away from an eroding bank. Cutoffs are short-cuts across meanders loops or
be constructed from a variety of materials. One of the more interesting types of retards is the
new channels (diversions) which change the location of the main flow channel. Retards, although not
"porcupine" which consists of bamboo boxes filled with brick and attached to long bamboo cross-
common to Nepal, are structures that slow down the flow velocity and induce deposition thereby
members. These boxes are then wired together to form a retard field.
protecting a river bank. Revetments and spurs are more appropriate in the mountain (or upper) river
reaches while cutoffs and retards are more common in the lower river reaches
Guide lines.for the desrgn of retards
* the length of a retard line should correspond to the amount of an eroded river bank that
Re vetnz ents
is to be recovered by deposition.
Revetments can be constructed from a variety of materials such as : *
* gabions filled with stone, * stone (riprap), for velocity reduction along an eroding bank, retard should be placed in lines
* timber piles, * bamboo piles,
*
perpendicular to the bank with line spacing about equal to the length of the line
* old tires, * concrete slabs, the top of the retard structure should generally slope down into the river instead of
* sand bags, and * combinations of two or more of the above. being horizontal.
The selection of the most appropriate type of revetment depends primarily on the type of materials
available near the construction site. In Nepal, the most common form of revetment is the gabion-stone Design consideration for river bank protectron works
basket and rip rap (see Figure 16.6).
ur nzagnitude
Spzl rs Scour is the localized lowering of a riverbed, and is generally the result of secondary currents or
Spurs are constructed into the flow channel and receive consider-able "attack" at their ends or noses

287
vortices associated with an abrupt change in flow path, for example, a sharp bend in a river or a bridge
pier. The diagram below outlines the terminology that is used : 2. Zrfactorfor abrupt change m direction (abrupt impinge~nennr)

s = maxlm r depth

3. Z-factorfor spurs (obstrzrction.~)

Where, z = factor for bankfill conditions, and
d = mean hydraulic depth (arealwidth).

The scour depth is generally estimated as the mean hydraulic depth multiplied by a scour factor (z-
factor). z-factors for approximately estimating scour depths for a range of conditions are given
below:

1. Z-factorfor bends

4. ZTfaclorfor coMJ1zrence.s
I

B = water surface
width
8 = internal angle
of bend
R = radius of
curvature
8 = confluence angle

I Conliuencc angle in degrees

 Rip rap revetments
-

5. 2-factor for constrictions For rip rap revetments the following guidelines apply.
* The sloping face of the river bank should be pitched using "one man stones". i.e. the
I 1
maximum size of stone an adult person can carry, 40 to 50 kg stones.
* The thickness of pitching on the sloping face in contact with water is obtained using the
expression, t = 0.06 Q'". Where t is the thickness in meters, and Q the river flow in
cumecs.
I * The thickness of pitching should be increased at locations more vulnerable to river
attack.
* Stone pitching of the sloping bank should extend beyond the toe on the bed, called the
launching apron.
* The width of the launching apron should be 1.5times the depth of scour below the river
bed level.
* Maximum scour depth will depend on the factors described above.
* Scour slGpe of 2 (horizontal) to 1 (vertical) may be assumed for stone aprons. The
thickness of the apron below water level can be assumed to be 1.25 times t. Based on
the above assumptions the required thickness of the launching apron (before launching)
is equal to 1.9 t. (see Figure 16.8).

Figure 16.7: Paving of the scour hole Figure 16.8: Thickness of stone aprons
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Constriction ratio C=B/D

Gabion revetment .
6. Z-fador for .~uhszrrfnce.~iIls 7. ~-jactorfor aqueduct
bridge piers

Volume of stone = 1.5(z - 1) D T

Scour depth = 1.4 x pier width

(approxitnatcly) Spurs
Spurs are obstructions constructed in rivers to divert flow away from a specific location such as an
eroding river bank. There are a variety of configurations for spurs and these have been classified into
Revetments the following types (see Figure 16.9) :
A revetment should cover the entire eroding length of a river bank and should be well keyed into the
* bar spurs,
bank at the beginning and end of the works. Revetments ~niisthave an apron at the toe to protect
* mole-head spur (round-nose),
against scour which can occur. An allowance of stone, or a gabion mattress is used as an apron. The
* hockey spur,
apron should be made to allow the scour hole to pave. The gabion apron is assumed to launch at a
* inverted hockey spur,
slope of 1.5 horizontal to 1.0 vertical and should therefore be 1.8 times longer than the computed
* T-head spur,
design scour depth.
* sloping spur, and
4 J-head spur.
Bar spurs are common in the mountain areas of Nepal, while bar and T-spurs.are appropriate for Figure 16.10: Design guidelines for spurs
rivers in the Terai.
Guidelines for the layout of bar spurs are (see Figure 16.10) :
* spacing = 2 to 3 times spur length, 1
* spur nose should be protected with apron,
* spurs should be perpendicular to the river bank,
* minimum of 3 or more spurs in a field,
4
T-head spurs should be used to re-direct flow, and
* if spurs are long, then the shanks should be of earth and only the ends will require
protection.
.
~~.~~~
\

Combinations of revelments and spurs

The previous guidelines apply, but the layouts will have to be assessed on a case-by-case basis. In
general a combination of revetments and spurs give very good results. The utilization of spurs with
revetment for protection against erosion can be achieved in two ways:
* Spurs can be placed upstream from the revetment, or opposite to a revetment and will
serve to guide high velocity flow along a stable single path. This situation is commonly
used in split channels and braided rivers where confining the main flow to a selected I ELEVATION I
path can result in improved conveyance of flood flows and reduced erosion (see Figure
16.11).
* Spurs can be placed at the toe of a revetment as a replacement for scour protection
apron. This combination may result in cheaper revetmentlapron structure.

Figure 16.9: Types of spurs Figure 16.11 : Example of combined use of spurs and revetments

APR

1. Brtr 2. Mole-head 3. Hockey C

Revetment

4. Inverted hockey 5. T-head 6. Sloping 7. J-head

292
 Width of stable rivers and structure openings Crireriafor river bank protection works (level ()
Where proposed river control works can restrict the width of river flow, it is necessary to establish the
minimum width for the waterway opening. As a preliminary estimate, Lacey's empirical formula for I. Design flood
stable regime channels can be used:
,=,QV2 * If flow records are available * Use 50 year return period flood.

Where b -
- net waterway opening, m * If no flow records are not available * Use bankhll discharge as computed from
K - coefficient, * Manning equation or from relation of width
Q = design discharge, m3/s. of stable channel t o b a w l 1 discharge

Figure 16.12: Relationship between required net surface width and design flow 2. Freeboard
A freeboard of at least one inetre should be applied to all river works

3. Type of river ~lo14k.v

Selection of the type of river bank protection best suited for the purpose will depend on
engineering, economic, environmental and social factors.

I. Scour at toe of bank pt-otec/ion

The depth of scour at tlie toe of protection \barks should be cornl~ulctlb!, applying a scour
multiplier (z-factor) to the average approach tlo\\ depth

I Ilesign discharge ( r n 3 1 ~ I
Criteria in hydraulic e~gineel-ing
The traditional approach to hydraulic desigi is to specify a design load, such as water level, and a
safety margin, referred to as freeboard. This has been termed Design Level 1, b l r Plate and Duckstein
(1 987).
Level I1 design is more encompassing a~idconsiders both the design load (water levels) and the
resistance of the structure as random variables and results in the assi~nmentof probability t o a failure
event.
The safety of river works is the property that the works do not fail. Risk is the pr-obability that the
imposed loads will exceed the resistance capacity Reliability and risk are expressed in terms of
probability. However, in Nepal, there is inadeqi~ateriver flow data to cli~antifydesign tloods of
specific return periods or probability; tl~is situation also exists for eartliquakes. Therefore, the
following criteria are still at Level I stase
 underneath the gabion leading to failure of the structure. In such cases gabion should be built on
Chapter 17: Gabion structures for remote hill areas special graded filters layers or on hard inipernieable surface.
A gabion is woven wire basket filled with boulders or broken stones. For strength and maximum unit
weight, the boulders and broken stones will need to be strong, heavy and be densely hand packed as
I Speed of'cons/r~~c/io~l
Assenlbly and co~istructionof gabions is fast The gabion baskets are light and easy to handle.
in dry stone masonry work. Gabions offer an efficient and reliable solution to problems in hill
irrigation systems such as unstable hill slopes and eroding river banks. Their use is very common in
I Gabions can be laid on running water and there is no need for removal or diversion of water to ensure
foundation are dry The gabion structure is ready for use immediately on completion.(see Table 17.1).
remote hill areas where stones are readily available. Gabion weaving requires skills that may not be
available in all remote villages, but because of their lightweight gabion baskets may be woven, folded I
and transported from other areas by porters very easily. Gabion mats can be woven by hand or by I Table 17 1 : Speed of constl-uction of gal>ion walls
machines. Machine woven mats are generally stronger than hand woven ones. However, gabion
construction does not require skilled labour or special equipment. The ease of transportation of woven
mats and the ease of construction using urnskilled labour make gabion construction appropriate in the
I ( Gabroil .r/op~>/ ~ I I pI m~ / r c / ~ ~oI ~- I ~I ~ I I I - L ~ S I ( 'o~~crete
No foundatioli excavation needed in most
or ntnsorrry slope pi*otecfiorrrtrucfr/res (
Foundation excavation needed in most cases. . I
hills.
cases.
No removal or diversion of water needed. Removal or diversion of water needed.
Advantages of gabhn construction No form work or false work needed. Form work or false work needed.
Gabion construction has the following inherent properties that make gabions suitable for the No delay waiting for layers of strtlcttlre to Delays before form work can be removed or
construction of retaining and revetment walls for the protection of hill slopes and river banks. harden before removing form work or constn~ctioncontinued.
* adaptability by farmers,
* flexibility, continuing with work.
* permeability, Work can proceed smoothly and rapiclly, e\,eri More machinery and equipment needed to work
simultaneously at sc\.eral locations. simiiltaneously at several locations.
* speed of construction and flexible construction scheduling, Stage-wise constl.i~ctionis easier. hence work
* relative low cost, Stase-wise construction difficult hence work
* schedules can be easily ~llodifietilo silil labot~r scl~etlulesare tied up with resource availability.
ease of combining with bio-engineering materials, availability.
* ease of improvement of existing gabion structures by the addition of new layers Constant sul~er\,isionnot necessarv. Constant supervision needed when concreting.
above or adjacent. Structure I-eatlvfbr- iliiriiedi:~teuse. St ~.i~cti~reneeds "Curing" before becoming
-
operational.
Adaptability by farmers
If farmers are involved in the original construction activities they can quickly learn gabion weaving Flexible C O / ? . S / / . I I C / I O.~~IL ~ I ? ~ C J Z I I I / Z S
and the necessary construction skills to be able to eft'ectively maintain these structures in the future.
I Gabion construction can be interrirpted, at least for short periods, without any serious risk to the
solidity of the finished structure l I o ~ ~ e v ewhen
~ - , gabion structures are required in critical areas
Flexibility where immediate protection is needed. interruptions can result in damage to the partly finished
Gabion structures are inherently flexible. When correctly built they can deform or bend without loss of structure as well as to the area being 131-otectecl
strength to conform to changes in the ground (foundation) or adjacent surfaces. Retaining walls,
foundation support structures, river bank erosion protection and river diversion structures will
Low cost
undergo defornlation of their foundation layers, particularly ,during the initial period after
.If stones for filling are available nearby, gabioris compare favorably with other materials in cost
construction. Although the flexibility of gabions can be a very usefbl factor, enabling them to undergo
a certain amount of deformation with little loss of strength, it can also present a danger to the safety
Ease of cowzbining with bio-cngincwing n~o/cr.icrls
of the gabion structure if it is not controlled by good design and construction technique. A gabion
Gabions can be easily combined with bio-engineering techniques (see Figure 17.1). When combined
structure that is too flexible will not serve its intended use.
with bio-engineering, gabions can ensures initial safety of a hill or river bank slopes until the bio-
engineering measures take effect. By the time the gabion cages finally rust away, the bio-engineering
Perrneabrlity measures have taken over completely.
Gabion structures are highly permeable and ,need no special pressure relief arrangements to prevent
build up of water pressure behind gabion them. However, gabions can be made impermeable if
necessary by laying them on impervious membranes, lining the vertical joints between adjacent gabion Ease of improvement
cages with impermeable membranes or by grouting them after filling with stones. Their Permeability is Improvements and additions to existing gabion structures can be done very easily More layers on the
particularly useful in retaining wall construction because smaller and more economic cross sections top or adjacent to the existing gabion structures can be added as required However these layers will
can be used. In some other cases, such as structures on river banks or river beds, this property can be need to be secured to the original construction to ensure solidity Gabions can also provide addition
very harmful to the safety of the structure High permeability can cause rapid erosion of the soil Protection to structures built using other construction materials such as concrete or masonry.

297
 with double knots
Figure 17.1: Combinded use of gabion with
live branches Table 17.3 : Recomme~~ded
combination of wire sizes for gabion weaving
Other special considerations
Gauge mmzber 6 7 8 9 10 I1 12 13
Gabion construction is labour intensive and often
Dimzeter (ninl) 4.88 4.47 4.06 3.66 3.25 2.95 2.64 2.34
creates many unskilled labour days; the income
Main ntesh ivire M
generated from these labour days can be
particularly usefbl in poor remote villages. Selvedge S - --=

s1 s2 s3
M1 M2
/
M3
Bindjn,g= B B1 B2 B3
Wire used in weaving gabion baskets For economical reasons thick wire is used to weave large mesh and thin wire to weave small mesh.
Gabions baskets are woven using galvanized iron
The durability and longevity of the wire is dependent on the thickness of zinc coating and the ability of
wires. These are manufactured by the annealing,
the coating to withstand localized cracks at or near knots or sharp bends.
pickling and hot dip galvanizing process using
99.99% pure electrolytic zinc. Prior to galvanizing
the wire are thoroughly pickled, rinsed and given
Types of mesh and rnesh opening
The most commonly used mesh types in Nepal are :
a coating of flux to ensure good adhesion of zinc *
to tHe base metal (wire). In Nepal, the wire used double twist (or knot) square mesh, or
for weaving gabion baskets are required to
* double twist (or knot) hexagonal mesh.
conform to JIS - G3532 or IS 482611979
specifications, All wires must be checked for (1) The double twist hexagonal mesh is stronger than the double twist square mesh (for any one given
weight of zinc coatiny (2) maximum tension (3) wire thickness) and is therefore used for river bank protection, river control or river training
maximum torsion and (4) uniformity test as structures. They are also used in large soil retaining structures. The double twist square mesh is only
mentioned in the specifications. recommended for constructing low stress structures such as short soil retaining walls. In some cases a
I The wires are made using low carbon steel having fair economic compron~isecan be achieved by incorporating square mesh gabions in large works built
a tensile strength of 30-5 5 ke f/mm2. with hexagonal mesh. An example of the combined use of hexagonal and square mesh gabion baskets
is shown Figure 17.2.
The recommended minimum zinc coating is given in Table 17.2 Figure 17.2 Combined use of hexagonal Figure 17.3 Double twist hexagonal mesh
and square mesh
Table 17.2: - t e d (pm / 1n2)
Minimum weight of zinc per unit surface of t ~ ~ ~ c o a wire

I Dianzeter. of 1 JIS-G 3532 IS-4826 lY7Y

1
Class

SWG mm I 2 3 J

Sl~lfG= Iinpericnl standard wire garrge

Recommended combination of wire sizesfor making gabion ba.ske/s

Table 17.3 below shows the combination of wire sizes used in Nepal for weaving hexagonal mesh
Mesh opening ~ i g u r e17.4: Horizontal wire trusses and diaphragms
In Nepal the following mesh openings are commonly used: It is economical to use large size mesh
with large stones. Recommended mesh opeing for the different mush types are given in Table 17.4.

Table 17.4 : Recommended mesh opening

Mesh Qpe Mesh opel~illg

Hexagonal mesh 80 x 100 mm, or 100 x 120 mni

Square mesh l 0 0 x 100mm, or 150x 150nim

Design consideration .for gabion structures

Gabion structures are designed as mass structures In other \vords they depend on their mass or bulk
to perform the desired hnctions such as retaining and protecting ear-th slopes and banks in river bank
protection structures and 'ysisting forces due to river currents in groynes and spurs Therefore the
mass of the structure must be put to best use. This can be achieved by
* tilting the structures suitably,
* using heavy fill materials, or
* by using both.

Gabions cot? take compressive and limited shear forces but c ~ ~ ~ r r take
t o l excessive vibration and Design considerations for abrasive forces
abrasive forces. * Fast moving water carrying boulders and pebbles can damage the exposed mesh wire by
impact or abrasive action. In such cases the exposed mesh needs additional protection.
Design consideration .fr,l- conlpl-es,vlt'e f'01-cc.v Concrete lining, rock armour, concrete or wooden blocks anchored firmly to the surface
When gabions have to withstand compression loads, then tlie f i l l malerials milst be S I I - O ~and
I~ densely of the gabion are possible solutions.
packed so that load is distributed unifoi.mly
Characteristics ofJill material
Desjgn considerolio~~
fi,r f0rcc.v
.Y/~CLII' The characteristics of fill material play an important role in the performance of gabion structures. The
Gabions can take only lin,ited shear forces. ideal fill material should be :
* If shear forces are in operation then bouldel-s of' cor-sect size. shape and surface * non-porous,
roughness should be cal-efi~llyI~andpacked in the gabion cages The joints between * sufficiently hard and heavy, and
stones must be staggered so that long shear planes are ~ninimized. * large and suitably shaped.
* Shear forces are entirely resisted by fill materials, tlie gabion \\ire is considel-ed as safety Porosity reduces the self weight of the gabion structure. The reduction is even more evident when
factor. gabion structures are submerged in water. The heavier the fill material, the more economic the
* Deflection and deformation of zal>io~iboxes clue to sliear-1b1-cescan be I-edi~cedby using structure. When calculating the self weight of gabion it is usual to allow 30-40 percent empty space.
horizontal wire trusses or cliapliragms (see I'I~LII-c
1 ?.4) Hence the weight of a gabion basket filled with granite stones should not be taken 2700 kg/cu.m but
0.6 times 2700 (1620 kg/cu m). If large stones are not available in sufficient quantity then smaller
Design consideration for vihi-nlio111onc.l.~ stones may used provided they are placed at least 3 times the size of the wire mesh inside from the
When gabions are used in river bank protection or river. trai~lirig works they are subjected to face, (see Figure 17. 5)
vibrational forces.
* Fast moving water causes tlie stones tnside tlle gabion l>asLetsto vibrate. Particularly the Rbugh faced stones with suitable shapes that interlock are preferred for gabion structures. They help
light weight and flat stones near tlie surface of the gabion basket vibrate leading to to transfer load uniformly and do not slip easily under load and prevent the gabion from bulging at
fatigue failure of the gabion wire. Therefore flat and liylit \veight stones should not be the sides. In some cases, especially for footing aprons or mattresses of river protection measures,
used near the exposed faces of gabion. where launching of the apron is required, round smooth stones (river boulders) are preferred. Smooth
* The boxes should be densely packed and rigidly bound lea\:ing no room for vibration. river boulders allow movement and enable the footing apron to mold itself to the form of the river bed
* The stronger double twist hexagonal mesh should be ~>~-cfc~.recl (or gab~onstructures in as scouring progresses (see Figure1 7. 6).
fast moving water.
 Photograph 17.1 : Gabion retaining wall and dry stone revetment
wall to stablize and reduce risk of landmass failure
[J,cc! of' gabion retaining walls and
1.cve1nlcn1 ~:al/.v
Itetainins ~vallsare mass linear structures to retain
backfill and to withstand earth pressure and
nearer to the s u r l ; ~ ~ ~surcharge loads. Revetment walls are also mass
linear structures but serve to buttress cut slopes
;~gai~istfailures. Revetment walls are sometimes
called breast walls.

--the~ u e s hopening
size Inside lioill
r
the esl~osctlr;r~rl;~cc

Retaining walls retain loose or re compacted earth as opposed to revetment walls which prevent
loosening of cut slopes. In hill irrigation schemes the retaining walls are usually built below the canal
alignment and are used to :
* support canal, Photograph 17.2 : Gabion revetment to prevent toe ct~ttiligof hill
* support backfill material for the construction or support of a canal, slope by river
* obtain additional construction width for canals and other structures in steep hill slopes,
* support weak hill slopes to reduce risk of landmass failure (see Photograph 17.1).
Revetment walls can be built above or below the canal alignn~entand are used to :
* prevent erosion of cut slopes,
* prevent other minor disturbances leading to progressive failure of cut slopes,
* preventtoecuttingofhillslopes(seePhotograph17.2).
In hill irrigation schemes canals are often built on excavated slopes. Over excavation leads to
instability of the hill slopes. Excavations can be minimized by using retaining and revetment walls (see
Figures 17.7, 17.8 and 17.9).

Figure 17.6: A mattress gabion should be filled with smooth rounded river boulders to allow
movement i111denable the apron to nlold itself to the form of the ground

m e n to use revelnzent ~ ~ a l l s
When excavating hill slopes for the construction of canals it is desirable to trim cut slopes to safe
angles. Revetment walls may not be necessary if cut slopes can be trimmed to safe angles

However, in hill situations trimming to flatter slopes may be difficult or iliipossible for the following
reasons:
* extensive earthworks are expensive and pose difficulties in spoil disposal,
* loss of valuable farm land,
* loss of fertile top soil,
* large areas of barren slopes become exposed leading to more soil erosion.
In such cases cut slope profiles will be unavoidably steep and will require revetments to stabilize and I Figure 17.8: The use of a retaining wall to minimise excavation
protect them from surface erosion.
I I

Figure 17.7: The use of revetment wall for minimising excavation

wall

The amount of earth excavation is minimised

The amount of earth excavation is by the cut and fill technique and the use of the
minimised by using a revetment wall
to support a fresh cut at a steep slope retaining wall

Figure 17. 9: Combined use of retaining and revetment walls

I I

When to use retaining ~jalls

Compacted earth fills can be used in hill irrigation projects to make more construction space available
for building irrigation canals along steep hillsides. Building of irrigation canals on earth fill is generally Bench cut for ,
not recommended but in some exceptional situations may be the only feasible solution. Covered
canals, preferable HDP pipes, should be used in these areas to reduce the risk of canal water leakage
or overtopping causing slope failure. Fill slopes can stand on their own if clay earth is used and the
layers are well compacted. Fill slopes need to be flatter 'than natural hill slopes because the soil
structure is destroyed and the cohesive strength of the soil decreases during cut and recompaction. wall
Making earthfills with flat profiles requires more earth. In hill areas this may mean extra cutting of
stable hill slopes. The use of retaining walls can reduce the amount of earth required for back filling
(see Figure 17.10).

Excavation is minirnised because fresh

cuts are supported at steeper slopes
by the revetment wall and the retaining
wall permitting the cut and fill technique
 Figure 17.10: The use of retaining walls for reducing the quantity of earth .
required for filling

Without a retaining wall large With a retaining wall lesser

quantities of earth will be needed quantity of earth will be required

Design of a gabion retaining wall Figure17.1 1: Gabion specific weight Vs. Rock
A gabion wall is considered a mass gravity structure and various types of cross sections can be
specific weight
considered, taking into account the soil characteristics, the slope of the backfill and any superimposed
loading. The most common variations are: -
* stepped face with sloping backfill, Rock specific weight tlm3 I Theforces acting on the wall
* vertical face with sloping backfill, In the most general case of a retaining wall
* stepped face with horizontal backfill, 2.0
0
supporting a backfill, the forces acting on the wall
* vertical face with sloping backfill. P,
F. are:
For maximum effectiveness gabion walls need to be tilted towards the hill slope. A tilt of upto 6 8 * active soil pressure,
degrees is considered beneficial.
G * hydrostatic pressure,
1.5
E.
3 * passive pressure, and
C)
* the self weight of the wall.
SpecrJjc weight of gabion
The specific weight of gabion depends on the specific weight of the fill material and the voids between
the stones. A void ratio of 30 to 35 % 'is usually assumed. Figure 17.11, shows the specific weight of
gabion for fill materials listed in Table 17.5, for a void ratio of 30%.
'1
"
3'w
Active pressure
The active pressure is given by the expression
05
P, = r . H - K , - 2 - c E
Table 17.5: Types of rock used for filling where Pa = active pressure
I Type of rock I Specl$c weight (tonr~ ~ nj .
' CII. / 00
r = density of soil
10 15 20
H = height of wall
25 30
Ka = active pressure coefficient
Basalt 2.9
Granite 2.6 The effect of cohesion of the soil can be neglected By neglecting the effect on active pressure due to
Hard limestone 2.6 d
~ h e s i o nof the soil we make an error on the safe side Thus % = r .H Kc,
K,, the active pressure coet'ficient is given by the expression sliding (ns) is given by the expression

sin' sin(cp+6)sin(cp-E)
sin (p - 6) sin(p + E) 1 t
Pressure distribzlt ion
Assuming the pressure distribution to be linear and that the resultant force passes through the base
within the middle third, the pressure at the toe and hell is given by the expression :
Where. \ (P = angle of internal friction
E = slope ofback fill
a = angle of batter N 6e
y, , p , = -(1 f -) where B, is the base width and e, the eccentricity of the resultant
= for stepped front-face wall, angle between internal face and the B B
horizontal, for stepped back-face wall, angle between an imaginary line
connecting the top with the bottom corner, and the horizontal B - Mr - M o
e is computed using the expression e = -
6 = angle of wall friction ( = 0.9 cp ) 2 N

Hydrosfa/lL- / ~ I ~ L ~ . Y . V Z L I ~ C
Gabion walls are highly permeable. hence full hydrostatic pressures are not developed behind the wall.
However the soil niav become saturated with water. Hence saturated soil density will be used in the
design.

Passive pl.e.c.sc.zLl-Lj
Under normal conciitions the fouridation of gabion walls are placed at existing ground level or just
below it. Hence passive eal.lli pressures are not mobilized.

Self weigh 1
When taking into consideration the self weight of the gabion, the weight of backfill is neglected. By
doing so the error is 011the safer side.

Stability considc>~.c~/loli.\
Three basic stability conditiorls milst be investigated during design
* stabilit? against ovcl-turning,
* stabiiity against sliding, and
* pressure distribution on the ground.

Sfability against o \ ~ ~ ~ / z / I ~ ~ I I ~ I J I
The factor of safety against overturning (no) is the ratio of restoring moment (M,) to the overturning
moment (Mo) For safety no must be greater than 1 5

Stability against sliding

Taking N and T as the normal and horizontal component of the resultant force, R, acting on the base,
and f the friction coefficient between the base and the foundation soil, the factor of safety against
 Chapter 18: Engineers and irrigators : Managing hill irrigation in of how we conceptualize water users' participation and partnership, the formation of their association,
and their rights and concomitant duties is needed. Often legislation and regulations chalk out elaborate
Nepal duties and accountability clauses to be imposed on water users but seldom address the rights of the
water users as individuals and as a group or conversely the accountability of the agency to the water
Introduction users. Thus in situations of gross unequal power relations and asymmetrical relationships, meaningful
This chapter concentrates on the interface between engineers and irrigators in pursuit of irrigation partnerships cannot be formed. This chapter will not deal with the institutional and legislative
management and focusses on some ---- of the soci010gica1 and institutional dkensions of irrigation
--
frameworks pertaining to managing hill irrigation systems but would like to point out their
m w t will focus on mainly two aspects: i) building partnership, and ii) facilitating internal importance.
- - . --
resource mobiliza_tiw..
- - - There are many other hydrological, agronomic, economic, or social aspects of
A

I
the interactions bet\yeen agency staff (the main professionals being engineers) and the irrigators Towards an understanding of hill irrigation management
(farmers who fall dithin various tenurial relations, as sharecroppers, contractors on yearly rent 1
payment basis, tenants, and landowners themselves or combinations of various tenurial statuses). The
Irrigation system activities matrix
intensity of any one of these interactions or dimensions varies from one irrigation system to another
From an institutional or organizational viewpoint, many authors have conceptualized key management
depending on the historical legacy of such interactions as well as the politico-economic environment in
activities and processes (Coward, 1980; Uphoff et al, 1985). Uphoff (1986) provides a good review
which the irrigation system finds itself nested.
of various approaches to the study of the socio-technical aspects and functions of irrigation systems
and presents an elaborate one himself as presented in Figure 18.1.
This section will first introduce some concepts towards the understanding of irrigation management
and the professional biases ofien encountered in the study of irrigation systems. With this
Figure 18.1: Irrigation system activities matrix
background, this chapter will discuss the nature of hill irrigation system especially from the
environmental interaction viewpoint and then proceed to discuss avenues and issues related to
building partnerships between agency staff and the irrigators. The discussion on partnership will
revolve around the institutional development of water users associations, the change in attitudes
necessary for facilitating participatory techniques of resource management. and a meaningful
relationship between the farmers and engineers in the hture with possible roles for other actors such
as the non-government organizations. ACTIVITIES

One of the aspects very crucial to viable irrigation organizations and irrigation systems is the dynamics
..
of resource m o w t i o n . In many self-governing irrigation systems, we find that the dynamics of
I__--- Mo~nfencnce
kocal resource mobilization have contributed to the distribution of rights and entitlements among the
various members of the irrigation system, promoted the use of local technology and skills, and as a _r cn
w Operof~on
result, created sustainable irrigation systems less dependent on external resources. The discussion on out-
internal resource mobilization will focus on issues pertaining to the types of benefits and costs -I--
associated with such resource mobilization and the interplay between local interests and agency
p? >- t- C o n s t r u c t ~ o n
expectations. The study and understanding of resource mobilization is important if in fact irrigation =mo
a
systems are to be operated and maintained by the local users themselves The design of the system
Des~gn
and hence the nature of the structures may not be conducive to local governance if in fact the
structures require external inputs and skills for operation and maintenance. Thus, the availability of C

local resources, the nature of state-locality relations, and various rights of the irrigators that can be
C
---
0 C -
-0 a
-
-
0
3 0
maintained only after providing contributions to the sustenance and reproduction of ihe irrigation -
n
3
0
V
D
-
-L
0
-c
facilities and the system are few of the interrelations with the dynamics of resource mobilization A CT
U -0 n
- 0
L

c a o o
conceptualization of resource n~obilizationwill also be made for various actors to identify avenues for
facilitating local resource mobilization. W A T E R USE
ACTIVITIES
Similarly, the understanding of the legislative and institutional framework existing in a particular
country becomes vital to identifying avenues for building partnerships and facilitating resource
mobilizations. At times the institutional arrangements, structural institutional incentives, financial
rules and regulations, procedures for compensations, for registering associations, and for performance inigation systems require that certain essential tasks be accomplished if the system is to function
assessments of agency staff, water users associations, and the irrigation systems themselves may productively. One set of management activities focuses directly on the water. Water must be
hinder or facilitate meaninghl partnerships between agency and farmers. For this. rethinking in terms acquired, allocated, distributed, and, if there is excess, drained. A second set of management activities
deals with the physical structures for controlling the water. A final set of activities -focusses on
organization which manages the water and structures and includes decision making, resource
mobilization, communication, and conflict management. Economist Waste of water Water pricing Main system
Underutilisation of Further investment management to
There is interaction among the activities of the three' sets; for example, the organization must decide potential improve water
how to operate the structures to distribute the water. The matrix shown in the figure illustrates these Low returns of delivery and enable
interactions. Not all activities are equally important in each environment, and the farmers' irrigation capital more productive
management institutions will reflect the relative importance of activities in a particular location. farming
Irrigation engineers Inadequate physical Construct better Change and adapt
For a rapid appraisal study or general understanding of the knctioning of the system, it is instructive works works water distribution on
to use the matrix to formulate questions about the management of the system. Each of the 64 boxes is Inadequate More resources for the main system
a potentially important interaction. For example, one might ask what decisions need to be made about maintenance maintenance using existing
the operation of the system as it relates to water allocation. OAen whole blocks of interaction "boxes" structures
are not relevant for a particular system. This matrix is usefhl for examining the activities internal to the Water logging Line canals Main system
irrigation system (Pradhan, Yoder, and Pradhan, 1988) Pump out ground scheduling to reduce
water water logging and
Professional biases 1 Construct drains provide more water
Different disciplines conceive irrigation development and management differently as different interest elsewhere. Use
groups voice different objectives of irrigation systems. Chambers outlines various disciplinary biases ground water for dry
in Table 18.1 (Chambers, 1988). An appreciation for each other's concerns would be important for an season irrigation.
understanding of the various dimensions and interrelations of an irrigation system. Grow trees or keep
fish
Table 18.1: Normal professional problems, solutions and neglected needs or opportunities Soical scientists Inequity and conflict Organisation for Organisation to
over water below the conflict resolution ensure better water
Professionals Normal problems I Normal solutions I N e e d or opportunites I outlet below the outlet supply from the main
system
Administrators Lack of coordination Coordination by Imoprove
, .
administrators procedures and Hill irrigation systems
performance in
existing
organisations
I Hill irrigation systems in Nepal are usually small scale in nature, are mostly farmer managed, and are
scattered throughout the cultivated area of Nepal. While most of these systems are located in the
remote areas of Nepal, the rest are periurban in nature. The farmer-managed hill irrigation systems
Agricultural Poor levelling Physical Reliable water generally portray the following physical characteristics regarding the intake and the canal alignments
engineers Lack of field development below supply to outlet to (P. Pradhan, 1989; Yoder, 1984 and 1986) :
channels outlet encourage farmers'
participation in on- Intake: it is located in a spring or in one of the streams or rivers running down hills. There
farm development may be several intakes along one stream or river and in such cases, the oldest system will
Agricultural Farmers' ignorance Communicate to and Enable to farmers to usually have its intake upstream than latecomers. Intakes are usually constructed with
extensionists of water 'educate' farmers organise to imporve boulders, stones, and tree branches. These intakes are temporary and are usually washed away
management onfield deliveries of during floods (including flash floods) of the monsoon and are repaired annually and
practices water periodically by the users.
Agronomists Water supply is too Supply exact plant Choose crops,
much, too little, or water requirements varieties, rotations Canal-alignment: is usually three to four kilometers long or even longer (sometimes running
untimely and timings to fit the . alongside sheer cliffs and fragile slopes) before reaching the command area These canals may
feasible water supply pass through rocky stretches of tunnels steep cliffs

er (1984 and 1986) and K.C. and Pradhan (1993) also explore indigenous and traditional
acteristics. By way of examples of indigenous local knowledge and technology, the following

313
illustrates some of the local water allocation and distribution practices as well as a local engineering
clock" was used to determine the rotation time. According to Yoder (1986), this
principle undertaken by farmers from West Nepal.
apparatus.
1. Local practices for water allocatioii and distributioiz
"...consisted of a large cooking pan filled with water and a small bowl with a tiny hole
Saacho in bottom. The empty bowl was set on the water in the large pan where it slowly filled
with water. When it sank, one unit of time had passed. A conveniently divisible.
Martin (1986) provides a good working definition of a Saacho :
number of time units was chosen to represent the total rotation period."
"...ahorizontal proportioning weir fashioned from a log with two or more notches of
equal depth and varying length cut into its top. It was placed in the canal
The description above portrays some of the local practices and technologies that have
perpendicular to the flow so that all water was forced to flow through the notches and
been adapteo suit local needs and pursuit of an socio-economic activity in the form of
was divided in the same proportions as the ratio of the lengths of the notches."
irrigated agriculture.
He fbrther notes that openings in saachos could be enlarged as needed by simply
3. Ail exanlple of a local engineeringprinciple
cutting them larger, but somewhere in the system another opening must be made
A local engineering principle used in Argali was the creation of multiple canals.
correspondingly smaller. Sometimes this was accomplished by nailing a wooden block
Throughout the hilly Nepal, numerous parallel canals are built from the same stream to
into the opening. Water purchase and sale could also be undertaken this way by
serve contiguous landholdings. In some places, like Argali, there were even four such
making adjustments in the weirs. Yoder (1986) remarks that,
parallel canals. This is mainly because groups of people who lack entitlement to water
in existing canals must construct their own canals without jeopardizing the existing
"...to be accurate, the saancho must be installed so that the water falls free from the
ones.
outlet side. Otherwise the downstream flow condition4 could influence the
proportioning. For best accuracy, there should be some ponded water on the upstream
Yoder (1986) rightly points out several local technical reasons why parallel systems in
side of the saancho so that the velocity of the approaching water does not distort the
Argali were preferable to one large canal. First, the supply 'of water in the Kurung
proportioning. "
Khola at the intake of one of the canals is limited, making it difficult to capture enough
water in low flow periods with only local technology. Second, there were important
In Parbat district, bamboo was placed a couple of meters up-canal of the weir to
springs below the intake of the above mentioned canal that were captured with
achieve this. The canal at the site for installing a saancho must, therefore, have a
successively lower diversions. Third, a small canal cut along a steep hillside is cheaper
gradient for the drop and ponding of water without overtopping the canal (Pradhan
and easier to construct than one large canal. Fourth, the seepage lost from each canal
1990). In the Raj Kulo, saachos were used at every level, including for the delivery to
along the long and difficult route from the intake to the command area is picked up by
individual farmer plots. Yoder (1986) and Martin (1986) report that each time a
the next lower canal, and only seepage from the lowest canal was lost, greatly
saancho was put into operation, all of the farmers receiving irrigation water through it
increasing the efficiency of the total system. In addition to the above reasons, in fragile
met together to inspect it. Every person had the opportunity to compare the depth of
environmental conditions a smaller canal is more sustainable than a large one. Also, if
water in each notch and measure the relative width to determine that these correctly
perchance one of the lower canals was in total disrepair and no water could pass
represented the percentage of the total water allocated to the respective areas. After
through it at some juncture in the canal conveyance, water from other upstream canals
there was agreement that the saancho was correct, no one was allowed to tamper with
could be shared. This was often practiced in Chherlung.
it or raise any complaints about its accuracy. This device was conducive to preventing
any fiture conflicts regarding water sharing. Farmers recosnized that after a saancho
was installed, the system was much less flexible and there was less opportunity to take
Himalayan ecology and hill irrigation
extra water if needed. Also, under conditions of limited water supply, it was Several factors contribute to adverse environmental effects in hill irrigation systems. These include
sometimes necessary to rotate the water between canals or among fields rather than unique geology and climate, design and construction defects, inappropriate land use, and inadequate
proportion it continuously among canals and fields. In such a case, the saancho could users participation and partnership.
be removed or simply operated as a gate by opening the same blocked parts at a time. The hills and mountains of Nepal possess a unique geology and monsoonal tropical climate.
I Geologically, the Himalayas are still very young. The climate is characterized by high temperatures
2. Water clock with high and intense seasonal rainfall. The main canal alignment in hill irrigation schemes is usually
In Chherlung and Argali water was continuously divided into secondary canals using located in degraded middle slopes above the river valleys, and in active lower slopes above the
saanchos. Within each saancho, rotational irrigation had to be practiced due to a low existing river channel and its nearest terraces. The alignment of secondary canals is usually found in
recent side terraces and valley floor. In this environment, the steep hill slopes are subject to frequent
supply of water. Yoder (1986) notes that the water delivery to each rotation segment
was carefblly timed. The fraction of time that each segment received water was landslides and soil erosion. These processes are firther aggravated by the extreme pressure put by
calculated by comparing the segment's water allocation to the total water allocation of high population on the land which results in overgrazing and deforestation for fuel, timber and fodder.
the rotation unit. Before the days of watches and transistor radios in Argali, a "water
‘improper design and construction of irrigation canals can also lead to environmental degradation in
the hills. Most hill systems lack proper flow control and so cannot safely dispose of excessive runoff.
Flood flows easily enter the canal on steep slopes and serious gully erosion occur where the water
overtops the canal banks.
Experience shows that inappropriate management of water is another major source of adverse
environmental effects in the hills. Following the development of irrigation schemes in the hills, farmers
almost invariably convert their upland terraces into rice fields sometimes without considering the
suitability,of the land. In such areas landslide erosion is caused by water saturation of steep slopes or
lubrication of soil layers in geologically unstable situations due to losses from irrigation canals, over
watering of fields or excessive infiltration of rain on terraced slopes.
One of the reasons for environmental problems in agency constructed irrigation schemes in the hills is
their inability to incorporate farmers' knowledge in design and construction stages. Farmers have
adopted different technologies and materials to suit topographical conditions as has been elaborated
with some examples above. Although farmers find it increasingly difficult to maintain these systems
due to floods and landslides, many systems have been gradually improved each year. One of the
greatest threats to their viability is rapid deforestation (Pradhan and Yoder, 1990). Declining forest
cover contributes to higher silt loads, more destructive floods, and more frequent landslides which
force the farmers to work harder to keep their systems operational. Farmers have traditionally
depended upon forest products like tree branches and brush for maintaining diversions and repairing
breaches in the canals. But deforestation has drastically reduced the supply of these products.
Farmers in these systems have developed innovative organizational structures to fit the needs of their
systems in their particular environmental settings The nature of the organizational structure has been
affected by factors such as the abundance of water relative to the available land area, soil type, nature
of landholding, topography of the command area through which the canal must travel, distance from
house to field, and social structure (Martin and Yoder, 1988). Organizational and management
aspects have to an extent been substituted for capital intensive technology.
Farmers realize that large canals are not only extremely costly to build but are also environmentally
risky in steep mountain slopes. FMIS in the hills and mountains have always been small, and farmers
usually resort to building another parallel canal a little below the first one rather than enlarge the
capacity of the first (Acharya, 1990) as pointed out earlier as a local engineering principle. In hill
systems with long canals excavated through landslide zones, farmers have utilized tunnels for certain
stretches along with high gradient and narrow canal cross sections for slope stability
Formation of water users association
In many of the irrigation assistance or development programs, irrigation staff are called upon to
undertake the task of water users group formation. This institutional development activity has been
carried out in many parts of Nepal and elsewhere in the world with varying successes and failures.
Usually the formation of such institutions for and on behalf of the irrigators k considered to bring
about participatory management. To some extent, such institutional development on the part of
farmers or irrigators is complemented with concomitant changes in the irrigation agency too.
Ambler (1993) in his thought-provoking piece on rethinking the language of farmer water users'
association points out that conceptions of how and why to develop water users associations for
irrigation management are strongly conditioned by assumptions about the way organisations work and
about the nature of their relations with the state. He correctly maintains that many of these assumption
are unrealistic, leading to the creation of still-born organisations that become unsustainable as soon as
external support is withdrawn from them. Ambler explores common conceptions about developing
water users' associations, the nature of property creation in groups, and th'e long term viability of such
organisations.
The following are some of the semantic impediments as described by Ambler in the current language
and practices of institutional development of water users' association):
* Farmer participation orfarmer management
The implicit meaning of "farmer participation" in practice often means the need for
farmer participation in the government's program. The government acts as the prime
mover that makes all key decisions about investment priorities, the design of
improvements, the system of management, and the rules of operation. Water users
association becomes secondary as mere vehicles of the state and not as autonomous
bodies with real decision-making powers. In contrast, government participation in
people's programs (i.e. farmer management) would require a reorientation of the
irrigation agency from a position of implementing agency to one of service agency.
Here, the government helps farmers to define and articulate their problems, provides
technical assistance and puts them in touch with other resources.
* Beneficiaries or partners
The term "beneficiaries" often connotes patron-client relationship whereas "partners"
connote that investment and decision-making are shared equally by both the parties in a
real sense and that both farmers and government develop property rights through a
balance of rights and responsibilities. Such property creation process would greatly
ensure continued resource mobilization for the management of the irrigation systems,
mutual accountability, and shared rights and benefits. Ambler notes that the process of
creating community property with government assistance requires going beyond mere
government largesse--it involves active investment from the people too. He further
notes that people are too poor to invest in bad projects but most research on resource
mobilization has shown that communities are willing to invest sizable amounts of labour
and materials and take considerable risks for projects that they themselves think are
worthwhile.
" Motivating farmers or creating motivating conditions
Farmers may only be motivated to develop good water users' associations and take on
more responsibilities if the external managerial and incentive environment is conducive
and if the perceived benefits from change are clear, attractive, and equitable. The
external environment could refer to larger operational issues such as main system
management and structural issues such as agency accountability, funding mechanisms,
and rights of water users associations. It may be more useful for those involved in
irrigation development to create an enabling environment for the formation of water
users associations rather than point out that farmers lack motivation and that they need
to be trained, educated, etc. Chambers (1988) points out that often the fixation in on
 * Creating or catalyzing farmer organizations
below the outlet (at the farmers level) and not on the problems and gaps within main
system management undertaken by the agency.
* Senseofo~vnershiporrealo~vnership
I
Research on irrigation systems show that most of the successful self-governing systems
are those whose ownership are in the hands of the'farmers. When asked why water
users' associations are necessary, it is not uncommon for government irrigation
engineers to quickly come up with a list of reasons, such as, to increase the efficiency
of water use; to increase the level of payment of water charges; to reduce the level of
damage to structures in the system, to reduce the level of conflict with the government,
to carry out government's policies (without understanding the rationale behind such
policies), and the like. All of these pertain to obligations and responsibilities on the part
of the farmers or water users.
To balance the equation, it is necessary to think about the types of rights that WUAs
or farmer-managed irrigation systems need to have to effectively discharge their
responsibilities. While these might vary from country to country, we can imagine the
following rights (Ambler, 1993) :
- the right to well-defined and defensible water rights,
- the right to participate in planning, prioritization, and implementation of any
construction,
- the right to information about water availability,
- the right to enter into binding negotiation with the government on water
scheduling, quantities, quality, etc.
- the right to federate and have representation in main system management in
jointly-managed systems,
- the right to enter into contracts with third parties, for example, with the
irrigation department for maintenance or repairs,
- the right to evolve into multi-purpose functions, such as supply of inputs or
marketing of produces,
- the right to hire technical staff to operate and/or maintain the irrigation system,
- the right to inspect the government's budget on the system's operation and
maintenance,
- the right to secure loans for system repair or improvement,
- the right to develop and manage groundwater on a community basis,
- the right to appeal to conflict resolution institutions for redress of grievances.
The old phrase of "organizing farmers" which also appears as "forming water users'
associations" presents a number of conceptual impediments to promoting the
emergence of viable WUAs or farmer organizations. "Forming association" is often
done without either addressing the many structural issues or taking into account the
local capacity and incentive to organize. Often, existing conditions and practices, local
patterns of collective action even in irrigation management, are often neglected or
ignored and the quest for new formal organizational set ups are carried out.
The programs to "create organizations" often end up with paper organizations or
organizations that are mere appendages of the state. The formation of viable and
independent organizations can be stimulated with external inputs, but ultimately they
must grow and evolve from within. "Catalyzing" the formation or evolution of water
users' associations would imply that external change agents must relinquish control to
the people, empower the people with decision-making tasks, and change their own role
to one of providing support services.
Often the existence of these long-term viable farmer water users' associations is not
recognized because of the informal nature of the organizations. They may not be
formally registered with the government; they may not have firm legal status in the
eyes of the state; they may have no constitution or by-laws; they may not own any
meeting halls, movable property, or any assets outside irrigation structures and canals;
they may not hold regular meetings to keep records; they may become completely
dormant during times of water abundance or water unavailability.
There can be many advantages in having a formal organization, but it should be built
on an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of existing informal organization,
not on the assumption that organization or local institutions do not exist.
A rethinking on the conceptual barriers presented above represents a start at
reorienting our perspectives and approaches.
External a6ency staff can be facilitators to the creation of water users associations that
draws heavily on existing institutional arrangements and practices and indigenous skills
and technology for the operation and maintenance of the irrigation systems. As the
WUAs begin a process of self-assessment with basic information (collected by
themselves), accountability (within the irrigation organization and the agency) and
transparency could be attained.
On local resource mobilization : agency expectations and local interest Potential workers may base their decision to participate on their calculation of the benefits that they
Local resource mobilization (LRM) will be crucial for maintaining the institutional and financial can expect as an outcome of their participation and the costs and benefits of non-participation. They
viability of systems that have been turned over and those that are to be self-governing. To a great will weigh these benefits against the opportunity costs of participation. The resultant benefits may be
extent, in the context of Nepal, labor constitutes the greater bulk of local resources to be contributed. social or economic, water related or not, direct or indirect.
It is therefore important to understand the incentives and disincentives at work from local interests in Increased agricultural production is a primary goal for irrigation agencies, but for farmers it is a rather
the context of local resource mobilization. Given the fact that local labor contributions may bear little problematic outcome of the labor contribution. First, even where there is a direct relationship
direct relationship to water received, we would expect that not all incentives and disincentives for between the irrigator's labor contribution and improved water deliveries to his or her parcel, this may
labor contribution will be water related (Lynch and Pradhan, 1988). Figure 18.2 maps a number of only have a substantial effect upon yields under certain conditions. Yields will vary with water supply
factors that may act as incentives and disincentives for local labor mobilization. if it is adequate and reliable but not overabundant and where the other inputs required are present.
Where irrigation makes it possible to bring a crop to maturity, farmers will exert considerable effort to
Figure 18.2: Agency stimuli for local resources mobilization and possible resultant benefits for keep the system hnctioning. But regular maintenance does not always mean the difference between a
farmers reliable, adequate water supply and none at all. More often the difference is incremental.
The perception of water supply as a benefit is closely related to whether or not water is a limiting
I factor in agricultural production. If it is not, the benefits of incremental yield increases must be
weighed against the sum of input costs, including not only the costs of water and system operation
I Water Related
I
Not Water Related
I and maintenance, but of the fertilizers, pesticides, and improved seed needed to maximize the benefits
from irrigation as well.
Agency Not all irrigators see increased yields as a benefit. Once they have met their subsistence needs, some
Stimuli farmers are more likely to be interested in income than in yields per se. Therefore, farmer benefits and
incentives other than agricultural production increases may weigh heavily in farmer decisions to
contribute their labor and other resources. Labor contribution may either denote or confer system
Resultant membership. That is, participation in canal cleaning and maintenance in some areas is a symbolic
Benefits
expression of membership in the irrigation system and the perpetuation of one's water rights.
Members may prohibit non-members from contributing their labor in these systems. Participation may
be a precondition to membership in the system and access to an entitlement or rights. The potential for
incorporation of new members into a system is limited by technology, water supply, and politics.
Agencies may provide two stimuli for local resource mobilization that are not related to water. These
are wages and sanctions. Resultant benefits to local resource contributions that are not water-related
may include income in cash or in kind, land rights, community membership, and other tangible benefits
from the system. The latter may include power, fish, and water for food processing, domestic use,
incame: mililng, brick, and livestock. Incorporating design features that accommodate other uses of water may
1. Cash build support for the project and reduce opposition.
I 2. E d for Work Several factors may deter active local resource mobilization. The opportunity cost of providing labor
I may be high due to i) the coincidence of labor on the irrigation system with peak labor demand in
I - Other tangible
benefits
agriculture, ii) the existence of off-farm employment opportunities in the local area, and iii) seasonal
I labor migration. Slack agricultural periods in the irrigated zone may coincide with periods of high
I eg+fish, power, etc
I labor demand elsewhere. In hierarchical societies like those in Nepal, status can be a strong
disincentive to labor contributions. The nature of the work may inhibit labor contributions. If the
work is arduous and dangerous, participation level may decline precipitously.
Thus, local resource mobilization efforts for irrigation development--whether externally or locally
generated--may not necessarily represent the collective will of the community--or even the community
of irrigators. Even when a project support is broad-based, the opportunity costs of labor contribution
The term "incentive" can refer to things that agencies or other governing authorities offer to stimulate may be high. Furthermore, the absolute availability of labor and other resources cannot be taken for
local resource mobili~ation. They may grant power, rights, or privileges in return for participation, granted, but must be empirically verified.
they may provide wages or food supplements for participants, or they may use their police powers to Government agencies cannot assume that local resources will be provided for a project, but they can
apply sanctions against those who fail to perform. The four factors at the top of the figure are provide stimuli and incentives for different segments of population. They can also encourage local
institutional rewards and sanctions that irrigation agencies and governing bodies provide or guarantee resource mobilization by co-designing structures that irrigators can maintain at a cost they can afford.
to
- - stimulate local resource mobilization. They constitute the
- . . incentive structure, but they are not For this, it would be important for engineers and irrigation officials to provide alternative design
necessarily the factors that influence farmers' decisions to participate

structures outlining the relative costs and benefits related to resource inputs for maintaining and
operating the structures.
Once these options are made available to the farmers, the farmers are in a better position to decide on
what types of structures they would like to see being placed, know in advance the relative advantages
and disadvantages of such structures, plan their operation and maintenance based on such information,
and share costs that would entail partnership in designing the facilities and later on maintain the
structures being fully aware that they were equal decision makers. Finally, they can conduct
participatory feasibility and baseline studies that identify factors likely to affect the distribution of
benefits, direct costs, and opportunity costs associated with local resource mobilization in order to
identify appropriate incentives.
Mutually reinforcing concerted efforts
There are many actors in irrigation development--each with its own comparative advantages.
Government agencies, farmers, commercial and development banks, some NGOs, research and
academic organizations are involved in different aspects of irrigation management and development.
Some are involved in generating knowledge through research, others like consulting firms carry out
assessment studies, irrigation bureaucracies carry out implementation work and awarding contracts
for work to be implemented, academic institutions either carry out basic educational degree programs
i evaluations, confederation of irrigation organizations within watersheds or on a regional/national
for potential overseers and engineers to be recruited by irrigation related agencies or carry out generic
or applied research. If one goes beyond mere construction and delivering water at the command area
level, we witness a variety of organizations providing various informational and action-oriented
support to irrigated agriculture.
On the topic of N W s ' role, the farmer to farmer training carried out by farmer based NGOs and
farmer-consultants have proven to be successful for facilitating the creation of WUAs and assisting
existing ones in their operation and maintenance works. An argument can be made regarding the
farmer to farmer training's comparative advantage over alternative approaches towards institutional
development of water users groups using association organizers, community organizers, or irrigation
organizers in that these organizers are very temporary and difficult for irrigation bureaucracies to
sustain through budget allocations.
The organizers see their job as a stepping stone to gain experience and move on to other work. The
farmer trainers have been accepted by fellow trainees who share similar livelihood strategies and
therefore are sympathetic and understanding of irrigation dynamics at the field level and deal with it
daily. In comparison to consulting firms and NGOs that are not grassroots based these farmer trainers
or experts are cost-effective and result-oriented.
Several donor agencies have used such farmer experts or consultants for training the farmers from
their project area. Some have even used farmer experts as evaluators of irrigation projects in the hills.
There is still a need thus to promote and facilitate the establishment of member-based. rural
community based NGOs out of existing water users groups that can provide the training and research
necessary for fellow water users elsewhere in poorly managed irrigation gystems. Through this
process, with the assistance of intermediary NGOs for organizational development, book keeping,
financial administration, proposal development, report writing, and liaison work with donors,
researchers, and government agencies, a mechanism can be set for empowering these member-based
groups
- to provide field based information, policy analysis, training, and partnership necessary for
mutually beneficial irrigation development.
This can be achieved if farmers' role and contributions are acknowledged and respected, and their
limitations, capabilities, and aspirations are taken into account. There should be appreciation for time-
tested technologies and appropriate indigenous knowledge and skills used by the farmers. The
creation of newer positive partnerships must be promoted incorporating such skills and knowledge
jointly with the farmers in project planning and implementation.
The currently practiced farmer-to-farmer training and exchange visits can be strengthened for local
governance by exposing farmer organizations that have had a history of interactions with the irrigation
bureaucracy during project implementation rather than exposures to well-managed farmer irrigation
systems only. Often the training topics and issues are identified by outsiders facilitating the training
but an overview of such farmer trainings indicate the real need for Participatory Training Needs
Assessment (PTNA). In such an assessment, the training needs are: i) to be identified jointly with the
trainee participants; ii) to be cross checked and verified by the participants in a group and separately
with various social groups; and iii) to be ranked according to training need priorities and only the
more crucial ones addressed.
One of the trainers should be a facilitator to enlist the training needs from the participants themselves.
Often in a group discussion the more powefil or loud people tend to dominate. Various techniques
espoused within the Participatory Rural Appraisal method may be applicable to get a community
listing of training needs. The PTNA thus will assist in the identification of the specific requirements of
the training and the topics and issues to be explored during the training.
Given the changing relationships of the govemment and the fanning community, this training has
much potential for local management of irrigation systems by the irrigators.themselves in the hture
where many agency systems will be jointly managed or turned over to the irrigators. Such newer
scenarios and challenges in the institutional development of farmers and irrigators would warrant
farmer to farmer trainings to include newer topics such as financial management, contractor/contract
basis, managing irrigation support services, self-assessment of imgation management, and donor-
NGO-agency relations. Several of these topics have been suggested as training needs by various
farmers from different irrigation systems during the farmer-to-farmer trainings (Pradhan, 1994).
Conclusion
In Nepal we witness two parallel systems of resource management. At the formal level, there is the
centralized, bureaucratic-legalistic system of management constituted with numerous departments,
agencies further divided into various sectors implementing numerous laws and policies (as described
above) to basically regulate the society with certain perceptions of governance. At the other more
informal level, local communities have been practicing environmental, natural resource management
supported by a network of community structures and organizations, traditional and indigenous
practices, customary rulings and laws, and enforced by the society or community concerned. The vast
literature on farmer managed irrigation systems is a case in point regarding the irrigation sector. This
informal traditional practices usually go unnoticed in development activities. Only recently, increased
awareness has led the government to slowly incorporate these institutions into the mainstream
development path and has accepted them as an alternate path to economic development activities.
In the last few years, the government has been pursuing decentralization and alternative forms of
- - -- --
governance (much propelled by the advent of multipany system and the cumulative fiscal and
credibility crises of the government). The operationalization of this concept of governance is being
worked through various experimentation as ~olicvreformulations.
Over the past few decades, there has been a dynamic evolution in irrigation policies and institutions in
Nepal. The actors in irrigation development have the twin objectives of poverty alleviation and
suaained agricultural productivity The government of Nepal is making a concerted effort to support
rather than supplant people's own development efforts In empowering local organizations and
beneficiaries, the state of Nepal envisions mitigating fiscal crises and supporting decentralization This
vision is important but should be backed by actual operationalizations and should not remain mere
m t m t s in policies and govemment plans
Given the aspirations of the public and hopefully the zeal to do better on the part of the irrigation
h c r a c y , there are several newer opportunities and challenges for irrigation administration The
irrigation bureaucracies would do better by reducing its transaction costs in being involved in the
usual operation and maintenance activities of'irri'gation systems that can be managed by the users
themselves. One should be ready to place faith and confidence in the ability of the users to manage
their own systems.
The current era warrants that irrigation management should look beyond mere physical irrigation
systems and incorporate the social relations, the environment of irrigated agriculture and sustainability
variables in its analysis. On the part of the irrigation bureaircracy, it should play more the role of
management and an organization that is service oriented and accountable to clients.
One of the positive roles of the irrigation bureaucracy in the post-construction era in irrigation
development is to be innovative enough to create an enabling environment for local governance, users'
genuine participation, and use of local resources and skills. Certain bureaucracies have already begun
to tap the knowledge and the appropriate skills of the farmers and non-government organizations in
the endeavor of institutional development of users such that they themselves will own, manage, and
operate their systems.
The positive roles of the government irrigation bureaucracy can be focussed on: i) being an impartial
arbitrator for inter-district, intersystem water conflicts, ii) undertaking research on its own design and
planning procedures to learn from one's own past so as to manage and guide external resources, both
human and financial, iii) monitor activities at watershed and regional level, and iv) play an advisory
role to the users groups if need be. Engineers now face the challenge of being innovative and
supportive of local partnership and local governance and are also being called upon to exercise their
technical expertise in designing irrigation development jointly with farmers through a mutual learning
process.
I I
I
I
I
I '
J UNDP/ILO/World Bank.
Selected references
Acharya, B.N. 1990. Design Issues in Farmer Managed Irrigation Systems: Experiences in the Hills
of Nepal. In IIMI. Design Issues in Farmer Managed Irrigation Systems: Proceedings of an
International Workshop held at Chiang Mai, Thailand, 12-15 December 1989. Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Ambler, John. 1993. Rethinking the Language of Farmer Water Users' Associations. In FMIS
Newsletter. No. 12. September 1993. Published by International Irrigation Management Institute.
Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Chambers, Robert. 1988. Managing Canal Irrigation: Practical Analysis from South Asia. Oxford &
IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi, India.
Coward, E. Walter, Jr. (1980). Irrigation and Agricultural Development in Asia: Perspectives from the
Social Sciences. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
FAO. 1984. Small Scale Hill Irrigation Development Identification Report, Phase I: Lumbini Hills.
Report of the FAOIIFAD Cooperative Program Investment Centre, Rome, Italy.
His Majesty's Government (HMG)/UNDP/ILO/World Bank. 1992. A Manual for Environmental
Protection Measures for Hill Irrigation Schemes in Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal.
His Majesty's Government (HMG)/UNDP/ILO. 1994. A Manual for Formation and Management of
Farmers Irrigation Associations. Kathmandu, Nepal.
His Majesty's Government (HMG)/WECS. 1987. Erosion and Sedimentation in the Nepal Himalaya.
Kathmandu, Nepal.
His Majesty's Government (HMG)/ITECO Ag. / Sinkalama Irrigation Project. (1992). Manual for
Survey, Design and Construction of Small Hill Irrigation Systems in Nepal.
His Majesty's Government (HMG)ICEWECIUNDP/World Bank (1990). Master Plan for Irrigation
Development in Nepal.
His Majesty's Government (HMG)/WNDP/World Bank (1990). Design Manuals for Irrigation Projects
in Nepal prepared by the Planning and Design Strengthening Project.
ICIMOD. (1,990).Risk Engineering in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya
IIMI. 1990. Process and Performance Evaluation of Agricultural Development Bank Financed
Irrigation Projects. Kathmandu, Nepal.
Jacob, Basil. ( 1 993). Training Modules on Appropriate Design of Small-Scale Hill Irrigation Systems.
K.C., Durga and U. Pradhan. 1993. Indigenous Knowledge and Organizational Process: Experiences
and Lessons From Local Nepali Irrigation Systems. In "Indigenous Management of Natural
Resources in Nepal" ed. by Devika Tamang, Gerard J. Gill and Ganesh B. Thapa. Proceedings of the
Workshop on Indigenous Management of Agriculture and Natural Resources. June 8-9, 1992.
Dhulikhel, Nepal.
Uphoff, Norman, Ruth Meinzen-Dick, and Nancy St. Julien. 1985. Getting the process right: farmer
organization and participation in irrigation water management. A State-of-the-Art Paper prepared at
Cornell University for the Water Management Synthesis I1 Project, Consortium for International
Development, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.

Lewis, Arthur. Development Planning.
Lynch, Barbara and Ujjwal Pradhan. 1988. Agency Expectations and Local Interests: The Myth and
Realities of Local Resource Mobilization for Small Scale Irrigation. Paper presented at the Seventh
World Congress for Rural Sociology, Bologna, Italy. June 25-July 2, 1988.
Martin, Edward D. 1986. Resource Mobilization, Water Allocation and Farmer Organization in Hill
Irrigation Systems in Nepal. Ph.D. disseration. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
Martin, E. and R. Yoder. 1988. Organizational Structure for Resource Mobilization in Hill Irrigation
Systems. In IIMI. Irrigation Management in Nepal: Research Papers from a National Seminar.
Kathmandu, Nepal.
Yoder, Robert (1984). Time-Tested Technologies for Irrigation in Nepal: Himalayan Folk
Engineering Success, Limitations and Possible Extension. Presented at the Annual Conference on
'? South Asian Studies Association, 2-4 Nov., University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Yoder, Robert (1986). The Performance of Farmer-managed Irrigation Systems in the Hills of Nepal.
Ph.D. dissertation. Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
Yoder, Robert (Editor). Designing Irrigation Structures for Mountainous Environments: A handbook
of Experiences. IIMI.
Yoder, Robert and Thurston, Junita (Editors). Design Issues in Farmer Managed Irrigation Systsms.
IIMI.

Pradhan, Prachanda. 1989. Patterns of Irrigation Organization in Nepal: A Comparative Study of 21

Farmer-Managed Irrigation Systems. International Irrigation Management Institute, Country Paper
Nepal No. 1.

Pradhan, P. and R. Yoder. 1990. Irrigation Development: The Management and Use of Irrigation in
the Mountains of Nepal. ICIMOD
Mountain Farming Systems Discussion Paper Series No. 16. Kathmandu, Nepal.

Pradhan, P., R. Yoder, and Ujjwal Pradhan. 1988. Guidelines for Rapid Appraisal of Irrigation
Systems: Experience from Nepal. In Irrigation Management in Nepal: Research Papers from a
National Seminar. Bharatpur, Nepal. 4-6 June 1987. Published by International Irrigation
Management Institute. Kathmandu, Nepal.
Pradhan, Ujjwal. 1990. Property Rights and State Intervention in Hill Irrigation Systems in Nepal,
Ph.D. dissertation. Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.

Pradhan, U. 1994. "Farmer to Farmer Tra,ining as a Way of Assistance to Farmers on the

Improvement of Irrigation Systems." in International Irrigation Management Institute (1994,
forthcoming), From Farmers' Fields to Data Fields and Back: A Synthesis of Participatoiy
Information Systems for Irrigation and Other Resources. Proceedings of an International Workshop
held at the Institute for Agricultural and Animal Sciences (IAAS), Rampur, Nepal, 2 1-26 March 1993.
Colombo, Sri Lanka: IIMI, and Rampur, Nepal, IAAS.

Schwab, Glenn. Soil and Water Conservation Engineering. John Wiley and Sons.

Uphoe Norman (1986). Ifnproving International Irrigation Management with Farmer Participation:
Getting the Process Right. Studies in Water Policy and Management, No. 11. Westview Press,
Boulder, Colorado.