ENGINEERING UTILITIES 1

LECTURE NO. 1

DEFINITION OF COMMON ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY

1. VOLTAGE is the pressure from an electrical circuit's power source that

pushes charged electrons (current) through a conducting loop, enabling
them to do work such as illuminating a light. In brief, voltage = pressure,
and it is measured in volts (V). ... Current returns to the power source.
2. AMPERAGE the strength of an electric current in amperes.

3. RESISTANCE is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an

electrical circuit. Resistance is measured in ohms, symbolized by the
Greek letter omega (Ω). Ohms are named after Georg Simon Ohm (1784-
1854), a German physicist who studied the relationship between voltage,
current and resistance.

4. VOLTAGE DROP is the decrease of electrical potential along the path of a

current flowing in an electrical circuit. Voltage drops in the internal
resistance of the source, across conductors, across contacts, and across
connectors are undesirable because some of the energy supplied is
dissipated.

5.  AMPACITY is defined as the maximum current, in amperes, that a

conductor can carry continuously under the conditions of use without
exceeding its temperature rating.
CALCULATING ENERGY USAGE: HOW COSTS DRIVE CONSERVATION
By: Moe Rubenzahl, Executive Director of Internet Marketing

Abstract: Consumers are often unaware of the cost of the energy used by electronic devices.
In fact, the electricity cost often exceeds the equipment's purchase price within a year!
Simple calculations reveal the energy costs of a device and encourage conservation. This
application note discusses how to calculate energy costs accurately, and presents an online
calculator that makes the calculation even easier.

Why Monitoring Energy Use Is Important

Experts agree that the most powerful tactic to address climate change, pollution, and
energy consumption is to reduce the energy that we use. "Watts we don't use" are always
the cheapest power source and far less costly than building new power plants, whether
those new plants are conventional or use alternative energy sources.
Step one is awareness: think about saving power. As consumers, we naturally think of
large appliances such as the refrigerator and furnace. In the office, we think about lights,
desktop computers, and factory equipment. But the smaller devices, the ones that run
most of the day, may actually be secretly consuming high volumes of energy!
Maxim's CEO was surprised to discover that a media server in his home was costing $473
(U.S. dollars) a year in electricity. In just over a year, the device cost him more in power
than its purchase price! As consumers and engineers, we wonder whether the designers of
these devices are seriously considering end users' energy costs.
Knowing the cost of energy usage will drive conservation. It is clear that we can save
ourselves and our customers money if we make good design choices for the environment—
often without much sacrifice.
Calculating Energy Costs
As every engineer knows, energy calculation is straightforward. The unit of electrical
energy is the kilowatt-hour (kWh), found by multiplying the power use (in kilowatts, kW)
by the number of hours during which the power is consumed. Multiply that value by the
cost per kWh, and you have the total energy cost.
Total energy cost = (Power in watts/1000) × hours operating × cost per kWh
Maxim's Energy Cost Calculator makes the calculation even easier.
While the energy calculation is straightforward, there are variables to consider. You need
to account for:
Varying electric rates
Differences between labeled and actual power
How many hours a day the device operates
Different operating modes (e.g., operating and standby)
Varying Rates
In most communities, energy costs are not constant. Residential rates are often "tiered."
The more you use, the more you pay. Some utilities even charge by time of day, with lower
rates during off-peak hours.
You should calculate costs at your highest usage rate (i.e., your highest "tier"). That is how
much you pay for each kWh that you add or subtract from your present usage. It is the
amount that you will save when you reduce your usage. The U.S. national average
residential rate is about 11.5 cents per kWh (November 2008 U.S. Department of Energy
figures), but you may be paying 36 cents or more for each additional kWh! To determine
your rates, look at your electric bill or check your utility company's website.
You also need to account for time of day, if your rates vary during peak and nonpeak
hours.
For more information on electricity usage and costs in the U.S., go to: Energy Information
Administration.
Power Consumption
Next, you need to find out how much power the device uses. The most accurate way is to
measure usage with a power meter (available in the U.S. for $20 to $60).
Alternatively, you can look at the label on the product. But labeling is often not very
accurate because it shows the maximum power. Many devices consume much less than the
label indicates. For fixed-power devices such as a light bulb, the label is accurate.
Finally, do not forget to calculate for the attached accessories, such as a computer's
display.
You may need to do some math to calculate the usage in watts:
Power (watts, W) = Current (amperes, A) × Voltage (volts, V)
As an example, a device that is rated to use 2.5A and runs from U.S. house current (120V),
uses 2.5 × 120 = 300W.
Hours of Operation and Modes
Some devices operate at full load 24 hours a day. Many devices use power even when they
are "off." Chargers that remain plugged in while the devices that they charge are
unplugged, can still consume power, especially in older designs.
A media server is especially wasteful: the disk spins and all of the power supplies run at
full power even when the media server is idle.
Some devices vary their power consumption, depending on how they are used. Consider,
for example, a coffee pot. It uses 800W but only for 10 minutes, then it drops to pot-
warmer mode for one hour and draws negligible power. If you make one pot of coffee a
day, your usage is 0.133kWh a day, or 4kWh a month. That energy costs just 40 cents a
month.
A computer will use less power in sleep mode. A 25W light that burns all day uses more
power than a 1500W toaster that is on for 40 seconds in the morning.
Duty Cycle
Finally, consider the duty cycle for devices that vary their usage throughout the day. A
heater that is operated by a thermostat will consume power only when it is on.
Second-Order Effects
In an air-conditioned space, wasted energy costs you twice! An extra watt of energy
produced in a cooled room increases the load on the air conditioner. This is difficult to
calculate, but keeping this in mind will help you prioritize your energy conservation
activities.
The Power to Save
Once you know which devices consume the most energy, you can find ways to reduce
consumption. The biggest saving is often simply removing a device that you no longer
really need.
The easiest savings may come from turning off devices that you are not really using,
especially items like a media server or a light that operates all day. Computing equipment,
such as printers, can be turned off. Power strips and timers (or home automation
controllers) can power down items that are not in use. But be careful. Using a power strip
to power down is just like unplugging the devices; some devices can fail or lose data if
powered down often without using their power switch.
In many cases, replacing older equipment can save you money. Consider all the electronic
devices around you, and take a close look at the biggest power users. Then use the energy
calculator to determine what a more energy-efficient replacement would save.
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT -TYPES OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

There are 5 Main Types of Electric Circuit – Close Circuit, Open Circuit, Short Circuit,
Series Circuit and Parallel Circuit.
There are 5 Main Types of Electric Circuit – Close Circuit, Open Circuit, Short Circuit, Series
Circuit and Parallel Circuit.

What is an Electric Circuit

An Electric Circuit is the conductive path for flow of current or electricity is called electric
circuit or electrical circuit.
A conductive wire is used to establish relation among source of voltage and load.
An ON / OFF switch and a fuse is also used in between the source and load.

TYPES OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

Types of Electric Circuit

There are following 5 main types of electric circuit:
1. CLOSE CIRCUIT
When load works on its own in a circuit then it is called Close Circuit or Closed Circuit. Under
this situation,
the
1. CLOSE CIRCUIT
When load works on its own in a circuit then it is called Close Circuit or Closed
Circuit. Under this situation, the value of current flow depends on load.

Example of Close Circuit or Closed Circuit

2. OPEN CIRCUIT

When there is a faulty electrical wire or electronic component in a circuit or the switch is
OFF, then it is called Open Circuit. In the below diagram you can see that the Bulb is Not
glowing because either the switch is OFF or there is fault is the electrical wire.

Open Circuit Example

3. SHORT CIRCUIT
When both points (+ & –) of voltage source in a circuit gets joint with each other for some
reason then it is called Short Circuit. Maximum current starts to flow under this situation.
Short circuit generally happens when the conducting electrical wires get joint of even
because of shorting in the load.

Short Circuit Example

4. SERIES CIRCUIT
When 2 or more loads (Bulb, CFL, LED, Fan etc) are connected to each other in a series,
then it is called a Series Circuit. In a series circuit, if one load or bulb gets fuse, then rest of
the bulbs will not get power supply and will not glow. Look at the example below.

Series Circuit Example

5. PARALLEL CIRCUIT
When 2 or more loads (Bulb, CFL, LED, Fan etc) are connected to each other in parallel,
then it is called Parallel Circuit. In this type of circuit, the voltage capacity of all loads must
be equal to input supply. Power of “load” can be different. In a parallel circuit, if one load or
bulb gets fuse, then rest of the bulbs will still get power supply and will glow. Look at the
example below.

Parallel Circuit Example

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 Basic Electronics Definition
 Electronic Components, Parts and Their Function
 Types of PCB | Different Types of Printed Circuit Board (PCB)

LECTURE 2
 What Are Branch Circuits?

A branch circuit is part of the electrical system that originates at the main service
panel and feeds electricity throughout the structure. There are 120-volt branch
circuits that supply power to standard outlets and fixtures, along with 240-volt
circuits that power major appliances.

Circuit Breakers Start Each Branch Circuit

The main service panel is controlled by the main circuit breaker that serves as the
primary disconnect for the power supply to the main service panel. This is normally a
100- to 200-amp two-pole circuit breaker providing current at 240-volts and feeds it to
two 120-volt hot bus bars running down vertically through the panel.

Below the main circuit breaker, there are two rows of smaller circuit breakers, and it is
these that form the beginning of the individual branch circuits that run to all areas of
your home to provide power. These individual breakers will be either 120-volt breakers,
tapping into only one of the hot bus bars in the panel; or they will be 240-volt breakers
that connect to two of the 120-volt bus bars. Thus, your branch circuits will be either
120-volt circuits—which feed all the standard outlets and lighting circuits; or they will be
240-volt circuits—which feed circuits that feed major appliances, such as an electric
clothes dryer, an electric range, and central air conditioning units.

Branch Circuit Amperage

Both 120-volt and 240-volt branch circuits can vary in the amount of power they deliver
—a quantity measured by amperage. Branch circuits for 120-volt circuits are usually 15-
amp or 20-amp circuits, although occasionally they will be larger than that. For 249-volt
circuits, the amperage is more often 30-, 40-, or 50-amps. The amperage of each
branch circuit can be read by the printing on the lever of each circuit breaker. The wires
attached to that circuit must also be sufficient to handle the load of the branch circuit;
attaching wires that are too small for the circuit amperage poses a definite danger of
fire. The ratings of individual wire gauges are as follows:

 15-amps: 14-gauge copper wire

 20-amps: 12-gauge copper wire
 30-amps: 10-gauge copper wire
 45-amps: 8-gauge copper wire
 60-amps: 6-gauge copper wire
 80-amps: 4-gauge copper wire
 100-amps: 2-gauge copper wire
 Normally this is not an issue, as the original circuits in your home are likely wired
correctly. However, anytime a circuit is being extended, it's critical that the new wiring is
the appropriate gauge for the circuit amperage. It is a common DIY mistake to wire with
incorrect gauge size.

Types

There are several different types of branch circuits in your home. 

 Dedicated appliance circuits. These serve only one appliance and are often required
by Code. They can be 120- or 240-volt circuits, and serve appliances such as electric
ranges, dishwashers, refrigerators, garbage disposers, air-conditioners, and clothes
dryers. Normally, any appliance that has a motor will require a dedicated circuit.
 Lighting circuits. These are what they sound like—circuits that serve general
lighting needs in rooms. Normally, a lighting circuit will serve several rooms, and most
homes will have several. One advantage of separating the lighting circuits from the
outlet circuits is that each room will be left with some means of lighting them if one
circuit is shut off. While working on the lighting circuit, for example, a plug-in lamp can
be used to illuminate the space.
 Outlet circuits. These are circuits that serve only general-purpose plug-in outlets. They
can be specific to a room or a group of rooms. A second-story in a small house, for
example, may have one or two outlet circuits that serve multiple rooms.
 Room circuits. Depending on how the home has been wired, sometimes the circuit
layout has all lights and outlets in a room served by individual circuits.

How to Determine the Size of Your Main Electrical Service

The main electrical service delivered to your house from the electrical utility
company has a total available capacity, measured in amps, or amperes. Most
homes have an electrical service of between 100 to 200 amps. Amperage is a
measurement of the volume of electricity flowing through wires, and this
measurement can vary between 30 amps in very old homes that have not been
updated, to as much as 400 amps in a very large home with extensive electric
heating systems.

How Electrical Current Reaches Your Home

Electrical service reaches your home from the power utility through two 120-volt service
wires that offer a combined 240 volts of power (voltage is a measurement of electricity's
pressure or rate of flow). The main service wires reach your home either through
overhead service wires that enter a service mast and pass down through an electrical
meter into your home, or through underground wires that also pass through an electrical
meter. The first stop for the electrical service once it enters your home is the main
service panel.
 What the Main Service Panel Does

The main service panel is the distribution center that splits the main electrical service
into individual branch circuits that run through your home to power the lights, outlets,
and individual appliances. The main service panel is usually a gray metal box located
somewhere along the inside surface of an exterior wall. It is often found in a utility area,
such as a garage, basement, or furnace room. When it is located in a finished living
space, it is sometimes contained inside a finished cabinet mounted on the wall. Service
panels also can be located outdoors, typically on an exterior house wall.

The main service panel includes two hot bus bars that run side-by-side down the panel.
The bus bars are fed by a large breaker called the main breaker. Each bus bar carries
120 volts. A branch home circuit connected to just one bus bar will deliver 120 volts of
power, while a circuit connected to both bus bars will deliver 240 volts of power.

Fuse Box vs. Circuit Breaker Panel

In most homes, the main service panel uses circuit breakers that control and protect the
individual circuits. Circuit breakers are specially designed safety switches that prevent
individual branch circuits from drawing more power than the circuit wires can safely
handle. Virtually all homes built since the early 1960s use circuit breakers as the power
distribution method. Older homes also have circuit breaker panels if their electrical
service was updated after 1960.

Where an electrical service was installed before the early 1960s and has not been
updated, it may use a different style of power distribution—a fuse panel, which protects
individual circuits with screw-in or cartridge fuses.

The use of fuse panels and circuit breaker panels for residential wiring follows a
historical pattern:

 30-amp fuse panel: Installed before 1950, these service panels provide only 120-volt
current. Such a service provides insufficient power for modern usage and generally
needs to be updated.
 60-amp fuse panel: Installed from 1950 to about 1965, 60-amp fuse panels provide
240-volts of power, but are still insufficient for most homes. An update is usually
needed.
 Circuit breaker panel: Since the early 1960s, homes have generally been wired with
circuit breaker panels that provide 240-volt current. Early services may provide 60-amps
of power, while large houses built today may have 200 amps or more of power. Homes
with 60-amp or 100-amp service often require an electrical service update during major
remodeling or expansion projects.
Instructions on how to install Circuit Breakers

1. Inspect the Electrical Meter

In many instances, you can determine the size of the home's electrical service
simply by looking at the electrical meter outside the house. Look for the point at
which the main service wires from the utility company enter the home. If electrical
service is delivered by overhead wires, they will enter a metal service pipe that
runs down an exterior wall of your home to the meter. If the meter is a glass
dome mounted on a square metal base, the home probably has 100 amps of
power, while a newer 150-amp or larger service will have a rectangular base that
extends below the glass dome.

If you see a glass dome mounted on a round base that is the same dimension as
the dome, or a meter located behind a flat glass window that is flush with the front
of an enclosed metal box, you probably have 60 amps of electrical service.

2. Find the Main Service Panel

Locate the main service panel inside or outside your home. The panel will usually
be on the opposite side of the wall where the exterior electrical meter is located.
In most homes, this will be a vertical gray metal (or sometimes black) box
mounted on a wall in a utility area. If the main service panel is in a finished living
space, it may be enclosed in a finished cabinet of some type, but by law it must be
easily accessible at all times.
3. Read the Main Circuit Breaker or Fuse Block

Make sure the floor around the main service panel is dry, then open the metal
door on the service panel. Inside the panel, you will see two rows of individual
circuit breakers with small toggle levers. These individual, or branch, circuit
breakers are numbered, and they control individual branch circuits running
through your home. The amperage of these individual breakers will be between 15
and 50 amps, usually.

At the top end of the two rows of branch circuit breakers, there will be a central
circuit breaker that controls the power to the entire panel. This is the main circuit
breaker, and its amperage rating will be something like 60, 100, 150, or 200
amps. In rare instances, the main circuit breaker may be mounted at the bottom
of the service panel. The main circuit breaker may be bolted in place, or it may be
a snap-in breaker similar to those serving branch circuits.

The main circuit breaker dictates how much power is available to your entire
house. It is a double-pole breaker, connected to both 120-volt service wires to
power both hot bus bars running down through the panel. Turning this main
breaker to the OFF position shuts off power to the entire house and all the branch
circuits. The amp rating on this main circuit breaker identifies your
electrical service size.

If You Have a Fuse Panel

If your home has fuses instead of breakers, the panel will contain a main fuse
block with an amp rating that identifies the total service size of your home. This
main fuse block has a metal handle, and by pulling the handle outward so the
block separates from the panel, you shut off power to the entire house. Most
homes served by fuse panels have 60-amp or 30-amp service.

4. Make Sure It's Not a Subpanel

A subpanel is a secondary service panel that is fed by the home's main service
panel. Subpanels are commonly installed to accommodate the many new circuits
and breakers added as part of a home addition or large remodel. A subpanel can
also serve as a convenient satellite panel for a detached garage or workshop that
may be far away from the main panel.
 Subpanels are typically 60 to 100 amps and often have branch circuits serving a
specific area of the house, such as a kitchen. They have their own main breaker,
which is fed by the main panel. If your home has a subpanel, there will be a
double-pole breaker in the main panel that has the same amp rating as the main
breaker in the subpanel. Because the subpanel is fed by the main panel, you do
not add the subpanel's amp rating to the household total; use the main panel's
amperage only.

Tips for Planning Electrical Service Size

When an electrical contractor computes the necessary size for electrical service during
new construction or when updating an electrical system, the process involves computing
the likely total demand of all appliances and fixtures, then sizing the electrical service to
provide a comfortable margin. The calculations are fairly complex, so most electricians
use a convenient calculator tool to properly size the main electrical service.

 100-amp service provides enough power for a small home without electric heating. This
can supply an electric range and dryer, plus general lighting and receptacle outlets.
 200-amp service is the current standard for new homes and updated service panels. It
can supply all standard electrical needs in a typical family home buy may not support a
large electric heating system.
 In large homes, 250-amp or larger service capacity may be needed, particularly if the
home has electric heating. Adding a large subpanel to serve a workshop or home
addition also may necessitate upgrading to more than the standard 200 amps.

How to Calculate Safe Electrical Load Capacities

 We all have a mountain of electrical appliances around the house and many, if
not all, of them, have some sort of motor running them. These may include
furnaces, dishwashers, air conditioners, sump pumps, garbage disposals, and
microwaves. According to the electrical code, each of these motorized gadgets
needs a dedicated circuit just for their own use. Permanent heating appliances
also have a fairly heavy electrical load, and most require their own dedicated
circuits. Allowing these appliances to share a circuit with other devices can
easily overload the circuit, since by nature they have a fairly heavy power
draw, especially when they first startup. Older homes that have not had their
wiring updated often have such appliances installed on circuits shared with
other devices, and in these situations, it is quite common for circuit breakers
to trip or fuses to blow.

Here are some of the appliances that may require dedicated electrical circuits
(check with local building codes for exact requirements):

 Microwave
 Electric oven
 Garbage disposal
 Dishwasher
 Washing machine
 Trash compactor
 Refrigerator
 Room air conditioner
 Furnace
 Electric water heaters
 Electric ranges
 Electric clothes dryer
 Central air conditioner

So how is one to know what circuit size is required by each appliance? If you
undersize a circuit feeding large central air conditioner, for example, you may
find yourself with a situation in which your air conditioner circuit
trips whenever it is running at maximum power. Calculating the correct size
for a dedicated appliance circuit involves calculating the maximum power
demand that will be placed on a circuit, then choosing a circuit size that
accommodates that demand, plus a margin for safety.
 Circuit Capacity
Figuring the electrical requirements or demand of an appliance begins with an
understanding of a simple relationship between amps, watts, and volts—the
three key means of measuring electricity. A relationship principle known as
Ohm's Law states that amperage (A) x volts (V) = watts (W). Using this
simple relationship principle, you can calculate the available wattage of any
given circuit size:

 15-amp 120-volt circuit: 15 amps x 120 volts = 1,800 watts

 20-amp 120-volt circuit: 20 amps x 120-volts = 2,400 watts
 25-amp 120-volt circuit: 25 amps x 120 volts = 3,000 watts
 20-amp 240-volt circuit: 20 amps x 240 volts = 4,800 watts
 25-amp 240-volt circuit: 25 amps x 240 volts = 6,000 watts
 30-amp 240-volt circuit: 30 amps x 240 volts = 7,200 watts
 40-amp 240-volt circuit: 40 amps x 240 volts = 9,600 watts
 50-amp 240-volt circuit: 50 amps x 240 volts = 12,000 watts
 60-amp 240-volt circuit: 60 amps x 240 volts = 14,400 watts

The simple A x V = W formula can be restated in a number of ways, such as W

÷ V = A, or W ÷ A = V.

How to Calculate Circuit Load Demand

Choosing a correct size for a dedicated appliance circuit involve fairly simple arithmetic
to make sure that appliance's electrical demand is well within the capacity of the circuit.
The load can be measured in either amp or watts, and it is fairly easy to calculate based
on the information printed on the appliance motor specification label.

A Sample Circuit Calculation

For example

think of a simple hair dryer rated at 1,500 watts running on a 120-volt bathroom
branch circuit. Using the W ÷ V = A variation of Ohm's law, you can calculate that 1,500
watts ÷ 120 volts = 12.5 amps. Your hair dryer running a maximum heat can draw 12.5
amps of power. But if you consider that a ventilation fan and bathroom light fixture
might also be operating at the same time, you can see that a 15-amp bathroom circuit
with a total capacity of 1,800 watts might be hard-pressed to handle such a load.

Let's imagine that our sample bathroom has a vent fan that draws 120 watts of power, a
light fixture that has three 60-watt bulbs (180 watts total), and an electrical outlet
where that 1,500-watt hair dryer might be plugged in. All of these could easily be
drawing power at the same time. The likely maximum load on that circuit could reach
1,800 watts, putting it right at the maximum that a 15-amp circuit (providing 1,800
watts) could handle. But if you put a single 100-watt lightbulb in the bathroom light
fixture, you create a situation where a tripped circuit breaker is likely.
Electrician's usually calculate circuit load with a 20 percent safety margin, making sure
that the maximum appliance and fixture load on the circuit is no more than 80 percent
of the available amperage and wattage provided by the circuit. In our sample bathroom,
a 20-amp circuit providing 2,400 watts of power can quite easily handle 1,800 watts of
demand, with 25 percent safety margin. This is the reason why most electrical codes call
for a 20-amp branch circuit to serve a bathroom. Kitchens are another location where
120-volt branch circuits serving outlets are virtually always 20-amp circuits. In modern
homes, it is normally only general lighting circuits that are still wired as 15-amp circuits.

Dedicated Appliance Circuits

Exactly the same principle is used to calculate the demand on a circuit serving a single
appliance, such as a microwave oven, garbage disposal, or air conditioner. A large
microwave oven with a built-in vent fan and light fixture can easily demand 1,200 to
1,500 watts of power, and an electrician wiring a dedicated circuit for this appliance
would likely install a 20-amp circuit that provides 2,400 watts of available power. On the
other hand, a large 1 hp garbage disposer drawing 7 amps (840 watts), can easily be
served by a dedicated 15-amp circuit with 1,800 watts of available power.

The same method of calculation can be used for any dedicated appliance circuit serving
a single appliance. For example, a 240-volt electric water heater rated for 5,500 watts
can be calculated in this way: A = 5,500 ÷ 240, or A = 22.9. But because the circuit
requires a 20 percent safety margin, the circuit needs to provide at least 27.48 amps
(120 percent of 22.9 = 27.48 amps). An electrician would install a 30-amp 240-volt
circuit to serve such a water heater.

Most electricians will slightly oversize the dedicated circuit size to allow for future
changes. For example, if you have a fairly small 800-watt microwave oven, the
electrician will normally install a 20-amp circuit even though a 15-amp circuit can easily
handle this appliance. This is done so that the circuit will be able to handle future
appliances that may be larger than the ones you have now.
OHM’S LAW - HOW VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE
RELATE

The first, and perhaps most important, the relationship between current, voltage, and
resistance is called Ohm’s Law, discovered by Georg Simon Ohm and published in his
1827 paper, The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically.

Voltage, Current, and Resistance

An electric circuit is formed when a conductive path is created to allow electric charge to
continuously move. This continuous movement of electric charge through the conductors
of a circuit is called a current, and it is often referred to in terms of “flow,” just like the
flow of a liquid through a hollow pipe.
The force motivating charge carriers to “flow” in a circuit is called voltage. Voltage is a
specific measure of potential energy that is always relative between two points.
When we speak of a certain amount of voltage being present in a circuit, we are
referring to the measurement of how much potential energy exists to move charge
carriers from one particular point in that circuit to another particular point. Without
reference to two  particular points, the term “voltage” has no meaning.
Current tends to move through the conductors with some degree of friction, or
opposition to motion. This opposition to motion is more properly called resistance. The
amount of current in a circuit depends on the amount of voltage and the amount of
resistance in the circuit to oppose current flow.
Just like voltage, resistance is a quantity relative between two points. For this reason,
the quantities of voltage and resistance are often stated as being “between” or “across”
two points in a circuit.
Units of Measurement: Volt, Amp, and Ohm

To be able to make meaningful statements about these quantities in circuits, we need to

be able to describe their quantities in the same way that we might quantify mass,
temperature, volume, length, or any other kind of physical quantity. For mass we might
use the units of “kilogram” or “gram.”
For temperature, we might use degrees Fahrenheit or degrees Celsius. Here are the
standard units of measurement for electrical current, voltage, and resistance:
 

 
The “symbol” given for each quantity is the standard alphabetical letter used to
represent that quantity in an algebraic equation. Standardized letters like these are
common in the disciplines of physics and engineering and are internationally recognized.
The “unit abbreviation” for each quantity represents the alphabetical symbol used as a
shorthand notation for its particular unit of measurement. And, yes, that strange-looking
“horseshoe” symbol is the capital Greek letter Ω, just a character in a foreign alphabet
(apologies to any Greek readers here).
Each unit of measurement is named after a famous experimenter in electricity:
The amp after the Frenchman Andre M. Ampere, the volt after the Italian Alessandro
Volta, and the ohm after the German Georg Simon Ohm.
The mathematical symbol for each quantity is meaningful as well. The “R” for resistance
and the “V” for voltage are both self-explanatory, whereas “I” for current seems a bit
weird. The “I” is thought to have been meant to represent “Intensity” (of charge flow),
and the other symbol for voltage, “E,” stands for “Electromotive force.” From what
research I’ve been able to do, there seems to be some dispute over the meaning of “I.”
The symbols “E” and “V” are interchangeable for the most part, although some texts
reserve “E” to represent voltage across a source (such as a battery or generator) and
“V” to represent voltage across anything else.
All of these symbols are expressed using capital letters, except in cases where a
quantity (especially voltage or current) is described in terms of a brief period of time
(called an “instantaneous” value). For example, the voltage of a battery, which is stable
over a long period of time, will be symbolized with a capital letter “E,” while the voltage
peak of a lightning strike at the very instant it hits a power line would most likely be
symbolized with a lower-case letter “e” (or lower-case “v”) to designate that value as
being at a single moment in time.
This same lower-case convention holds true for current as well, the lower-case letter “i”
representing current at some instant in time. Most direct-current (DC) measurements,
however, being stable over time, will be symbolized with capital letters.
Coulomb and Electric Charge

One foundational unit of electrical measurement often taught in the beginnings of

electronics courses but used infrequently afterward, is the unit of the coulomb, which is
a measure of electric charge proportional to the number of electrons in an imbalanced
state. One coulomb of charge is equal to 6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons.
The symbol for electric charge quantity is the capital letter “Q,” with the unit of
coulombs abbreviated by the capital letter “C.” It so happens that the unit for current
flow, the amp, is equal to 1 coulomb of charge passing by a given point in a circuit in 1
second of time. Cast in these terms, current is the rate of electric charge motion through
a conductor.
As stated before, voltage is the measure of potential energy per unit charge available to
motivate current flow from one point to another. Before we can precisely define what a
“volt” is, we must understand how to measure this quantity we call “potential energy.”
The general metric unit for energy of any kind is the joule, equal to the amount of work
performed by a force of 1 newton exerted through a motion of 1 meter (in the same
direction).
In British units, this is slightly less than 3/4 pound of force exerted over a distance of 1
foot. Put in common terms, it takes about 1 joule of energy to lift a 3/4 pound weight 1
foot off the ground, or to drag something a distance of 1 foot using a parallel pulling
force of 3/4 pound. Defined in these scientific terms, 1 volt is equal to 1 joule of electric
potential energy per (divided by) 1 coulomb of charge. Thus, a 9-volt battery releases 9
joules of energy for every coulomb of charge moved through a circuit.
These units and symbols for electrical quantities will become very important to know as
we begin to explore the relationships between them in circuits.
 

The Ohm’s Law Equation

Ohm’s principal discovery was that the amount of electric current through a metal
conductor in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage impressed across it, for any
given temperature. Ohm expressed his discovery in the form of a simple equation,
describing how voltage, current, and resistance interrelate:
 

 
In this algebraic expression, voltage (E) is equal to current (I) multiplied by resistance
(R). Using algebra techniques, we can manipulate this equation into two variations,
solving for I and for R, respectively:
 
 

Analyzing Simple Circuits with Ohm’s Law

Let’s see how these equations might work to help us analyze simple circuits:
 

 
In the above circuit, there is only one source of voltage (the battery, on the left) and
only one source of resistance to current (the lamp, on the right). This makes it very easy
to apply Ohm’s Law. If we know the values of any two of the three quantities (voltage,
current, and resistance) in this circuit, we can use Ohm’s Law to determine the third.
In this first example, we will calculate the amount of current (I) in a circuit, given values
of voltage (E) and resistance (R):
 

 
What is the amount of current (I) in this circuit?
 
 
In this second example, we will calculate the amount of resistance (R) in a circuit, given
values of voltage (E) and current (I):
 

 
What is the amount of resistance (R) offered by the lamp?
 

 
In the last example, we will calculate the amount of voltage supplied by a battery, given
values of current (I) and resistance (R):
 

 
What is the amount of voltage provided by the battery?

Ohm’s Law Triangle Technique

Ohm’s Law is a very simple and useful tool for analyzing electric circuits. It is used so
often in the study of electricity and electronics that it needs to be committed to memory
by the serious student. For those who are not yet comfortable with algebra, there’s a
trick to remembering how to solve for anyone quantity, given the other two.
First, arrange the letters E, I, and R in a triangle like this:
 

If you know E and I, and wish to determine R, just eliminate R from the picture and see
what’s left:
 
 

If you know E and R, and wish to determine I, eliminate I and see what’s left:
 

 
Lastly, if you know I and R, and wish to determine E, eliminate E and see what’s left:

Eventually, you’ll have to be familiar with algebra to seriously study electricity and
electronics, but this tip can make your first calculations a little easier to remember. If you
are comfortable with algebra, all you need to do is commit E=IR to memory and derive the
other two formulae from that when you need them!