UNIT 6: LEADING AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Content
6.0 Aims and Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Communication
6.2.1 Functions Objectives of Communication
6.2.2 The Communication Process Mode
6.2.3 Organizational Communication
6.2.4 Barrier of Effective Communication
6.2.5 Over Coming Communication Barrier
6.3 Motivation
6.3.1 Understanding Behavior
6.3.2 The Motivation Process
6.3.3 Motivation Theories
6.4 Leadership
6.4.1 What is Leadership?
6.4.2 Leaders us Managers
6.4.3 Model and Theories of Leadership
6.4.4 Personal Characteristics of Leaders
6.4.5 Leadership and Power
6.5 Conflict Management
6.5.1 Types of Conflict
6.5.2 Causes of Conflict
6.5.3 Conflict Resolution
6.6 Summary
6.7 Key Words
6.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
6.9 Model Examination Questions

132
6.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you should be able to:

 describe the communication and motivation process

 identify various theories of motivation and leadership, types and causes of
conflicts
 explain organization communication, barriers of communication and conflict
resolution techniques.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Organizational goals are unattainable without the enduring commitment of members of

the organization. Communication is the lifeblood of an organization. Effective
communication is important to managers and to every one in the organization. Managers
know that motivational policies, leadership are activated through the regular exchange of
information.

Motivation is a human psychological characteristic that contributes to a person’s degree

of commitment. Leadership ability and skill play a major role in their organizations’
success or failure.

This unit describes communication process and basic facts in regard to communication
barriers. It deals with motivation, leadership and managing of conflicts.

6.2 COMMUNICATION

Communication is defined as the process by which people seek to share meaning via the
transmission of symbolic messages. It is also defined as the process of passing
information and understanding from one person to another. Communication involves
people, shared meaning and symbols – gestures, sounds, letters, words.

Communication is considered to be the most important and most effective ingredient of

the management process. Interpersonal communication is fundamental to all managerial
activities. Effecting communication is every essential for management to successfully

133
perform its function. It is an essential ingredient in management of employee relations.
According to W.R spriegal, “most of the conflicts in business are not basic but are caused
by misunderstood motives and ignorance of facts. Proper communications between
interested parties reduce the points of friction and minimize those that inevitably arise.

6.2.1 Functions and objectives of communication

Communication serves four major functions with in a group or organization.

(i) Communication acts to control members in several ways. Organizations have
authority hierarchies and formal guidelines that employee are required to follow.
When employees, for instance, are required to first communicate any job related
grievance to their immediate boss to follow their jobs description; or to comply with
company polices; communication is performing controlling functions.
(ii) Communication fosters motivation by clarifying to emplees what is to be done,
how well they are doing, and what can be done to improve performance if it’s sub
par. The formation of specific goals, feedback on progress toward the goals and
reinforcement of desired behavior stimulate motivation and require communication.
(iii) Communication provides a release for the emotional expression of feelings
and for fulfillment of social needs. For many employees, their work group is a
primary source of social interaction. The communication that takes place with in the
group is a fundamental mechanism by which members show their frustrations and
feelings of satisfaction.
(iv) Communication provides the information that individuals and groups need to
make decisions by transmitting that data to identify and evaluate alternative
choices.

For groups to perform effectly the need to maintain some form of control over members,
stimulate members to perform; provide a means for emotional expression and make
decision choices all these four functions should between as being more important.

Communication has the following major objectives.

134
  To develop information and understanding among all workers
 To foster any attitude which is necessary for motivation, cooperation and job
satisfaction
 To discourage misinformation, ambiguity and rumors
 To prepare workers for a change in methods or environment by giving them
the necessary information in advance
 To encourage subordinates to supply ideas and suggestions for improving upon
the product or work environment, and taking these suggestions seriously
 To improve labor – management relations by keeping the communication
channels open
 To encourage social relations among workers by encouraging inter
communication

6.2.2 The communication process model

Communication is the exchange of information between a sender (sources) and a receiver

(audience) communication can be though or described as a process. Communication
process refers to the steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transference
and understanding of meaning.

In this section of the unit we describe the process in terms of a communication model.
Before communication takes place, a purpose, expressed as a message to be transmit, is
needed. It pass between a sender (source) and receiver. The message is encoded (idea
being converted to symbolic form) and is passed by way of some channel (medium) to
the receiver, who decodes (retranslates symbolic form) the message initiated by the
sender. These model is made up of right components. Source (sender encoding, the
message, the channel, decoding, the receiver, feedback and noise.
(i) Sources (Sender) initiates the communication in an organization, the sender
will be a person with information, needs or desires and a purpose for
communicating them to one or more other people.
(ii) Encoding involves, when the sender translate the information to be
transmitted into a series of symbols. Encoding is necessary because
information can only be transformed from one person to another through

135
 representation or symbols. The sender attempts to establish mutually of
meaning with the receiver by choosing symbols. Four conditions have been
described that affect the encoded message skill, attitudes, knowledge and the
social cultural system.

This is the process insider the human mind in the form of motor skill, muscle
system or sensory skill that encode the ideas to be conveyed into a serious of
symbols or gestures or some other format of expression one’s total
communicative success includes speaking, reading sustaining and reasoning
skills as well. We hold predisposed ideas on numerous topics and our
communication are affected by these attitudes. We can’t communicate what
we don’t know, and should our knowledge be too extensive, it is possible that
our receiver will not understand our message. Your beliefs and values are part
of your culture, act to influence you as a communicative sources.
(iii) The message is an idea or experience that a sender wants to communicate.
Message can be communicated both verbally or nonverbally. It is the actual or
physical phorm of thought, which can be experienced and/or understood by
one of more senses of the receiver. When we speak, the speech is the message.
When we write, the writing is the message when we paint, the picture is the
message when we gesture, the movements of your arms, the expression on our
face are the message.
(iv) The channel is vehicle or a medium of transformation used for sending an
encoded message. It is selected by the sender; who must determine which
channel is formal and which one is informal. Formal channels are established
by the organization and transmit messages that pertain to the job related
activities of members. They traditionally follow the authority network within
the organization.
(v) Decoding: it is the process in which before the message can be received the
symbols in at must be translated into a form that can be understood it is a
process by which the receiver interprets the symbols send by the sources by
converting them into concepts and ideas. Decoding is also done in the same

136
 manner as encoding by motor skill, muscle system or sensory skill. The more
the receiver’s intended message the more effective the communication will be
(vi) The receiver is the person whose senses perceive the sender’s message. These
may be a large number of receivers; as when as when a memo is addressed to
all the members of an organization; or there may be just one, as when one
discusses something privately with a colleague.
(vii) Feed back,
back, A feed back is receiver’s response to the sender’s message.
Feedback determines whether the message was clearly understood and the
required action taken. During the feedback; the receiver become source of a
message that is directed back to the original, who then becomes a receiver.
The communication can be viewed as a circular process as figure 6.1 shows

Sender Receiver
Message Message
encoded Message decoded

Feedback Channel Feedback

decoded encoded
Feed back

Figure 6.1 The communication process

(viii) Noise is any factor that disturbs, confuses or otherwise interferes with
communication. Noise can arise along what is called the communication
channel, or method of transmission (such as air for spoken words or paper for
letter). Noise may be internal (as when a receiver is not paying attention) or
external (as which the message is distorted by other sounds in the
environment). Noise can occur at any stage of the communication process. It
is particularly troublesome in the encoding or decoding stage. The urge to
make sense of a communication can be so strong that a puzzling or even
nonsensical communication is often decoded by the receiver into a sensible
statement that may have an entirely different meaning from the originally

137
 encoded message. For example, unclear instruction on how to perform a task
may cause new employee, who are eager to please their manages, to hear
different and incorrect instructions.

Since noise can interfere with understanding managers should attempt to restrict it to a
level that permits effective communication. Physical discomfort such as hugner, pain or
exhaustion can also be considered a form of noise and can interfere with effective
communication.

Interpersonal communication

Interpersonal communication is communication between two people, usually, face-to-

face. Other communication media (such as the telephone or the computer) can also be
used to communicate interpersonally. Through interpersonal communication we develop
and maintain human relationships the basic social units of any organization. Individuals
spend a great deal of time in organizations interacting with each other. Thus inter
personal communication is the fundamental building block of organization
communication.

6.2.3 Organizational communication

All factors that affect interpersonal communication also apply to communication within
organization, which also involves getting an accurate message from one person to another
or perhaps to several people.

A working knowledge of communication requires a basic understanding of some

fundamental concepts. Specially we consider at the direction of communication, net work
of communication and the communication.
Direction of communication: - Communication can flow vertically or laterally. The
vertical dimension can be further divided into downward and upward.

Downward communication information that flows form one level of a group or

organization hierarchy to a lower level, from manager and supervisor to subordinates.
This communication pattern follows the formal line of authority prescribed by the chain
of command.

138
It is used by group leaders and managers to assign goals. Provide job instructions, inform
underlings policy and procedures point out problems that need attention and offer
feedback about performance. Down word communication is not always adequate because
workers need more information than just job instruction. They also need to know; for
instance; what other members of the organization are doing. Nevertheless downward
communication is important because lack of communication from superiors can leave
workers misinformed, feeling disconnected; and less satisfied with their jobs. Managers
who wish to empower workers must provide quality information that can enable workers
to improve.

Upward communication.
communication. Information that flows up the organization form supervisors
and managers. This type of communication is necessary for managers to evaluate the
effectiveness of down ward communication. It also enables workers to feel they are a
meaningful part of the organization. May types of messages are communicated upward,
including suggestions from improvements, feeling about the job or the organization,
problem or grievances requests and responses to downward communication. Upward
communication should be encourages, as it is means of driving fear of the organization.
Some of the common upward communication are performance report prepared by lower
managers for review by middle and top management, suggestion box, employee attitude
survey, grievance procedure, manage – employee discussions and informal “gripe”
session in which employee have the opportunity to identify and discuss problems with
their boss or representative of higher management.

Horizontal communication – when communication takes place among members at the

same level of the organization; among members of the same group work. It is also
described as lateral communication. The communication includes staff meeting, face-to-
face interaction, and sharing of information’s through memos and reports. Horizontal
communication is needed to coordinate the activities of diverse but independent units or
departments.

Traditionally, horizontal communication took place move among managers than non-
managers. But as organizations have began to utilize work teams together to work on a

139
project or problem. In some cases, horizontal communication are formally, sanctioned
often, toy are informally created to short-circuit the vertical hierarchy who expedite
action. So horizontal communication can form management’s view point, be good or bad.

Formal Vs Informal Networks

Communication networks are channels by which information flow. These channels are
one or two. Varieties – either formal of informal

Formal net works. Formal communication refers the channel by which information flows
the official path. Prescribed by management, follow the authority chain and are limited to
task related communications examples includes newsletters, regular memos, reports, staff
meeting, letters.

Formal network of communication influence communication effectiveness in two ways.

First, the formal channels cover an ever-widening distance as organizations develop and
grow. Second, the formal channels of communication can inhabit the free flow of
information between organization levels.

Informal networks of communization:

communization: Not all organization communication follows the
official chain of command. Informal communication grows out of the total interaction
among people who work together. These are not bound by any chart on the wall but are
bound by conventions, customs and culture. Such communication provide useful
information for events to come in the form of grapevine. The grapevine cuts across
formal channels of communication and carries a variety of factors opinions, rumors and
other information. A/C organization large of small, have grapevine,
grapevine, it is futile for
managers to try to eliminate this informal chilled.
Grapevines may not always create negative consequence, however, they are frequently
troublesome to managers.

The grapevine has three characteristics. First, it is not controlled by management. Second,
it is perceived by most employee as being more believable and reliable than formal
communication issued by top management. Third, it is largely used to serve the self
interests of those people with it.

140
Managers should minimize the negative consequences of ruemorse by limiting their
range and impact. The following suggestions could help to minimize those negative
consequences.
(a) mangers should explain decisions that may appear in consistent with policies or
norms or secretive issues
(b) mangers should openly worst case possibilities
(c) managers must emphasize the downside, as well update, of current decisions and
future plans.

Verbal Vs Nonverbal communication

All communication be it formal or informal, lateral, upward or downward it could be

done verbally or nonverbally or both.

Verbal – communication could be oral or written communication oral communication is

know as face-to-face communication and may be in the form of direct talk and
conversation of the public address. It also includes telephone calls or talking on the
intercom system. It is most effective when settling a dispute among employees or
reprimanding a worker. In one-way form of communication it is very effective for leaders
to address the followers via public address system or audio-visual media. The human
voice can impart the message much more forcefully and effectively than written words
and is a effective way of changing attitude beliefs and feeling, since faith, trust and
sincerity can be much better measured in a face-to-face conversation rather than in
written words.

Verbal communication is direct simple time saving and least expensive form of
communication. It helps in avoiding delays, redtaps and other formalities oral and written
communication conveys warmth and freindinem and develops a sense of belongingness
because of personalized contacts. Any misunderstanding can be cleared immediately.

Some of the draw backs of verbal message is it is passed on along the hierarchical chain
of command then some distortations can occur during the process. The receiver may
receive the message in his own perception and thus misunderstand the intent of the
message. Further more spontaneous response may not be carefully though out and the

141
spirit of authority can not be transmitted effectively in verbal transactions. In addition, in
oral communication more or less or different meaning might be conveyed by manner of
speaking, tone of voice facial expressions.

Non verbal communication includes body language and paralinguistic a glance, a stare, a
smile, a frown, a provocative body movement they all convey meaning. Body language
expressed through body motions and facial expressions is a significant part of any face to
face communication. The two most important messages that body language conveys are
the extent to which an individual likes another and is interested in his or her views and
the relative perceived status between and receiver. For instance, we are more likely to
position ourselves closer to people we like and touch them more often similarly, if you
feel that you are higher status than other, you are more likely to display body movement
such as crossed legs or a slouched seated position that reflect a casual and relaxed
manner.

6.2.4 Barriers to Effective Communication

The communication must be interpreted and understood in the same manner as it was
meant to be sent by the sender, otherwise it will not achieve the desired results and a
communication breakdown will occur. There are certain external roadblocks to effective
communication like noise, poor timing, incomplete, inadequate or unclear information,
poor choice of channel of transmission of information etc. Which can affect the proper
reception of the communication. Some of the organizational barriers and some of the
interpersonal barriers to effective communication are:,

A. Noise barriers – Noise is any eternal factor which inference with the
effectiveness of communication. It causes interference in the process of
communication by distraction or by blocking a part of the message or by diluting the
strength of the communication some of the sources contributing towards noise factor
are: poor timing, inappropriate channel, improper or inadequate information, physical
distraction information overload and network breakdown.
B. Semantic Barriers – These barriers occur due to difference in individual
interpretations of words and symbols. The worlds and paragraphs must be interpreted

142
 with the same meaning as was intended. The choice wrong word or a comma at
wrong place in a sentence can some times alter the meaning of the intended message
C. Feedback Barriers – feedback is the only way to ascertain us to how the message
was interpreted feedback closes the communication loop and is important for
effective communication. It is equally important to pay attention to the feedback. The
feedback may be for the purpose of communicating the results of an action or it may
be for asking questions about the communication for further clarifications.

D. Cultural Barriers. The cultural differences can adversely affect the communication
effectiveness, especially for multi-national companies and enterprises with multi-ethnic
workforce. Some examples:
(1) Advertising about action soldier toys or tank toys caring machine gun we
not permitted in West Germany where they interpreted as promoting violence.
(2) Children are not allowed to do television commercials in Austria and
France
(3) Jewish people do not work on Saturdays and Muslims do not work Friday
afternoons.
(4) Establishing deadline to accomplish work assignment is considered rude
in Middle East countries.
(5) “Coke adds life” may be misinterpreted as a means for long life.

E. Perception related Barriers.

Barriers. Perception relates to the process through which we
receive and interpret information from our environment and create a meaningful word out
of it. Different people may perceive the same situation differently. Hearing what we want
to hear and ignoring information that conflict with what we know can totally distort the
intent or content of the message. Some of the perception situation that may distort a
manager’s assessment of people resulting in reduced effectiveness of the communication
are:
(1) A manager may perceive people to belong to one category or another stereotype;
rather than individuals. For example, manager may perceive women to be less
efficient managers or old people less hard working or lacking drive and creativity.

143
 (2) A manager may make a total assessment of a person based on a single trait. A
pleasant smile may make a positive first impression punctuality alone or loyalty
alone may cause a favorable perception in the mind of the manager. This is
known as the halo effect.
(3) A manager may assume that his subordinate’s perception about things may be
similar to his own. A manager who accepts added responsibility and challenges
with enthusiasm may expect the same from his subordinates.
Sender credibility related barriers when the sender of the message has high
credibility in the eyes of the receiver, the message is taken much more seriously
and accepted at face value. If the recover has confidence trust and respect for the
sender, then the decoding and the interpretation of the message will lead to a
meaning that would be closer to the intended meaning of the sender. Conversely,
if the sender is not trusted, then the receiver will scrutinize the message heavily
and deliberately look for hidden meanings or tricks and may end up distorting the
entire message.

Multi meaning Words. Many wards in English language have different meaning when
used in different situations. Accordingly, a manager must not assume that a particular
word means the same thing to all people who use it. A study by Lydia Stron as mentioned
by Canadian – concluded that for the 500 most common words in English, there are 4070
different dictionary definitions. For example the word “run” can be used in 15 different
ways. Some of the examples:
 Tadele scored a run.
run.
 I have a run in my stocking.
 Did you see him run.
run.
 What headine do you wan to run today
 There was a run on the bank today.
 Who will run for the president this year.
 Please run for the president this year.
 Please run my bath water. etc.

144
Accordingly, the managers must make sure that they use the word in the same manner as
the receiver is expected to understand it; otherwise it will create a barrier to proper
understanding of the message.

F. Emotional Situation.
Situation. Jealously, fear, love, anger embarrassment – influenced how we
understand other’s messages and how we influence others with our own messages. The
best approach to dealing with emotions is to accept them as part of the communication
process and to seek to understand them with they cause problems. If employees are
behaving aggressively or sullenly, managers should get them to talk about their concern
and pay careful attention to what they say. Once managers understand the employee’s
reactions, they may be able to improve the atmosphere by changing their own behavior.
Before a crisis, managers can try to anticipate their employee’s emotional reactions and
prepare to deal with them.

6.2.5 Overcoming Communication Barriers

For operational optimization, it is very important for the management to recognize and
overcome barriers to effective communication. Overcoming communication barriers
involves diagnosing and analyzing situations, designing proper messages, selecting
appropriate channels for communicating these messages, assisting receivers in decoding
for communicating and interpreting and providing an efficient and effective feedback
system some of the action that should be considered are as follows:

a) Feedback and upward communication. Feedback helps to reduce misunderstanding.

The information is transferred more accurately when the receiver is given the opportunity
to ask for clarifications and answers to any question about the message. Two-way
communication even though time consuming, avoids distrust and leads to trust and opens
which builds a healthy relationship contributing to communication effectiveness.
Upward communication is strengthened by keeping an open-door policy and
providing opportunities for workers to give suggestions which should be taken
seriously by the management by acknowledging them and taking appropriate action.

b) Improving Listening Skills.

Skills. Listening is an important part of the total communication
process. Listening is in active mental process and goes beyond simply hearing. Good

145
listening habits leads to better understanding and good relationships with each other.
Some guidelines for effective listening as stated by chandan are:
 Listening requires full attention to the speaker do not let your mind
wonder or be preoccupied with something else; otherwise you world
not grasp the meaning of the message in its entirety.
 The language used, tone of voice, expression and emotions should
receive proper attention. Listen for feelings in the message content and
respond positively to these feelings.
 Ask questions to clarify any point that you do not understand clearly
and reflect back to the speaker your understanding of what has been
said.
 Make sure that there are no outside interruptions and interference
during the course of conversation.
 Do not prejudge or value the importance of the message due to your
previous dealings and experience with the sender or your perceptions
about him positive or negative.
 Don’t jump to conclusions before the message is over and is clearly
understood.
 Summarize and restate the message after it is over to doubly make sure
about the content and the intent of the message.

c) Develop Written Skill.

Skill. Clearly written message can help avoid semantic and
perception barriers. A well written communication eliminates the possibility of
misunderstanding and misinterpretation. In writing messages, it is necessary to be
precise, making the meaning as clear us possible so that it accomplishes the desired
purpose. Some helpful hints in written communications are suggested by Robert Degise
and Canadian summarized by as follows:
 Keep words simple.
simple. This will reduce your thoughts to essentials and
will be easier to understand by the receiver. The message will be lost if
the words are complex and do not lend to clear single meanings.
 Do not be bogged down by rules of composition.
composition. While the rules of
grammar and composition. While the rules of grammar and

146
 composition must be respected, they should not take priority over the
ultimate purpose of the communication.
 Be specific.
specific. Vagueness destroys accuracy which leads to
misunderstanding of the meaning or intent of the message.
Accordingly be specific and to the point.
 Avoid credibility gap.
gap. Communication is a continuing process and the
goal of the communication is complete understanding and trust.
Accordingly the management must be sincere and earn the trust of the
subordinates. Management should hot only be sensitive to the needs
and the feelings of the workers, but also its promises should be
supported by actions.

Check your progress

Exercise 1
1. Write True if the statement is true and False if the statement is incorrect.
a. Receiver decodes the feedback.
b. Managers must not assume that a particular word means the same thing to all
people who use it.
c. The cultural difference can adversely affect the communication effectiveness.
d. Downward communication refers the flow of information from manager to
supervisors with in organization.
e. Barriers to communication include such factors as differing perceptions, language
differences.
2. Distinguish various communication network.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. What are the functions of communication?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

147
6.3 MOTIVATION

We will define Motivation as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity,
direction and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal.

Motivation is the management process of influencing people’s behavior based on the

knowledge “what makes people tick”. Motivation is referred as a set of forces that
initiate behavior and determines its form direction,
direction, intensity and duration.

The three key elements in these definitions are intensity, direction and duration.
Intensity is concerned with how hard a person tries. This is the elements most of us focus
on when we talk about motivation. However, high intensity is unlikely to lead to
favorable job performance out comes unless the effort is chanelled in a direction that
benefits the organization. Therefore, we have to consider the quality of effort as well as
its intensity. Effort that directed toward; and consistent with; the organizations goals is
the kind of effort that we should be seeking. Finally, motivation has duration dimension.
This a measure of has long a person can maintain his or her effort. Motivated individuals
stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal.

6.3.1 Understanding Behavior

Motivation is closely tied with certain characteristics of human behavior. Lazy and
irresponsible people seldom get motivated. Certain traits are considered as pre-requisites
of motivations. These traits are either inherited or learned or both. Family environment
during early years plays a very important role in the behavior pattern of an individual.

Psychologist Kurt Lewin has conducted considerable research into the human behavior
and its causes. He believed that people were influenced by a number of diversified factors
and the influence these factors determine the pattern of behavior. He could his conception
of these influences “the field theory” and suggested that
B = f (P, E)

So that the behavior (B) is a function (f) of the person (P) and the environment (E)
around him. It is the important to recognize the effect of the person and that of the
environment; and their interaction and dependence upon each other in order to understand

148
the factor of motivation different people behave differently in the same or similar
environment.

Both scientific thinkers as well as behaviorists have long been interested to find out the
cause of a particular human behavior. Science has always been involved in the “cause”
and “effect” phenomenon and the relationship between them as to how a cause its effect.
Similarly the behavioral scientists want to find out a common denominator of human
behavior which can be categorized and classified into standard causes which result into
identifiable functionally dependent pattern of behavior.

The course of human behavior can be classified into two categories. These are:
(1) Inherited characteristics and (2) Learned characteristics

(1) Inherited characteristics

Some of the inherited characteristics which may not be changed by external forces and
may or may not be important determinants of performance are

 Physiological characteristics relates to physical height, slim body, vision,

dexterity, stamina etc. have some bearing on performance. Tall people are
somehow expected to behave in a sophisticated manner; and fat people are
assumed to have a “social” nature.
 Intelligence – is primarily an inherited trait even though children of some
very intelligent parents have turned out to be less intelligence. It is also that
intelligence can be enhanced by proper environment or by proper motivation.
Intelligent people are easy to convince. If the point is right and they can be
expected to be much more stable and predictable.
 Sex in an inherited characteristics; but it is highly debatable whether being a
male or a female in itself is indicative of any behavioral pattern man is
expected to be tough while a women is expected to be gentle. There are some
stereotype assumptions that have no basic in genetic influence. These
behaviors are developed; if at all due to differential in treatment that boys and
girls receive in the family environment.

149
  Age it may affect the behavior in physiological aid psychological ways.
Psychological; young people are expected to be energetic; innovative and risk
taking and adventurous, while old people are supposed to be conservative and
set in their ways. Physiologically, old people experience, with age the warning
of some of the faculties such as Stamina, coordination etic and hence the
related behavior changes as well.

(2) Learned characteristics

Some of the behavior characteristics that account for enormous diversity in human
behavior are a product of our exposure to various situations both within the family and
the outside environment. These characteristics are learned; where learning is defined as a
relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from interactions with the
environment:

The characteristics involves an individuals attitude and values and perceptions about the
environment around him, some of these learned characteristics are:

 Perception – perception is the process by which information enters to our

mind and interpreted. Perception is a result of a complex interaction of various
senses such as feeling, seeing, hearing etc. perception plays an important part
in human as well as organization behavior.
 Attitude is a perception with a frame of reference words, it is more or less a
stable tendency. Attitude has three elements in it that lead to measurable
outcomes. These are feeling, thoughts and behavior. Feeling and thoughts can
be measured by simply asking individuals about their feeling and opinion.
Behavior can be measured either by actual over action or simply by asking the
person how he would act in a certain situation.

In general, a person may have a positive attitude which is good outlook of life or
complaining about problems in life. Organizationally speaking, an employee’s negative
attitude about work may be reflected by standard work performance, excessive
absenteeism, excessive complaining about work environment or disobedience to rules.

6.3.2 The Motivation Process

150
We might understand motivation in terms of some outward behavior. People who are
motivated exert a greater effort to perform than those who are not motivated. However,
such a definition is relative and tells us little. A more descriptive but less substantive
definition would say that motivation is the willingness to do some thing and is
conditioned by this action’s ability to satisfy some need for the individual. A need; in our
terminology, means a physiological or psychological deficiency that makes certain
outcomes appear attractive.

Unsatisfied Satisfied Reduction

Tension Drive of
need need
Tension

Figure 6.2 Motivation Process

Unsatisfied need creates tension, which stimulates drives within the individual. These
drives generate a search to find particular goals that if attained, will satisfy the need and
lead to the reduction of tension.

Motivated employees are in a state of tension. In order to relive this tension, the engage
in activity. The greater the tension, the more activity will be needed to bring about relief.
Therefore, when we see employees working hard at some activity, we can conclude that
they are driven by a desire to achieve some goal that they value.

6.3.3 Motivation Theories

Since 1950’s many people have attempted to develop theories to describe how motivation
affects work behavior. Three specific types of theories were formulated during this
period. We will look at the three basic types of motivation theories in this section:
content,
content, process and reinforcement.

A. Content theories of motivation

It is also know as need theory are based on the idea that people are driven to meet basic
needs that produce satisfaction when they are met.

B. Hierarchy of needs.

151
The most well known theory of motivation is Abraham Maslaw’s hierarchy of needs. The
concept is based on two key assumptions. First, different needs are active at different
times, and only needs not yet satisfied can influence behavior. Second, needs are assumed
in a fixed order of importance called a hierarchy as shown figure 6.3

According to Maslaw’s theory, behavior is triggered by a need defect which drives the
individual to reduce the tension at creates.

Tension leads to behavior that will potentially satisfy the need. In Maslow’s theory, the
idea that a satisfied need can’t influence behavior is called the prepotency of the need.
This prepotency urgency that the unmet need exerts influences behavior. Until the need is
satisfied a higher order need emerges and demands satisfaction. Maslow identified the
five categories of needs.

 Physiological need: includes hunger, air shelter, water, sex, clothing, and other
badly needs.
 Safety need: includes such as freedom from fear or protection from physical
and emotional harm, security.
 Social need: such as affection belongingness, acceptance, teamwork,
camaraderie and friendship.
 Self esteem need:
need: meaning internal esteem factors such as self respect
(acceptance of self as having value) autonomy and
achievement, and external factors such as status, recognition
and attention.
 Self actualization need : the fulfillment of potential, the drive to become what
one is capable becoming includes growth ,
achievement, and self fulfillment.

The hierarchy of needs gives managers a straight forward way of understanding how
various work condition satisfy employee needs. Certain basic conditions of employment
such as pay satisfy physiological need, safety needs are met by safe work conditions and
job security. Social needs are satisfied by interaction and communication with fellow

152
workers. And finally work that is fulfilling can satisfy self-esteem and self actualization
needs.

Self
Actualization
need

Esteem need

Social need

Safety / Security need

Physiological need

Figure 6.3 Maslow hierarchy of needs

Maslow’s idea were welcome relief from the emphasis on abnormal behavior that
dominated psychology of the day they are not without some potential pitfalls. First
Maslow himself recognized that the hierarchy is not sair-step approach. Human needs are
multiple and they often occur simultaneously society. Second, we have to consider the
relative level of the need that is present at a given time.

Herzberg’s two – factors theory (some times also called motivation hygiene theory)
was proposed by psychologist Fredrick Herzberg. His research, job satisfaction and
dissatisfaction were often viewed as opposites end of a single continuum. Managers
believed that greater amount of any good condition would result in job satisfaction. But
Herzberg found that not being satisfied is different from being dissatisfied. This means
the factors leading to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to job
dissatisfaction.

Herberg discovered two factors that separately explained satisfaction and dissatisfaction
factors. Whose present dissatisfaction are called hygiene or maintenance factors.
factors. These

153
factors refer to aspects of work that are peripheral to the task itself and more related to
the external environment (job context). The term hygiene factor is linked to the finding
tat the absence of readily available rest rooms lead to worker dissatisfaction. Hygiene
factors include:
 Company policy and administration
 Technical supervision by the manager
 Interpersonal relations with the supervisor
 Worker salary job status, and job security (safety)
 The worker’s personal life
 Physical condition of the work setting

Factors whose presence lead to satisfaction called satisfiers or, simply, motivation
factors. These factors can produce high level of motivation when they are present.
Motivational factors relate directly to the job content (the specific aspect of a job). They
include:
 Achievement
 Recognition
 Advancement
 The task or work itself
 The worker’s potential for personal learning or growth
 The workers responsibility for result

Motivational and maintenance factors are often distinguished by the fact that
motivational factors are intrinsic while maintenance factors are extrinsic. Controversy
over Herzberg’s findings centers on three areas;

 Method of data collection,

collection, the information was collected via a potentially
biased; structured interview format
 Individual difference,
difference, Individual difference were discovered to affect the two
factors. For example; some workers avoid advancement
 Limited sample;
sample; conclusion were based primarily on studies of performance;
whose tasks differ significantly for other kinds of workers.

154
Regardless of criticisms Herzberg’s theory has been widely read; and popularly over the
past 30 years of virtually expanding jobs to allow workers greater responsibility, in
planning and controlling their work can probably be attributed largely to his finding and
recommendation.

McClelland’s Achievement motivation theory. It was developed by David McClelland

and his associates. The theory focus on three needs: achievement,
achievement, power and affiliation.
affiliation.
Mc McClelland believed that person’s unconscious mind is the key to his or her
particular needs. McClelland’s theory suggests people vary in the degree to which their
motive for behavior is determined by one or a combination of the following needs.

The need for achievement: The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standard;
to strive to succeed – is a measure of a person’s desire for clear, self set, moderately
difficult goals, with feedback given based on goal achievement. High achievers as self
starts, goal oriented, or full of task initiative all of which are typically valued by firms.

The need for affiliation:

affiliation: The desire for friendly and close interspersions relationships,
desire to work with others to interact with and support others and to learn the lessons of
life through the experience of others. A pronounced interest for social acceptance can be
a powerful motivating force in our daily lives. Work organizations are important social
institutions, bringing people in contact with one another on regular basis.

The need for power.

power. The need to make other behave in a way that they would not have
behaved otherwise. It is also a desire to have influence and control over others. This need
can be an important determinant of behavior. People dominate one another in many
socially acceptable ways. People are submissive to the domino of police, manager tour
guides, and others. It is natural and often informative to allow other people control over
an aspect of our live. Many people seek jobs that afford them the opportunity to fulfill a
basic need in a socially acceptable manner; and success at many jobs actually requires
people to be forceful and capable of exerting their will over others.

B. Process theories of motivation

Process theories describes cognitive processes and decisions that help predict subsequent
behavior. These theories include equity and expectancy.
expectancy. Whereas need theories view

155
motivation as subconconscious and instinctive, process theories view motivation in terms
of worker’s explicit though process (cognitions) and conscious decisions to select and
pursue a specific alternative (choice). This theories are also know as cognitive
evaluation theories.

Expectancy theory
This theory was developed by Victor H.Vroom. It is some times referred as VIE Theory.
Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends
on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on
the attractiveness of the out come to the individual. The theory, therefore, focuses on
three relationships as shown in figure 6.4

Expectancy, (effort-performance (result) relationship) it refers individuals subjective

assessment that effort will produce the desire results or a first order outcome. This is the
“Can do” perceived capability component of an employee’s approach to work.

The second factor in VIE theory is the instrumentality

Instrumentality (performance – reward relationship) The degree to which the

individual believes that performance at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a
desire outcome. So the instrumentality of a task is the employees assessment of how
instrumental or likely it is that successful task performance will be rewarded with a raise.

Individual A Individual Personal

Reward
effort Expectancy Performance Instrumentally valence goal

Fig. 6.4 Expectancy theory

The third factor in VIE theory is the valence or reward personal goal relationship.

Valence – refers to value of the outcome to the individual (ie rewards): The degree to
which organizational reward satisfy an individual’s personal goal or needs and the
attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual.

156
Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of workers are not motivated on their jobs and
merely do the minimum necessary to get by. The following pointers can be concluded
from the insights offered by expectancy theory.

1. Ask what outcomes workers desire. Workers often prefer rewards that differ from
management’s assumptions.
2. Providing workers with tools; information and an effective production support
system will help translate effort into performance
3. Worker’s who know that performance will lead to rewards are more likely to
work hard. Management should let worker know the performance level required
to achieve these rewards
4. Develop meaningful self administered intrinsic rewards.

Equity theory
The theory is based on the assessment process employees use to evaluate the fairness or
justice of organizational outcome and the adjustment of process used to maintain
perceptions of fairness. The concept of fairness and equilibrium (internal balance) are
central to equity theory. J. Stancy Adam’s equity theory concerns the workers perception
of how she/he is being treated.

The basic idea in equity theory is that an employee first considers his input (effort) and
then his outcomes (rewards). Next the employee compares his personal ratio of effort to
reward to ratio of a referent.

The referent is usually another employee doing basically the same work. There are four
referent comparisons that an employee can use.
(i) Self-inside. An employee’s experience in different position inside his/her
current organization.
(ii) Self-outside: An employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside his
or her current organization.
(iii) Other – inside: Another individual or group of individuals inside the
employee’s organization.

157
 (iv) Other – outside: Another individual or group of individuals outside the
employee’s organization. Employees might compare
themselves to friends, neighbors; co-workers, colleagues in
other organization or past jobs they themselves have had.

When an employee perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of the five
choices.
(a) Change their inputs meaning don’t exert as much effort as expected.
(b) Change their outcomes by affecting level of quality
(c) Distort perception of self or rationalize why you get less than others.
(d) Choose a different referent – change your comparison employee
(e) Quit the job

The theory establishes the following propositions relating to inequitable reward.

1. Provide time base payment;

payment; over rewarded employee will produce more than
equitable paid employee

2. Relate reward to output,

output, over rewarded will produce fewer, but higher quality,
units than will equitably paid employees
3. Provide time base reward,
reward, under reward employee will produce less or poorer
quality output.
4. Relate reward to output, under rewarded employee will produce large number
of low quality units in comparison with equitably paid employee.

Other relevant theories

Reinforcement theory.
theory. This theory ignores the inner state of the individual and
concentrates solely on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action.
However, both process and content theories consider motivation to be a function of either
internal needs or internal cognition. Reinforcement theory (operant conditioning)
conditioning)
views motivation as largely determined by external factors.

Noted psychologist B.F.Skinner stated that behavior is a function of its consequences.

Behavior that have positive consequence are likely to be repeated and those that have

158
negative consequence are likely to be avoided in the future. According to reinforcement
theory workers are motivated by the consequence of their work behavior. In the process
of experiencing rewards at work, workers often see a link between their own action (ie
their work related behavior) and the reward (i.e the consequences of their behavior).

Reinforcement occurs in one of two ways.

(a) Positive Reinforcement – occurs when a positive consequence (reward) is

applied to a desired behavior. Positive refers to the nature of the consequence;
reinforcement refers to the strengthened likelihood of the subsequent behavior.
For example a fruit picker receives Birr two for each bag of fruit he picks.
(b) Negative reinforcement – occurs when an unpleasant consequence is withdrawn
when the desired behavior occurs. For example a manager stops criticizing an
employee when he achieves the daily production quota. Punishment is the process
of administering an undesirable consequence for an undesirable behavior. The
famous hot stove rule suggests that being burned by a hot stove provides an
example of punishment at the most general level and in its most vivid form. The
hot store rules teaches us punishment should be swift; intense, impersonal and
consistent.
Several factors can influence reinforcement’s effectiveness. The following guide will
help to ensure conditions of optimum reinforcement.

 Reinforcement should coincide as closely as is practical with the completion

of desired behavior.
 The larger the amount of the reinforce that is delivered after occurrence of a
target behavior, the most effect the reinforce will have on that behaviors
future frequency.

 The more deprived a person is of the reinforce the more effect it will have on
future occurrence of the target behavior.

Goal – setting theory

The research on goal setting theory address various issues and the findings are impressive
in terms of the effect that goal specificity,
specificity, challenge and feedback have on performance.

159
Edwin Locke proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work
motivation. That is, goals tell an employee what need to be done and how much effort
will need to be expended. Simply put goal-setting theory states that who set goals
outperform those who don’t set goals. In an organization context goal setting deals with
(1) aligning personal and organizational goals and
(2) rewarding goal attainment

Goals help workers to translate general intentions into specific actions. Goals can help to:
 direct the attention and the effort of employee
 harmonize and mobilize efforts
 create persistent behavior over time
 serves as performance evaluation

Five goal attributes enhance the potential for better performance and commitment.
(a) specific goals are more effective than ambiguous goals
(b) difficult or challenging but attainable goals lead to higher performance
(c) feedback in setting a goal, in ongoing (implementation stage) and evaluating
result
(d) employee need to be involved in and have control over setting their own goals.
(e) Some times the workers or work group’s goal is defined in terms of exceeding the
performance of another worker or work group.

Check your progress 2

1. Identify the motivational factors according to Herzberg’s two factor theory

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe the five choices an employee may make if they perceive an inequity.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain the following

160
 (a) Expectancy
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
(b) Instrumentality
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
(c) Valence
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

6.4 LEADERSHIP

We defined leadership as the ability to influence a group towards the achievement of

goals. It is also referred as a process of exerting influence over people. Chandan defines
leadership in such away that it is an art of influencing and inspiring subordinates to
perform their duty, willingly, competently and enthusiastically for achievement of group
objectives.

It is important to note that the word willing in the above definition differentiates
successful and effective leaders from the common run of the managers. Motivating and
influencing people to move towards a common goal: are all essential elements of
management, but the followers to be led highlights a special quality that puts a leader
high above others.

Leadership can be formal or informal. The formal leadership occur when a person is
appointed or elected an authority figure in an organization for example, any one who is
appointed to the job of a manager is also given the authority to exercise formal leadership
in relationship to his subordinates. Similarly, a formally elected leader of a country or a
state, acquires the authority of leadership and giving direction to the county or state.

The informal leadership emerges when a person uses enter personal influence in a
group without designated authority. These leaders emerge in certain situations; because
of their charm, intelligence, skill or other traits and to whom other people turn to for

161
advice direction and guidance. Religion, civic and informal organization leaders fit into
this category.

Leaders Vs Managers
Although it is common to use the term “Leader and manager” interchangeably, nowadays
many writers point to a difference between the two.

The difference is that to function as a leader, a person must exercise influence over others
person in the attainment of organizational goals, as described.

6.4.2 Leaders Vs managers

Although it is common to use the terms ‘leader’ and ‘manager’ interchangeably,

nowadays many writers point to a difference between the two.

The difference is that to function as a leader, a person must exercise influence over
another person in the attainment of organizational goals. Managerial functions of
organizing, planning, scheduling, processing information, communicating, and so on, do
not necessarily involve leadership. Some managers perform both types of function and
can be described, as leaders, but other do not. There is no automatic link between the two.
note, too, that leaders are not necessarily just at the top of organizations. Influence can be
exerted in most job functions and at all levels of seniority or hierarchy.

The distinction between managers and leaders was developed by Bennis and Nanus
(1985) in their influential book leaders. In it they:
 Leadership is path finding
 Management is path following
 Management is bout doing things right
 Leadership is about doing the right things

What they meant by this is that leadership is bout having a vision. It involves having a
strategy or thinking strategically; it means having a view of where the organization
should go or be or do; it means deciding what is important for the success of the
organization; it involves envisaging the future. Managers, on the other hand, are more
concerned with implementing others’ strategies and plans. They are concerned with

162
running their part of the organization, making sure that the accounts get prepared, that
invoices are sent out, that the service is sold, that the traffic is directed, that the research
paper is written, or whatever the task that needs to be done.

Kotter says there are four major ways that management and leadership differ:
1. Management involves making detailed steps and timetables for achieving results,
then marshalling resources to make it happen. Leadership means developing a
vision of the future and strategies for achieving that vision.
2. Management comprises the allocation of tasks in line with plans, staffing them
appropriately, delegating responsibility and monitoring implementation.
Leadership involves communicating the vision so that others understand and
agree with it.
3. Management involves monitoring results of a plan, identifying problems with the
plan and then solving them. Leadership involves ‘energizing people’ towards the
vision. It means appealing to their needs and values so that they overcome barrier
to change.
4. Management produces predictability and order so that others, such as customers
or shareholders can rely on consistent results. Leadership produces change that is
often a quantum leap, such as new products or new approaches to managing
people that makes the organization more competitive.

6.4.3 Models and Theories of Leadership

A) The Trait Approach

The story of psychologists’ study of leadership begins with the trait approach, sometimes
called the great man/great woman theory. This approach seeks to examine characteristics,
which distinguish leaders from non-leaders.

It is not surprising that traits were the dominant concern of early leadership research. For
centuries, leadership positions were conferred by virtue of birth and blood. The ruling
classes passed on their positions of power and influence in the army, the church and
commerce from generation to generation. Because the wealthy and powerful were better
fed, clothed and housed, they were generally healthier, stronger and taller than the

163
peasants in the fields or, later, the laborers in the factories. Because they could afford
education, they appeared cleverer. All this meant that there was, indeed, an association
between some individual characteristics and positions of leadership.

So the search for the personality traits which distinguished leaders from followers seemed
logical when it was believed that leaders were a breed apart. It really seemed that people
were born to lead.

Yet research by leaders. A few consistencies did appear, especially that leaders were
slightly taller and more intelligent than followers. But such limited findings were a small
return for so much research. Research into the traits of leaders therefore slowed
considerably after the 1950s. the accepted wisdom was that there was no evidence that
leader s differed from followers in personality traits. This was explained by the fact that
in modern society people can be leaders on some occasions and followers on many
others.

For nearly 30 years after 1950s, research concerning the trait approach went on the back
– burner. It gave way to research on leadership styles and behavior. More recently,
though, the pessimism surrounding this approach has begun to dispel somewhat. They
agreed with the earlier conclusions that different situations require different leadership
traits and behaviors, but maintained that the very nature of leadership means that the
traits of sociability need for power and need for achievement must be important.

Lord revealed stronger evidence than previously imagined that six traits distinguish
leaders from others. They concluded that leaders tend to a more intelligent, extrovert,
dominant, masculine, conservative and better adjusted than non-leaders. Similarly,
Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) have reviewed evidence which puts the trait approach in a
more positive light. They suggest that the following traits distinguish leaders from non-
leaders:

 Drive (achievement, ambition, energy, tenacity, initiative);

 Leadership motivation (personalized or socialized);
 Honesty and integrity;
 Self – confidence (including emotional stability);

164
  Cognitive ability (the ability to marshal and interpret a wide variety of
information);
 Knowledge of he business

They point out, though, that there is much more to being an effective leader than merely
possessing a list of traits. While the traits may provide people with the potential for
leadership, it is the capacity to create a vision and implement it that turns the potential
into reality.

B) Behavioral or Leadership Style

After the 1950s, research on leadership began to turn to what leaders did rather than what
they were. It concentrated on leadership style or leader behavior, with the two terms used
interchangeably. The style approach was more concerned with describing behavior. The
implicit assumption was that effective leader behavior could be trained. You could learn
to be an effective leader.

A highly influential early study was conducted at Ohio State University in the USA. The
research was conducted mainly on military leaders and involved giving out
questionnaires to their subordinates. The questionnaires asked about how often the leader
engaged in certain kinds of behavior, such as criticizing poor work, helping subordinates
with personal problems or being willing to accept suggestions. Using factor analysis, an
original nine types of behavior were reduced down to four factors or dimensions. These
were:
 Consideration
 Initiating structure
 Production emphasis
 Sensitivity

The two clusters of consideration and initiating structure each deal with different
behaviors and together accounted for more than 80 percent of the variation in
subordinates’ evaluations of their leaders. The two dimensions have since been found to
describe leader behaviors in many subsequent studies involving many different work
situations, though often called by different names. Consideration has been called

165
relationship orientation, relation – skilled, supportive, employee – centered or group
maintenance oriented. Initiation of structure has been called task orientation,
administratively skilled, work oriented, production centered or goal achiever.

The two terms can be defined as follows:

1. Consideration. The extent to which the leader and subordinates have a
relationship built on mutual torts and liking, respect for ideas, consideration of
feelings and warmth between each other. There is likely to be camaraderie,
rapport and two – way communication between them.
2. Initiating structure.
structure. The extent to which the leader defines and structures his or
her own work and the work of subordinates towards the attainment of a goal.
Structuring leaders are those who provide clear – cut definitions of role
responsibility and play an active role in directing group activities through
planning, communicating information, scheduling, criticizing, or trying out new
ideas.
In the leadership Grid, the latest version of the Balke and mouton Managerial Grid, there
are various combinations of concern for people and concern for production which
describe five major leadership styles (see figure 6.5)

1. Authority / Obedience Management, or task management, a 9,1 style,

emphasizes efficiency in operations that results from arranging work conditions in
such a way that human elements can only interfere to a small degree.
2. Country Club Management, or a 1,9 style, involves thoughtful attention to the
needs of people, because such satisfying relationships are expected to lead to a
comfortable, friendly organizational atmosphere.
3. Impoverished management, or laissez – faire management, a 1.1 style, is
characterized by the exertion of minimum effort to get the required work done
and sustain organization membership.
4. Middle of the road management, or a 5,5 style, is concerned with balancing the
necessity to get the work done while maintaining morale at a satisfactory level.
The goal is adequate performance.

166
 5. Team management, or a 9,9 style, relies on interdependence through a common
stake in the organization’s purpose. This interdependence leads to relationships
based on mutual trust and respect, and work is accomplished by committed
employees.
1,9 9,9
9 Country Club management Team Management

8
7

6
Middle of the Road Management
5 5,5
4

2 Impoverished Management Authority – Compliance

1 1,1 9,1

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Hig
Concern for Production
Figure 6.5: The Leadership Grid Source: Blake and McCanse (1991)

The managerial grid model assumes that there is one best style, the 9,9 one. The most
effective leader is supposed to combine concern for people with concern for task.

Another way of looking at style, and one that was popular in the 1960s and 1970s is in
terms of participation. How participative or how authoritarian is the leader? When
looking at leadership behavior, especially when decision – making, one can think of a
continuum along with behaviors fall. At one extreme the leader tells subordinates, at the
other he or she joins with subordinates in making the decision (see figure 6.6) at one end
he leader is task oriented, or authoritarian; he or she uses the authority of the position to
make the decision on his or her own. At the other extreme of the continuum, the leader is
relationships oriented, or democratic. Here he or she is concerned to allow lots of room

167
for the subordinates to influence the decision, which has to be made. Tannenbaum and
Schmidt (1958) described the continuum as seven different.

‘Boss Centered’

Tells

 Manager Decides

Sells
 Manager Decides then ‘sells’

Consults  Manager Consults then decides

Joins
 Manager Accepts Majority View

‘Subordinate
Centered’

Figure 6.6: The Leadership Continuum

Source: Tannenbaum And Schmidt (1958)
AUTHORITARIAN DEMOCRATIC

TASK ORIENTED RELATIONSHIP ORIENTED

USE OF AUTHORITY

DEGREE
OFFREEDOM
168
Leader Leader Leader presents Leader allows
makes presents problem, gets subordinates to
Decision ideas and suggestions, function within
invites makes decisions defined limits
questions

Leader Leader Leader defines

‘sells’ presents limits, asks
decisions decisions group to make
subject to decisions
change

Figure 6.7: Leadership Style

Source: Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958)

Behaviors that a leader could choose to adopt, while recognizing that there are shades of
participation along the whole scale (see Figure 6.7)

The four degrees of participation model, shown in Figure 6.6, was used by Sadler (1970)
to investigate which style employees in a large computer company in Britain perceived
and preferred their manager to exhibit, and whether the perceived style was related to
subordinates’ attitudes’ attitudes. Superiors were not seen as falling predominantly into
one style or another, although managers saw themselves as more likely to be consulted
than were clerical and blue – collar workers. When we look at which style they would
prefer their boss to use, as opposed to the one they saw their boss as predominantly using,
the results are very different from each other. The preferred style is consultative. This is
true for all grades of staff, but particularly so for higher grades. Surprisingly, the out and
out democratic style is the least preferred by most groups. So employees want to be
consulted about decisions, to play a part in deciding what should happen, but don’t look

169
to take over the decision – making completely. They recognize that the leader should
have the final say. Satisfaction with the job and the organization is high for all styles, but
lowest where the leader has no recognizable style, employing that even autocracy is
preferable to a changeable.

c) Contingency Approaches
Contingency approaches have in common that they attempt to address the question: when
is one type of leadership behavior more appropriate than another? The answer is, it all
depends. Style or behavior dependent (contingent) upon the context. What variables are
considered as ‘the context’ varies from one contingency model to another. Although
many of the behavioral approaches to leadership saw that there was no one best style for
all situations, it is the contingency models which attempt to establish how the situation
changes the behavior. We will look at some of the more influential contingency theories,
namely the Situational Leadership Theory of Hersey and Blanchard; Fiedler’s
Contingency Theory; and House’s Path – Goal Theory.

i) Situational Leadership Theory

Quite often in occupational psychology we find that theories which capture the
imagination of practicing managers and management trainers are not the one which, on
investigation, are strongly supported by empirical evidence. Heresy and Blanchard’s
Situational Leadership Theory is one such example. Situational Leadership Theory takes
as its starting point the fact that there are two dimensions of leader behavior: relationship
behaviors and task behaviors. These are independent of each other. Relationship behavior
is the amount of support, recognition and personal encouragement the leader extends to
subordinates. Task behavior is the amount of direction and structure the leader provides.
Since the two dimensions are independent of each other, we can think of four typical
leadership styles in a 2 x 2 matrix, as shown in Figure 6.8. these four styles are
structuring, coaching, encouraging and delegating. The assumption is that there is no one
best style. On the contrary, one type of behavior is more appropriate in one situation than
another. By using relationship and task behavior in differing amounts of different times a
leader can help subordinates become more productive and fulfilled in their jobs.

By ‘situation’ in Situational Leadership Theory, Hersey and Blanchard mean:

170
  The willingness of people to so their work assignment
 The ability of people to do their work assignments
 The nature of the work they do
 The climate of the organization

Although some reference is made in the theory to the last two categories in this list, it is
the characteristics of subordinates, not the work itself or the external and internal
environment of the organization, which the theory mostly concentrates. A key variable
here is follower maturity (called ‘readiness’ in some versions of the theory). Follower
maturity refers to the subordinates’ understanding of the job and commitment to is (see
table 6.1). When a subordinate has low levels of maturity, high task and low relationship
behavior is seen as being he best combination. This is the structuring style. As
subordinate maturity grows, the need for relationship – type behavior on the part of the
leader increases and task behavior declines. At the highest level of maturity, high levels
of relationship or task behavior are unnecessary for employee performance, and may get
in the way.

(HIGH) STYLE OF LEADER

Encouraging Coaching
Behavior)
REALATIONSHIP BEHAVIOR

S3 S2
(Supportive

171
 S4 S1

Delegating Structuring

(Low) TASK BEHAVIOR (HIGH)

(Directive Behavior)

HIGH MODERATE LOW

Figure 6.8: Situational Leadership

Source: Heresy and Blanchard (1988)

Table 6.1 Maturity

1. Job maturity dimensions 1.1 Previous experience

1.2 Current knowledge
1.3 Meeting deadlines
1.4 Ability to take responsibility
1.5 Problem – solving ability
1.6 Awareness of political implications

172
 2. Psychological maturity dimensions 2.1 Persistence
2.2 Independence
2.3 Achievement orientation
2.4 Attitude to work
2.5 Willingness to take responsibility

Source: Hersey and Blanchard (1988)

Note: Maturity = Job maturity + psychological maturity defined for a particular task

ii) Fiedler’s Contingency Theory

Fiedler developed one of the first true contingency theories of the leadership process
(Fiedler, 1967). The theory states that leader performance is contingent upon both the
leader’s personal characteristics and the degree top which the leader controls the
situation. The personal characteristics comprise a motivational system, according to
Fiedler, and concern how positively the leader views his or her least preferred co-worker
(LPC). The LPC is a key variable in the theory. Leaders are asked to nominate the person
they have least liked, of all those they have worked with. This becomes the least
preferred co-worker. This person is then rated on a set of eighteen 8 – point scales, such
as:
Friendly Unfriendly
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Considerate Inconsiderate
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
A low LPC score means that leaders describe their least preferred co-worker in negative
terms, while a high LPC score indicates a more positive description. High LPC leaders
are classified as relationships, or people, oriented (they tend to feel fairly positive even
about people they don’t like very much); low LPC individuals are classified as task
oriented.

In addition to the LPC, there are three contingency variables. These are group
atmosphere, task structure and the leader’s position power. They determine the degree to
which the situation is favorable to the leader by providing control over subordinates.

173
Group atmosphere refers to the extent to which the leader enjoys the support and loyalty
of group members. It describes how accepted the leader is by he team. In groups that
reject the leader, the task is unlikely to get done, since the group will attempt to sabotage
or ignore the task as given. In groups which support the leader, members are likely to
commit themselves to the task. There is no need for the leader to pull rank or jump up
and down to attempt to get the job done.

Task structure refers to the degree to which the task, its goals and the roles of
subordinates are clearly defined. A routine task, such as filing, is likely to have clearly
defined goals (file all correspondence alphabetically by client’s surname and then
chronologically in date order), consist of a few steps (retrieve from unsorted pile, open
filing cabinet, place in correct file) and have a correct solution. Completely non-routine
tasks are at the other extreme. The leader may know no more than the rest of the group
how to solve the problem. Such a task is likely to have unclear goals, multiple paths to
accomplishment and uncertain success criteria. Raising the attractiveness of an
organization’s image so as to attract better applicants might be one example. How do we
know when we have succeeded? How do we do it? How do we know that we caused the
change rather than other factors, such as increased attractiveness by paying more or more
people unemployed and looking for work? These are just some of the questions to which
there may be no clear – cut, satisfactory answer. Routine versus non – routine tasks will
require very different leader behaviors.

Position power is the power inherent in the leader’s role. It is the extent to which a
leader controls rewards and punishment for subordinates. In many industrial and
commercial organizations in Britain, leaders have fairly high position power. They can
recruit.

Most favorable situation Least favorable situation

for leader for leader

174
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Group Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
atmosphere

Task Structure High High Low Low High High Low Low

Leader position Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
power

Desirable Low Low Low High High High High Low

leader LPC LPC LPC LPC LPC LPC LPC LPC

Figure 6.9 Fiedler’s Contingency Theory

Dismiss, promote and financially reward employees, assuming they follow the rules,
procedures or guidelines laid down by the law and regulatory bodies. In public sector
organizations, such as universities and the civil service, leaders typically have lower
position power. They are more constrained by the organization culture, which encourages
consultation, and by laws and agreements set out by governments or unions.

Fiedler divides the three variables into high and low, and combines them as shown in
Figure 6.9. This basic contingency model shows the results from Fiedler’s early research.
The research indicates that where the situation was either favorable to the leader
(situations 1, 2 and 3) or highly unfavorable (situation 8), group performance was best if
the leader had a low LPC score (i.e. was task oriented). In contrast, situations which were
moderate or low in favorably to the leader, high LPC scores (i.e. person oriented leaders)
had the best group performance. Favorable or unfavorable situations refer to the extent to
which the leader has control over the situation.

An alternative explanation is that the findings reflect a matching of the leader with the
situation. it is argued that high LPC individuals arte cognitively complex. That is, they
are able to perceive the world and the people in it is many different ways and in shades of
gray, rather than simplistically and as black and white. Low LPC individuals, on the other
hand, are more cognitively simple.

175
Situations too, so the argument goes, can be seen as relatively simple or relatively
complex. Simple situations are those where all the features are reasonably congruent –
that is, all good or all bad. Simple situations are at the ends of the spectrum in the
contingency model Figure 6.9. Complex situations are those where the features are
mixed, as in the middle section of the figure.

iii) Path – Goal Theory

Another contingency approach is path – goal theory, developed by House and others. It
takes expectancy theory as its starting point, which house then adapted to leadership
theory.

Expectancy theory concerns itself with the process of motivation. It states that people
choose what to do in a given circumstance based on a calculation of the expectancy,
instrumentality and valence in the situation.

 Expectancy is the belief that your effort will result in performance

 Instrumentality is the belief that your performance will be rewarded
 Valence is how much you valuate the reward or outcome.

Let’s take an example. Expectancy theory says that the motivation or effort you expend
to pass an exam depends on the extent to which you:

 Believe that even if you tried hard, worked lots of hours and
concentrated fully, you would not get a good mark (expectancy). You
may feel that even with work, you are not bright enough to pass.
 Believe that through putting in the effort you would get a fair mark, so
that your effort will result (be instrumental) in you getting a better mark
than you would have got. You may feel that exam nerves or poor exam
technique has always resulted in you getting poor marks, so why bother
too much.
 The value (valence) you place on getting a good mark. You have to value
studying for this exam over doing other things, such as drinking coffee,
chatting or going out.

176
The theory states that there are four types of leader behavior which can affect motivation
of subordinates:

1. Instrumental leadership (sometimes called ‘directive’). This involves giving

specific guidance to subordinates, clarifying their role, asking them to follow
standard rules, explaining how work should be accomplished, and so on.
2. Supportive leadership. This involves being friendly and approachable to
subordinates, sensitive to their needs, and concerned for their well – being and
status.
3. Participative leadership. This involves sharing information with subordinates,
consulting with them and involving them before making decision.
4. Achievement – oriented leadership. This involves setting challenging goals and
emphasizing excellence while simultaneously showing confidence in
subordinates’ ability to achieve those high goals.

House points out that all of these four styles can be used by a single leader, depending on
the circumstances. Showing such flexibility is, in fact, one feature of an effective leader.

Which category is best of for subordinate satisfaction and performance is dependent on

two broad contingency factors. The first of these is the characteristics of subordinates.
subordinates. A
subordinate’s attributes affect whether he or she sees the leader’s behavior as leading to
the satisfaction of his or her goals, either now or in the future. Some of the personal
characteristics proposed by the theory are locus of control, perceived ability and
affiliation needs.

Locus on control refers to whether someone believes that what happens to them is the
result of their own behavior or is the result of forces outside of their own control.
Perceived ability refers to how people see their own ability relative to a specific task.
Subordinates who rate their ability highly are less likely to accept directive leadership.
This is explained by the simple reasoning that if I feel that I am good at something, why
would I want someone else to tell me how to do it? ‘I know how to do it, so leave me to
get on with it!’ if, on the other hand, I am uncertain of, or unconfident in, my skills, I will
probably appreciate all the help and direction I can get in order to attain my goals.

177
Similarity, those who have strong needs for achievement may prefer leaders who are
achievements oriented. Those who have strong needs for affiliation (like close, friendly
ties with others) are likely to prefer participative and supportive leaders.

The second broad contingency factor considered by the path – goal theory is the work
environment. This includes the task structure, the formal authority system, and the
primary work group. For example, if the subordinates’ tasks are unstructured, they may
experience confusion and role ambiguity, so that they are unclear how to perform well so
as to attain their goals. In such circumstances, instrumental leadership, which clarifies
what is expected of subordinates and how the task can be accomplished, is likely to be
most appropriate. Where the task is well structured, such as approach is unhelpful. A
leader who tries to structure and direct is likely to come unstuck. Subordinates are likely
to feel dissatisfied or indignant at the unnecessary interference. Similarly, if the primary
work group gives an individual ample social support, a supportive leader will not be
particularly valued by that person.

To summarize, the leader has to take account of both the individual needs and
characteristics of subordinates and the nature of the work environment. Given these
factors, the leader needs to choose an appropriate style so as to influence the
subordinates’ motivation to perform the work.

6.4.4 Personal Characteristics of Leaders

Leadership is an intangible quality and its effectiveness can best be judged by the
behavior and attitudes of followers. Personal backgrounds and personalities differ widely,
simply education, social status etc., are poor indicators of judgments of successful
leaders. However, some behavioral characteristics are:
1. Ability to inspire others. This may be an internal “charisma” which is an inborn
trait and may not be a learnable factor.

178
 2. Problem solving skills.
skills. An effective leader has developed the patience and ability
to look at the problem from various angles and get down to the cause of the
problem and tries to solve the problem rather than the symptoms of the problem.
3. Emotional maturity. They are self – confident, rational and emotionally mature.
They do not lose temper quickly and are open hearted towards differences in
opinions and opposing viewpoints.
4. Ability to understand human behavior. He must understand the needs, desires
and behavior of their subordinates and show respect for such desires. He is
emotionally supportive and is careful enough to avoid ego threatening behavior.
He must give credit to subordinates when the efforts are successful.
5. Verbal assertiveness.
assertiveness. A leader must be an effective orator and must be confident
of his opinions and views. He must communicate his views honestly and in a
straight forward manner without fear of consequences.
6. Willingness to take risks.
risks. Good leaders always charter the unknown. They must
accept and seek new challenges. However, the risks must be calculated ones and
the outcomes of actions be reasonably predicted. He must be willing to tolerate
frustration and defeat and learn from it.
7. Dedication to organizational goals.
goals. A leader must demonstrate his dedication and
commitment to the organization’s mission, goals and objectives by hard work and
self – sacrifice.
8. Skill in the art of compromise.
compromise. Settling differences is a vital part of leadership
and genuine differences must be solved by compromise and consensus. This will
induce faith in the fairness of the leader. He must be willing to be able to take
criticism and defeat with grace. However, he must not compromise for the sake of
compromising for smooth sailing only and must be willing to take a stand on
controversial issues and accept the consequences.

6.4.5 Leadership and power

A formal leader cannot function without the authority and the power to make decisions
and take actions. Some of the functions of the formal leaders that require the power and
authority to perform are:

179
a) Setting of organizational goals within constraints of internal needs and
external pressures.
b) Integrates the activities of his group and develops its team spirit and
cohesiveness.
c) Serves as a representative of group members and an official contact with
other parts of the organization and facilitates group interaction.
d) Gives out rewards and punishments or recommendations.
e) Serves as a father figure and sometimes has a major impact on the norms,
beliefs and values of the group.
f) He is instrumental in resolving internal conflicts by bringing about a
balance among conflicting interests.
g) Serves as a model of behavior for other members. These functions can
only be exercised with a power base. Power bases classified by French and
Raven are:
1. Legitimate power. This is the power that is vested in the leadership to
take certain actins. This power may be designated by a legitimizing
agent, for example, the president of a company designating his assistant
to make certain decisions. Similarly, the power may be given to a
particular leader who has been elected by the populace. For example,
the president of a country or an elected Mayor of a city has certain
power and authority.
2. Reward power. This power is based upon the ability to give or
influence the rewards and incentives for the subordinates. These may be
in the form of promotions, increase in pay, bonuses or other form of
recognition for a job well done.
3. Coercive power. On the other end of the reward power is the coercive
power, which is the ability to influence punishment. This is the power to
reprimand, demote or fire for unsatisfactory execution of duties.
4. Referent power. This power is more of personal nature than a
positional nature, in the sense that this power is not designated or

180
 acquired because of a position, but because of personal “charisma”, so
that the followers would like to associate themselves with such a leader.
5. Expert power.
power. This is also a personal power acquired by expertise in a
field or area. For example, we generally follow our doctor’s or our
accountant’s instructions, because we believe in their ability and
knowledge in those specified areas. If the subordinates view their
leaders as competent, they would follow him.
6. Connections. Some people have a lot of influence over others simply
because of their “connections” with the right people. A person knowing
the manager of a company can get a job for somebody or recommend a
promotion for somebody and hence commands considerable influence.

6.5 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Conflict can be defined as a disagreement between two or more individuals or groups,

with each individual or group trying to gain acceptance of its view or objectives over
others. Because people differ in their attitudes, values and goals, conflict among them
becomes unavoidable. Accordingly, the management is concerned not so much with
eliminating conflict, which would be impossible, but to contain it and manage it for
organizational and individual benefit.

The personal conflict is more emotional in nature and reflects feelings, anger, distrust,
fear, resentment, clash in personality, antagonism, tension etc. the organizational conflict,
on the other hand, involves disagreements on such factors as allocation of resources,
nature of goals and objectives, organization policies and procedures, nature of
assignments and distribution of rewards. This conflict at its worst can lead to unnecessary
stress, blockage and communication, lack of cooperation, increased sense of district and
suspicion and this results in lost friendships and reduced organizational effectiveness.
Conflict has always been considered as undesirable so that it should be avoided when
possible and resolved soon if it occurs.

The modern management view is not so negative about conflict. It believes that conflict
can be helpful and constructive if handled properly. As a matter of fact, moderate level of

181
conflict is helpful in such organizations as Reassert and Development firms, advertising
agencies, public policy groups etc. some of the positive consequences of conflict are:

i) Conflict may induce challenge to view, opinions, rules, policies, goals, plans
etc., which would require critical analysis in order to justify these as they are
or make changes as required.
ii) Conflict between different organizations develops loyalty and cohesion within
an organization and a greater sense of group identity in order to compete with
outsiders. It helps in dedication and commitment to organizational goals.
iii) Conflict promotes competition and hence it results in increased efforts. Some
individuals are highly motivated by conflict and severe competition.
iv) Conflict with the status quo is a pre- requisite to change. Creative and
innovative people are always looking for grounds to challenge the status quo.
These challenges lead to search for alternatives to existing patterns, which
leads to organizational change and development.
v) Conflict, when expressed, can clear the air and reduce tension. Some
disagreements if unexpressed can lead to imaginative distortions of truth,
sense of frustration and tension, high mental exaggerations and biased
opinions resulting in fear and distrust. However, when it is expressed, it may
show the cause of conflict to be minor, resulting in cooperation and
compromise.

6.5.1 Types of conflicts

There are five basic types of conflicts.

1. Conflict within the individual. The conflict within an individual is usually value
related where the role-playing expected of an individual does not conform with
the values and beliefs held by the individual.

182
2. Interpersonal conflict. This conflict involves conflict between individuals and is
probably most common and most recognized conflict. This may involve conflict
between two managers who are competing for limited capital and manpower
resources.
Another types of interpersonal conflict can related to disagreements over goals and
objectives of the organization. In addition to conflicts over the nature and substance
of goals and objectives, the conflicts can also arise over the means to reach those
goals. These conflicts become highlighted when they are based upon opinions
rather than facts. Facts are generally indisputable resulting in agreements. Opinions
are highly personal and subjective and may provide for criticism and disagreements.
These conflicts are often results of personality clashes. People with widely differing
characteristics and attitudes are bound to have views and aims that are inconsistent
with the views and aims of others.
3. Conflict between the individual and the group. As we have discussed before,
all formal groups as well as informal groups have established certain norms of
behavior and operational standards which all members are expected to adhere to.
The individual may want to remain within the group for social needs but may
disagree with the group methods.
This conflict may also be between the manager and his subordinates as a group or
between the leader and the led. A manager may take disciplinary action against a
member of the group causing conflict which may result in reduced productivity.
The conflict among the armed forces is taken so seriously that the army must obey
their commander, even if the command is wrong and in conflict with what others
believe in.
4. Inter – group conflict. An organization is an interlocking network of groups,
departments, sections or work teams. These conflicts are not so much personal in
nature, as they are due to factors inherent in the organizational structure. For
example, there is active and continuous conflict between the union and the
management. One of the most common, unfortunate and highlighted conflicts is
between line and staff. The line managers may resent their dependence on staff
for information and recommendations. The staff may resent their inability to

183
 implant directly their own decisions and recommendations. This interdependence
causes conflict. These conflicts which are caused by task interdependencies
require that the relationship between interdependent units be redefined wherever
the values of these interdependent factors change, otherwise these conflicts will
become further pronounced.
Different functional groups with the organization may come into conflict with each
other because of their different specific objectives. There are some fundamental
differences among different units of the organization both in the structure and
process and thus each unit develops its own organizational subculture. These
subcultures, according to Lawrence and Lorsch, differ in terms of (a) goal
orientation, which can be highly specific for production, but highly fluid for
Research and Development, (b) time orientation which is short fun for sales and
long run for research, (c) formality of structure which is highly informal in research
and highly formal in production, and (d) supervisory style which may be more
democratic in one area as compared to another.
5. Inter – organizational conflict.
conflict. The conflict also occurs between organizations,
which in some way are dependent upon each other. This conflict may be between
the buyer organizations and supplier organizations about quantity and delivery
times of raw materials and other policy issues, between unions and organizations
employing their members, between government agencies that regulate certain
organizations and the organizations that are affected by it. These conflicts must be
adequately resolved or managed properly for the benefit of both types of
organizations.

6.5.2 the causes of conflicts

The various types of conflict, as discussed above, have already been pointed out in the
previous discussion. Basically, the causes of conflict fall into some distinct categories.
These are:

1. Behavioral aspects of conflict. These conflicts arise out of human thoughts and
feeling, emotions and attitudes, values and perceptions etc. this conflict can arise
by a simple misunderstanding or an error in communication. This conflict can

184
 also arise due to differing viewpoints about various issues. Another aspect of the
conflict can be based on emotions, feelings perceptions and values. These feelings
may be the feelings of anger, distrust, fear or simply dislike due to personality
differences.
The value based conflicts arise due to different values which may be culturally
based. For example, manager may want to fire some workers to save costs while
another manager may have human sensitivity and support other methods of cutting
costs. As another example, a professor may value freedom of teaching methods and
close supervision of his techniques may cause conflicts.
2. Structural aspects of conflict. These conflicts arise due to issues related to the
structural design of the organization as a whole as well as its sub-units. Some of
these issues involve:

(a) Role ambiguity

A role is a set of activities associated with a certain position in the
organization or in the society. According to Kahn, if these work activities are
will defined, then the person who is carrying out these activities will not
behave as others expect him to because his role is not clearly defined. This
will create conflict, specially between this individual and those people who
depend upon his activities. A hospital or a medical clinic employing a number
of physicians with overlapping specialties might cause conflict due to role
ambiguity. Such conflicts can be reduced by redefining and clarifying roles
and their interdependencies. In addition to role ambiguity, there may be a role
conflict. The role conflict occurs when two or more persons have different and
sometimes opposing expectations of a given individual.
(b) Design of work – flow
These are primarily inter group problems and conflicts which are the
outcomes of poorly designed work – flow structure and poorly planned
coordination requirements, specially where the tasks are interdependent. A
poorly designed work – flow and uncoordinated activities between the units
would create conflict and problems.

185
6.5.3 Conflict Resolution

Except in very few situations in which the conflict may lead to competition and creativity
so that in those situations the conflict can be encouraged, in all other cases where conflict
is destructive in nature it should be resolved once it has developed, but all efforts should
be made to prevent if from developing.

(a) Goal structure. Goals should be clearly defined and the role and contribution of
each unit towards the organizational goal must be clearly identified.
(b) Reward system. The compensation system should be such that it does not create
individual competition and conflict within the unit.
(c) Trust and communication. The greater the trust among members of the unit the
more honest and open the communication among them would be. Individuals and
units should be encouraged to communicate openly with each other so that they
can all understand each other, understand each other’s problems and help each
other when necessary.
(d) Coordination. Coordination is the next step to communication. Properly
coordinated activities reduce conflict. Wherever there are problems in
coordination, a special liaison office should be established to assist such
coordination.

Dealing with behavioral conflict

Even though different authors have given different terminology to describe these
strategies, the basic content and approach of these strategies remain the same. These are:

1. Ignoring the conflict. In certain situations, it may be advisable to take a passive

role and do nothing about the conflict. This is specially necessary when getting
involved in a situation would provoke further controversy or when conflict is so
trivial in nature that it would not be worth the manager’s time to get involved and
try to solve it. It could also be that the conflict is so fundamental to the position
of the parties involved that may be best either to leave it to them to solve it or to
let events take their own course.

186
 2. Smoothing. Smoothing simply means covering up the conflict by appealing for
the end for unity rather than addressing the issue of conflict itself. An individual
with internal conflict may try to “count his blessings” and forget about the
conflict.
3. Compromising. A compromise in the conflict is reached by balancing the
demands of the conflicting parties and bargaining in give and take position to
reach a solution. Each party gives up something and also gains something. This
technique of conflict resolution is very common in negotiations between the labor
unions and management.
4. Foreign. This is a technique of domination where the dominator has the power
and authority to enforce his own views over the opposing conflicting party. This
technique is potentially effective in situations such as a manger firing a manager
because he is considered as a trouble maker and conflict creator. This technique
always ends up in one party being a loser and the other party being a clearer
winner.
5. Problem solving. This technique involves “confronting the conflict” in order to
seek the best solution to the problem. This approach objectively assumes that in
all organizations, no matter how well – managed, there will be differences of
opinions which must be resolved through discussions and respect for differing
viewpoints.

(e) Dealing with Structural – Based conflict

Structural based conflict is built around organizational environment and can be resolved
or prevented by redesigning organizational structure and work – flow.
i) Identify and clarify poorly defined and poorly arranged interdependencies so
that these can be studied for possible source of conflict are rearranged either
to reduce interdependencies or to make
ii) Make the units totally independent of one another.
iii) Clarify wheat each individual and each sub-unit is expected to accomplish.
This would include authority – responsibility relationship and a clear line of
hierarchy.

187
 iv) Planning ahead about the proper distribution of such resources, instead of
making haphazard and last minute allocations.
v) Individuals work wit different groups so that they tend to know each other
better and understand each other better. Care should be taken, however, so
that these individuals art technically capable of fitting in these various groups.
This mutual understanding will result in trust and respect, thus reducing the
likelihood of conflict.

Check your progress 3

1. Define Leadership, and identify the three core words

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain the distinction between managers and leaders
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe Fielder’s contingency theory
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Define the following terms

a. Legitimate power
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
b. Motivation
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

188
 c. Conflict
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
d. Communication
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

6.6 SUMMARY

This units describes important points about communication, motivation and leadership in
organizations communication takes up over 80 percent of a manager’s time.
Communication is a process of encoding an idea into a message, which is sent through a
channel and decoded by a receiver. Communication among people can be affected by
various variables such as channels; nonverbal communication, perceptions and listening
skills. Several barriers to communication were described. These barriers can be overcome
by various techniques.

A number of important ideas about the motivation of people in organization is discussed.

The content theories of motivation focus on the nature of underlying employee needs.
Process theories examines how people go about selecting rewards with which to meet
needs. Expectancy theories suggests. That people calculate the probability of achieving
certain outcomes.

This unit covers several important concepts about leadership. The early research on
leadership focuses on personal traits such as intelligence, energy and appearance. Later,
researcher attention shifted to leadership behavior (style) that is appropriate to the
organizational situation.

Conflict is a process in which an effort is purposely made by one person or unit to block
another that results in frustrating the attainment of the other’s goals or the furthering of
his or her interests.

6.7 KEY TERMS/WORDS

189
  managerial grid
 least preferred co-worker
 influence
 leadership style
 valence
 intrinsic
 extrinsic
 expectancy
 reinforcement theory
 two-factors theory
 hierarchy of needs
 conflict
 formal communication
 informal communication
 inter-group conflict
 behavioral aspect of conflict
 structural aspect of conflict

6.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS QUESTIONS

Exercise 1
1. a. false b. true c. false d. false e. true
2. 6.2.3
3. 6.2.1

190
Exercise 2
1. 6.3.3 2. 6.3.3 3. 6.3.3
Exercise 3
1. 6.4.1 2. 6.4.2 3. 6.4.3
4. a. 6.4.1
b. 6.3.1
c. 6.5.1
d. 6.2

6.9 MODEL EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. Define the terms equity and enquity. Describe a work situation that is equitable and
one that is inequitable.
2. On what assumption is the expectancy approach based
3. Is leaders born or made? Why?
4. Why do managers sometimes use the graven to convey information.
5. How can mangers deal conflicts within teams.

191