Sim Educ101

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Teacher Education

BSED/BEED
Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged
Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning

(SDL)
Course/Subject: EDUC 101 – The Child and Adolescent Learners

and Learning Principles
Name of Teacher: MARK JOHN T. PEPITO
THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT

FOR REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS
INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE USE OF
THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE
COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Course Outline i
Week 1-3
ULOa Discuss the basic concepts, principles, and

issues on Human development 4
Metalanguage 4-5
Essential Knowledge 5-10
Self-Help 10
Let’s Check 10-12
Let’s Analyze 12-14
In a Nutshell 14
Q&A Lists 14-15
Keyword Index 15
ULOb Analyze the different developmental theories

and other relevant theories and principles 15
Metalanguage 15
Self-Help 37
Let’s Check 37-38
In a Nutshell 41
Q&A Lists 41-42
Keyword Index 42
Week 4-6
ULOa Explain the development of the learners
at various stages: Pre-natal, Infancy,
Toddlerhood, and Early Childhood 42
Metalanguage 42
Self-Help 65
Let’s Check 65-66
In a Nutshell 67-68
Q&A Lists 68
Keyword Index 68
ULOb Discuss the development of the learners

at various stages: Middle Childhood,
Late Childhood, and Adolescence 68
Metalanguage 69
Self-Help 80
Let’s Check 80-81
In a Nutshell 83
Q&A Lists 83-84
Keyword Index 84
Week 7-9
ULOa Discuss the different learner-centered

psychological principle 84
Metalanguage 84
Self-Help 87
Let’s Check 87-88
In a Nutshell 90
Q&A List 90-91
Keyword Index 91
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University of Mindanao
College of Teacher Education “Physically Distanced but Academically
Engaged”
Course Outline : EDUC 101 – The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles
Course Coordinator: Mark John T. Pepito

Email: markjohn_pepito95@umindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation: By appointment
Mobile: 09982011916
Phone: none
Effectivity Date: August 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-Line with face to face or virtual
sessions)
Time Frame: 54 Hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Requisites: None
Credit: 3
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face to face sessions.
Course Outline Policy
Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is
designed for blended learning mode of instructional
delivery with scheduled face to face or virtual
sessions. The expected number of hours will be 54
including the face to face or virtual sessions. The face
to face sessions shall include the summative
assessment tasks (exams) since this course is crucial
in the licensure examination for teachers.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th, 7th
and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall
be attached with a cover page indicating the title of
the assessment task (if the task is performance),
the name of the course coordinator, date of
submission and name of the student. The document
should be emailed to the course coordinator. It is also
expected that you already paid your tuition and other
fees before the submission of the assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real time through

the features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time
by the course coordinator.
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Since this course is included in the licensure
examination for teachers, you will be required to take
the Multiple-Choice Question exam inside the
University. This should be scheduled ahead of time by
your course coordinator. This is non-negotiable for all

licensure-based programs.
Turnitin Submission (IF To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment
NECESSARY) tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin
with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This
means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the
students will either opt to redo her/his paper or
explain in writing addressed to the course coordinator
the reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the paper
has reached more than 30% similarity index, the
student may be called for a disciplinary action in
accordance with the University’s OPM on Intellectual
and Academic Honesty.
Please note that academic dishonesty such as

cheating and commissioning other students or people
to complete the task for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the
possible maximum score for that assessment item for
each day or part day that the assessment item is late.
However, if the late submission of assessment paper

has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2)
Assignments/Assessments weeks after the submission. This will be returned by
email or via Blackboard portal.
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator

will require some or few of the students for online or
virtual sessions to ask clarificatory questions to
validate the originality of the assessment task
submitted and to ensure that all the group members
are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an
assessment task. The resubmission is premised on
the student’s failure to comply with the similarity index
and other reasonable grounds such as academic
literacy standards or other reasonable circumstances
e.g. illness, accidents financial constraints.
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Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the
Papers and Appeal program coordinator your intention to appeal or
contest the score given to an assessment task. The
letter should explicitly explain the reasons/points to
contest the grade. The program coordinator shall
communicate with the students on the approval and
disapproval of the request.
If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean
with the original letter of request. The final decision
will come from the dean of the college.
Grading System Course exercises – 30% (including BlackBoard
forum)
1st exam – 10%
2nd exam – 10%
3rd exam – 10%
Final exam – 40
Preferred Referencing Style (IF APA 6th Edition
THE TASK REQUIRES)
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email
account which is a requirement to access the
BlackBoard portal. Then, the course coordinator
shall enroll the students to have access to the
materials and resources of the course. All
communication formats: chat, submission of
assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be through the
portal and other university recognized platforms.
You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to
raise your issues and concerns.
For students who have not created their

student email, please contact the course
coordinator or program head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Jocelyn Bacasmot
Email: jbacasmot@umindanao.edu.ph Phone:
082-3050647 local 102
Contact Details of the Program Dr. Maribel Abalos
Head Email: mabalos@umindanao.edu.ph Phone:
082-3050647 local 102
Students with a Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with
the course coordinator about the nature of his or her
special needs. Depending on the nature of the need,
the course coordinator with the approval of the
program coordinator may provide alternative
assessment tasks or extension of the deadline of
submission of assessment tasks. However, the
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alternative assessment tasks should still be in the
service of achieving the desired course learning
outcomes.
Online Tutorial Registration (IF You are required to enroll in a specific tutorial time for
NECESSARY) this course via the www.cte.edu.ph portal. Please
note that there is a deadline for enrollment to the
tutorial.
Help Desk Contact 0923-602-0640
Email: BSED@umindanao.edu.ph
Library Contact Tel No. +63 305-0640 library@umindanao.edu.ph
GSTC Help Desk Contact Ronadora E. Deala, GSTC Facilitator 0921-212-2846
Email: ronadora_deala@umindanao.edu.ph
Ivy Jane S. Regidor, GSTC Facilitator
0910-568-1081
Kyle Sophia S. Mediadero, GSTC Facilitator 0977-
136-2208
Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS
CC’s Voice: Hello prospective teacher! Welcome to this course EDUC 101 – THE
CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING
PRINCIPLES. By now, I am confident that you really wanted to become
a teacher and that you have visualized yourself already being in front of
the classroom, teaching.
CO Before the actual teaching performance, you have to deal with the various
principles, theories, and laws pertaining to child and adolescent learners
as one of the essential courses you need to learn as a potential teacher.
In this course, you are expected to determine the importance and
demonstrate knowledge of the biological, cognitive, social, and
emotional development of children and adolescents. You are also
expected to apply the theories and your knowledge of children and
adolescents in the classroom and in the locality Thus, in this course
you are to do a lot of readings pertaining to theories and principles that
explain the holistic development of child and adolescent learners.
Let us begin!
Big Picture
Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to:
a. Discuss the basic concepts, principles, and issues on Human
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Development; and
b. Analyze the different developmental theories and other relevant theories and
principles.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Discuss the basic concepts, principles,

and issues on Human Development.
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of the basic concepts,
principles, and issues pertaining to human development to demonstrate ULOa will
be operationally defined to establish a common frame of refence as to how the terms
work in this course. You will encounter these terms as we go through the study of
this topic. Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the
understanding of concepts for the succeeding topics.
1. Development. The process in which someone or something grows or
changes and becomes more advanced.
2. Growth. Quantitative changes in an individual as he progresses.
3. Maturation. Is the process that a living thing goes through as it ages and
becomes ripe or fully developed.
4. Learning. It is the result of activities and experiences on the person
himself.
5. Proximodistal Development. The muscular control of the trunk and the
arms comes earlier ad compared to the hands and fingers.
6. Cephalocaudal Development. The physical growth in size, weight, and
future differentiation gradually working its way down from top to bottom.
7. Traditional Development. Characterize by an extensive change from
birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old
age.
8. Life-span Development. Adult developmental change takes place at it
does during childhood.
Corpuz, B.B, Lucas, M.A, Borabo, H.L, and Lucido, P.I, (2015). The Child and
Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles: Looking at Learners at Different
stages. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
Essential Knowledge
Before we proceed further with the study of the concepts, principles, and
issues on human development, it is highly important to revisit the terms related to
this study to understand better its scope and limitation. As a potential science
teacher, you should have a commendable knowledge of these essential terms. Thus,
you are expected to utilize other books, research articles and other resources that
are available in the university’s library e.g. ebrary, search.proquest.com etc.
What is Human Development?

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Human development refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development
of humans throughout the lifespan. What types of development are involved in each
of these three domains, or areas, of life? Physical development involves growth
and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and
wellness. Cognitive development involves learning, attention, memory, language,
thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Socioemotional development involves emotions,
personality, and social relationships.
Meaning of human development

Human development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception
and continues through the life span. Development includes growth and decline. This
means that development can be positive or negative (Santrock. 2002).
Some major principles of human development:
Here are some major principles of human development:
1. Development is relatively orderly. Naschielle and Kenn will learn to sit,

crawl then walk before they can run. The muscular control of the trunk and the arms
comes earlier as compared to the hands and fingers. This is the proximodistal
pattern. During infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the top the head with
physical growth in size, weight and future differentiation gradually working its way
down from top to bottom (for example, neck, shoulders, middle trunk and so on).
This is the cephalo - caudal pattern. By understanding how characteristics develop,
we can make relatively accurate and useful predictions about learners and design
effective instructional strategies based on our knowledge of development (Santrock,
2002).
2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of

developmental processes and the rate of development are likely to vary among
individuals. What were shared in the small group discussion on what Naschielle
and Kenn may become were premised on many " its ". Meaning if they come from a
good home with loving and caring parents they may develop into warm and
responsible children, adolescents and adults. If they come from a deprived
environment, they may develop into carefree and irresponsible adolescents and
adults. Naschielle may develop faster and more favorably than Kenn due to
differences in heredity and environment. Since heredity and environment are
different for different people, it seems obvious that individuals will encounter factors
that make them different from other individuals. As a result, we can expect individual
differences in developmental characteristics and variation in the ages when people
will experience events that will influence their development.
3. Development takes place gradually. Naschielle and Kenn won't develop

into pimply teenagers overnight. It takes years before they become one. In fact,
that's the way of nature. The bud does not blossom suddenly. The seed does not
germinate overnight. While some changes occur in a flash of insight, more often it
takes weeks, months, or years for a person to undergo changes that result in the
display of developmental characteristics.
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4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of

biological, cognitive and socioemotional processes (Santrock, 2002). Biological
processes involve changes in the individual's physical nature. The brains of
Naschielle and Kenn develop. They will gain height and weight. They will experience
hormonal changes when they reach the period of puberty, and cardiovascular
decline as they approach late adulthood. All these show the biological processes in
development. Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual's thought,
intelligence, and language. Naschielle and Kenn develop from mere sounds to a
word becoming two words, the two words becoming a sentence. They would move
on to memorizing their first prayer, singing Bayang Magiliw in every flag ceremony to
imagining what it would be like to be a teacher or a pilot, playing chess and solving a
complex math problem. All these reflect the role of cognitive processes in
development Socioemotional processes include changes in the individual's
relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality. As
babies. Naschielle and Kenn responded with a sweet smile when affectionately
touched and frowned when displeased and even showed temper tantrum when they
could not get or do what they wanted. From aggressive children, they may develop
into a fine lady and a gentleman or otherwise, depending on a myriad of factors.
They may fall in love and get inspired for life or may end up betrayed, deserted, and
desperate afterwards. All these reflect the role of socioemotional processes in
development. These biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are
inextricably intertwined. While these processes are studied separately, the effect of
one process or factor on a person's development is not isolated from the other
processes. If Kenn and Naschielle were undernourished and troubled by the thought
of father and mother about to separate, they could not concentrate on their studies
and consequently would fail and repeat. As a consequence, they may lose face and
drop out of school revert to illiteracy, become unskilled, unemployed and so on and
so forth. See how a biological process, affects the cognitive process which in turn,
affects the socioemotional process.
Two approaches to human development:
If you believe that Nikki and Kenn will show extensive change from birth to
adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old age, your
approach to development is traditional. In contrast, if you believe that even in
adulthood developmental change takes place as it does during childhood, your
approach is termed life - span approach.
What are the characteristics of the life - span perspective? Paul Baltes (Santrock,
2002), an expert in life-span development, gives the following characteristics:
1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. No developmental

stage dominates development
2. Development is multidimensional. Development consists of biological,
cognitive, and socio - emotional dimensions.
3. Development is plastic. Development is possible throughout the life span.
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4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a changing
world.
5. Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation. Growth,
maintenance, and regulation are three (3) goals of human development. The
goals of individuals vary among developmental stages. For instance, as
individuals reach middle and late adulthood, concern with growth gets into the
backstage while maintenance and regulation take the center stage.
The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks
Pre-natal period
"How from so simple a beginning does endless forms develop and grow and mature
what was this organism. what is it now and what will it become? Births fragile
moment arrives, when the newborn is on a threshold between two worlds.”
Infancy (from birth to 2 years)
As newborns, we were not emphy - headed organisms. We cried, kicked coughed

sucked saw heard and tasted. We slept a lot and occasionally we smiled. although
the meaning of our smiles was not entirely clear: We crawled and then we walked, a
journey of a thousand miles beginning with a single step. Sometimes we conformed,
sometimes others conformed to us. Our development was a continuous creation of
complex forms, and our helpless kind demanded the meeting eyes of love. We split
the universe into two halves me and not me, And we juggled the need to curb our
own will with becoming what we could will freely (Santrock 2002).
Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)
In early childhood, our greatest untold poem was being only four years old. We
skipped played, and ran all day long, never in our lives so busy, busy becoming
something we had not quite grasped yet. Who knew our thoughts, which worked up
into small mythologies all our own. Our thoughts and images and drawings took
wings. The blossoms of our heart, no wind could touch. Our small world widened as
we discovered new refuges and new people. When we said " I " we meant
something totally unique, not to be confused with any other " (Santrock, 2002).
Middle and Late Childhood (6-12 years)
In middle and late childhood, we were on a different plane, belonging to a generation

and a feeling properly our own. It is the wisdom of human development that at no
other time We are more ready to learn than at the end of early childhood's period of
expansive imagination. Our thirst was to know and 10 understand. Our parents
continued to cradle our lives, but our growth was also being shaped by successive
choirs of friends. We did not think much about the future or the past, but enjoyed the
present, (Except for a few words, the paragraph is taken from (Santrock, 2002).
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Adolescence (13-18 years)
"In no order of things was adolescence, the simple time of life for us. We clothed
ourselves with rainbows and went ' brave as the zodiac flashing from one end of the
world to the other. We tried on one face after another searching for a face of our
own. We wanted our parents to understand us and hoped they would give up the
privilege of understanding them. We wanted to fly but found that first we had to learn
to stand and walk and climb and dance. In our most pimply and awkward moments
we became acquainted with sex. We played furiously al adult games but were
confined to a society of our own peers. Our generation was the fragile cable by
which the best and the worst of our parents’ generation was transmitted to the
present. In the end, there were two but lasting bequests our parents could leave us
one being roots, the other wings (Santrock, 2002)
Early adulthood (19-29 years)
Early adulthood is a time for work and a time for love: sometimes leaving little time
for anything else. For some of us, finding our place in adult society and committing to
a more stable life take longer than we imagine. We still ask ourselves who we are
and wonder if it isn’t enough just to be. Our dreams continue and our thoughts are
bold but are some point we become more pragmatic. Sex and love are powerful
passions in our lives at times angels of light. al other times of torment. And we
possibly will never know the love of our parents until we become parents ourselves.
(Santrock, 2002).
Middle adulthood (30-60 years)
In middle adulthood what we have been forms what we will be. For some of us,
middle age is such a foggy place, a time when we need to discover what we are
running from and to and why. We compare our life with what we vowed to make it. In
middle age, more time stretches before us and some evaluations have to be made,
however reluctantly. As the young/ old polarity greets us with a special force, we
need to join the daring of youth with the discipline of age in a way that does justice to
both. As middle-aged adults we come to sense that the generations of living things
pass in a short while and like runners hand on the torch of life (Santrock 2002).
Late adulthood (61 years and above)
“The rhythm and meaning of human development eventually wend their way to late
adulthood, when each of us stands alone at the heart of the earth and suddenly it is
evening ". We shed the leaves of youth and are stripped by the winds of time down
to the truth. We learn that life is lived forward bur understood backward. We trace the
connection between the end and the beginning of life and try to figure out what this
whole show is about before it is over. Ultimately, we come to know that we are what
survives of us (Santrock 2002).
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Developmental Stages
Concept of developmental tasks
In each stage of development, a certain task or tasks are expected of every

individual. Robert Havighurst defines developmental task as one that arises at a
certain period in our life, the successful achievement of which leads to happiness
and success with later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval,
and difficulty with later tasks." (Havighurst, 1972).
Developmental stages
The eight (8) developmental stages cited by Santrock are the same with Havighurst's
six (6) developmental stages only that Havighurst did not include prenatal period.
Havighurst combined infancy and early childhood while Santrock mentioned them as
two (2) separate stages.
The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)
Let's describe the developmental tasks as described by Santrock and compare them
to those listed by Havighurst himself.
1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth) - It involves tremendous growth from

a single cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioral capabilities. 2 .
Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months) A time of extreme dependence on adults.
Many psychological activities are just beginning - language, symbolic thought,
sensorimotor coordination and social learning.
3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade 1) – These are the
preschool years. Young children learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for
themselves, develop school readiness skills and spend many hours in play with
peers.
4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary school
years) The fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered. The
child is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a
more central theme of the child's world and self - control increases.
5. Adolescence (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age) Begins
with rapid physical changes - dramatic gains in height and weight changes in body
contour, and the development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the
breasts, development of pubic and facial hair and deepening of the voice. Pursuit of
independence and identity are prominent. Though is more logical, abstract and
idealistic. More time is spent outside of the family.
6. Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30s) It is
a time of establishing personal and economic independence career development,
selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family
and rearing children.
7. Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age) It is a time of expanding personal
and social involvement and responsibility of assisting the next generation in
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becoming competent and mature individuals, and of reaching and maintaining
satisfaction in a career.
8. Late adulthood (60s and above) It is a time for adjustment to decreasing
strength and health, life review, retirement, and adjustment to new social roles.
Issues on Human Development
1. Nature versus Nurture - Which has a more significant influence on human

development? Nature or nurture? Nature refers to an individual's biological
inheritance. Nurture refers to environmental experiences.
2. Continuity versus Discontinuity - Does development involve gradual,
cumulative change (continuity) or distinct changes (discontinuity). To make it more
concrete, here is a question: Is our development like that of a seedling gradually
growing into an acacia tree? Or is it more like that of a caterpillar becoming a
butterfly?
3. Stability vs. Change - Is development best described as involving stability or
as involving change? Are we what our first experiences have made of us or do we
develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in
development?
Adopted from:
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:
*Corpuz, B.B, Lucas, M.A, Borabo, H.L, and Lucido, P.I, (2015). The Child and
*Gray, Co Lette & Macbian Seon (2015). Learning theories in childhoos. USA: Sage
Publications
Let’s Check
Activity 1. Now that you know the most essential terms pertaining to the concepts,
principles, and issues on human development. Let us try to check your knowledge
pertaining to these terms. In the space provided, put a check (/) before a correct
statement and an X before a wrong one. If you put X, explain why.
_______1. Development is a pattern of change.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
_______2. Development is either growth or decline.
___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________.
_______3. From both traditional and life-span perspectives, development is lifelong.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
_______4. In the development process, there are things that hold true to all people.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
_______5. Individual develop uniformly.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
_______6. Development is predictable because it follows an orderly process.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
_______7. Development is unidimensional.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
_______8. The effect of biological process on development is isolated from the effect
of cognitive and socioemotional processes.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
_______9. Developmental tasks are only for the first 3 stages of human
development.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
______10. Failure of achieving developmental tasks in an earlier stage also means
failure for the learner to master the developmental task in the next stage.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
______11. Preschool age corresponds to early childhood stage.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
______12. Adolescence is middle and late childhood stage.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
______13. Teenage is middle childhood.
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
______14. Hereditary exerts a greater influence on human development than
environment.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
______15. What has been experienced in the earlier stages of the development can
no longer be changed.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
Let’s Analyze
Activity 1. Getting acquainted with the essential terms pertaining to the concepts,
principles, and issues on human development is not enough, what also matters is
you should also be able to explain how these concepts and principles relate to child
and adolescent development. Now, I will require you to explain thoroughly your
answers.
1. “Growth is an evidence of life.” What does it mean?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
2. State the 5 major principles of human development from a life-span perspective.

What have these principles to do with you as you teach learners?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
3. Interpret the following quotation in relation to human development:
“Man is an unfinished project. He is always in the process of becoming.”
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
4. With regards to the nurture-nature, continuity-discontinuity, and change-stability

controversies, the wiser stand is?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
5. Does a developmental task in a higher level require accomplishment of the lower

level developmental tasks?
___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
In a Nutshell
Activity 1. Understanding the different concepts, principles, and issues on
human development provides us with broader knowledge about how child and
adolescent learners develop and behave in certain stages. It is an essential concept
necessary to be learned by a potential teacher.
Now, research and read one (1) journal article on human development. Give an
abstract of the research by stating the:
a. Problem
b. Methods
c. Findings
d. Conclusions
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___________________________________________________________________.
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Q&A LIST. This section allows you to list down all the emerging questions or issues
you have come across. Note that these questions or issues may be raised in the
LMS or other modes. Just kindly write the answers after clarification.
Do you have any question forion?

clarificat
Questions/Issues Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KEYWORDS INDEX. This section lists down the keywords that help you recall the
important concepts and terms you have encountered above. This section also helps
in your review.
Development Cephalocaudal
Growth Proximodistal
Learning Traditional
Maturity Life-Span
Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. Analyze the different developmental

theories and other relevant theories and principles.
Metalanguage
For you to demonstrate ULOb, you will need to have an operational

understanding of the following terms below. Please note that you will also be
required to refer to the previous definitions found in ULOa section.
1. Erogenous Zone. Specific “pleasure areas” that become focal points for the
particular stage.
2. Fixation. Occurs when needs are not met along the area in a certain stage.
3. Schema. Cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and
organize their environment.
4. Assimilation. The process of fitting a new experience into an existing or
previously created cognitive structure or schema.
5. Accommodation. Process of creating a new schema.
6. Equilibration. Is achieving proper balance between assimilation and
accommodation.
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7. Malignancy. It involves too little of the positive and too much of the negative.
8. Maladaptation. It involves too little of the negative and too much of the
positive.
9. Scaffolding. The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task
he cannot accomplish independently.
10. Private speech. A form of self-talk that guides the child’s thinking and action.
Corpuz, B.B, Lucas, M.A, Borabo, H.L, and Lucido, P.I, (2015). The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Learning Principles: Looking at Learners at Different stages. Quezon
City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
Essential Knowledge
Before we proceed further with the study of developmental theories and other
relevant theories and principles, it is highly important to revisit the terms related to
this study to understand better its scope and limitation. As a potential science
teacher, you should have a commendable knowledge of these essential terms.
FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development
Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of personality,
also probably the most controversial Mis theory of psychosexual development
includes five distinct stages. According to Freud, a person goes through the
sequence of these five stages and along the way there are needs to be met Whether
these needs are met or not, determines whether the person will develop a healthy
personality or not. The theory is quite interesting for many because Freud identified
specific erogenous zones for each stage of development. These are specific "
pleasure areas that become focal points for the particular stage. If needs are not met
along the area, a fixation occurs. As an adult, the person will now manifest
behaviors related to this erogenous zone.
Oral Stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the oral
stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures(sucking). Too much or too little
satisfaction can lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is shown in an
increased focus on oral activities. This type of personality may be oral receptive, that
is, have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat, or oral aggressive,
that is, with a tendency to bite his or her nails, or use curse words or even gossip. As
a result, these persons may become too dependent on others, easily fooled, and
lack leadership traits. On the other hand, they may also fight these tendencies and
become pessimistic and aggressive in relating with people.
Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years). The child's focus of pleasure in this stage is the
anus. The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces. Through
society's expectations particularly the parents, the child needs to work on toilet
training. Let us remember that between one year and a half to three years the child's
favorite word might be " No! ". Therefore, a struggle might exist in the toilet training
process when the child retains feces when asked to eliminate or may choose to
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defecate when asked to hold feces for some reason. In terms of personality, fixation
during this stage can result in being anal retentive. an obsession with cleanliness,
perfection, and control or anal expulsive where the person may become messy and
disorganized.
Phallic Stage (stages 3 to 6). The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals.
During the preschool age children become interested in what makes boys and girls
different. Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their genitals. Freud's
studies led him to believe that during this stage boys develop unconscious sexual
desire for their mother. Boys then see their father as a rival for her mother's affection
Boys may fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, thus, the
castration anxiety. These feelings comprise what Freud called Oedipus Complex, In
Greek Mythology: Oedipus unintentionally killed his father and married his mother
Jocasta.
Psychoanalysts also believed that girls may also have a similar experience,
developing unconscious sexual attraction towards their father. This is what is
referred to as the Electra Complex.
According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of
their father, boys eventually decide to identify with them rather than fight them. By
identifying with their father, the boys develop masculine characteristics and identify
themselves as males and repress their sexual feelings toward their mother. A fixation
at this stage could result in sexual deviancies (both overindulging and avoidance)
and weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.
Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty). It's during this stage that sexual urges remain
repressed. The children's focus is the acquisition of physical and academic skills.
Boys usually relate more with boys and girls with girls during this stage.
Genital Stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual development

begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. In the
earlier stages, adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers,
with the pleasure centered on the genitals.
Freud's Personality Components
Freud described the personality structures as having three components, the id, the
ego, and the superego. For each person, the first to emerge is the id. followed by
the ego, and last to develop is the superego.
The Id. Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in one's
personality because as a baby, it works so that the baby's essential needs are met.
The id operates on the pleasure principle. It focuses on immediate gratification or
satisfaction of its needs. So, whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no
consideration for the reality, logicality or practicality of the situation. For example. a
baby is hungry. It's id wants food or milk ... so the baby will cry. When the child
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needs to be changed, the id cries. When the child is uncomfortable, in pain, too hot
too cold, or just wants attention, the id speaks up until his or her needs are met.
Nothing else matter to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs. It is not
oriented towards considering reality nor the needs of others. Just see how babies cry
any time of day and night! Absolutely no regard of whether mommy is tired, or daddy
is sleeping. When the id wants something, it wants it now and it wants it fast!
The ego. As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a preschooler. he/ she
relates more with the environment. the ego slowly begins to emerge. The ego
operates using the reality principle. It is aware that others also have needs to be met.
It is practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative
consequences later. So, it reasons and considers the best response to situations. As
such. it is the deciding agent of the personality. Although it functions to help the id
meet is needs. it always takes into account the reality of the situation.
The superego. Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the phallic stage,
the superego develops. The superego embodies a person's moral aspect. This
develops from what the parents, teachers and other persons who exert influence
impart to be good or moral. The superego is likened to conscience because it exerts
influence on what one considers right and wrong.
The Three Components and Personality Adjustment
Freud said that a well - adjusted person is one who has strong ego, who can help
satisfy the needs of the id without going against the superego while maintaining the
person's sense of what is logical practical and real. Of course, it is not easy for the
ego to do all that and strike a balance. If the id exerts too much power over the ego.
the person becomes too impulsive and pleasure - seeking behavior takes over one's
life. On the opposite direction, one may find the superego so strong that the ego is
overpowered. The person becomes so harsh and judgmental to himself and others '
actions. The person's best effort to be good may still fall short of the superego's
expectations.
The ability of a learner to be well - adjusted is largely influenced by how the learner
was brought up. His experiences about how his parents met his needs. the extent to
which he was allowed to do the things he wanted to do, and also how he was taught
about right and wrong, all figures to the type of personality and consequent
adjustment that a person will make Freud believed that the personality of an
individual is formed early during the childhood years,
Topographical Model
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The Unconscious. Freud said that most what
we go through in our lives, emotions, beliefs,
feelings, and impulses deep within are not
available to us at a conscious level. He
believed that most of what influence us is our
unconscious. The Oedipus and Electra
Complex mentioned earlier were both buried
down into the unconscious, out of our
awareness due to the extreme anxiety they
caused. While these complexes are in our
unconscious, they still influence our thinking.
feeling and doing in perhaps dramatic ways.
The Conscious. Freud also said that all that

we are aware of is stored in our conscious
mind. Our conscious mind only comprises a
very small part of who we are so that, in our
everyday life, we are only aware of a very small
part of what makes up our personality, most of
what we are is hidden and out of reach.
The Subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the
part of us that we can reach if prompted but is not in our active conscious. Its right
below the surface, but still "hidden" somewhat unless we search for it. Information
such as our telephone number, some childhood memories, or the name of your best
childhood friend is stored in the preconscious. Because the unconscious is so huge,
and because we are only aware of the very small conscious at any given time. Freud
used the analogy of the iceberg to illustrate it. A big part of the iceberg is hidden
beneath the water's surface. The water, may represent all that we are not aware of,
have not experienced, and that has not been made part of our personalities. referred
to as the nonconscious.
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Jean Piaget's Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a classic in the field of

educational psychology. This theory fueled other researches and theories of
development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge.
Basic Cognitive Concepts
Schema. Piaget used the term " schema " to refer to the cognitive structures by
which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an
individual's way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience. It is
like the mind has a filing cabinet and each drawer has folders that contain files of
things he has had an experience with. For instance, if a child sees a dog for the first
time, he creates his own schema of what a dog is. It has four legs and a tail. It barks.
It is furry. The child then "puts this description of a dog son file " in his mind. When
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he sees another similar dog, he " pulls out the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind,
looks at the animal. and says "four legs. tail. barks, furry .... That's a dog!"
Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or

previously created cognitive structure or schema. If the child sees another dog. this
time a little smaller one, he would make sense of what he is seeing by adding this
new information (a different looking dog) into his schema of a dog.
Accommodation. This is the process of creating a new schema. If the same child
now sees another animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but somehow different. He
might try to fit it into his schema of a dog. and say. " Look mommy, what a funny
looking dog. Its bark is funny too! ' Then the mommy explains, " That's not a funny
looking dog That's a goat! " With mommy's further descriptions, the child will now
create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new file in his filing cabinet.
Equilibration. Piaget believed that that people have the natural need to understand
how the world works and to find order, structure, and predictability in their life.
Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.
When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive
structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium. This means there is a
discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood. We then exert effort
through assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium once more.
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage. The first stage corresponds from birth to infancy.
This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking, and
reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity. The term
sensorimotor focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement
through which the infant comes to learn about himself and the world. In working with
children in the sensori-motor stage, teachers should aim to provide a rich and
stimulating environment with appropriate objects to play with.
Object permanence. This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists
even when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.
Stage 2. Pre - Operational Stage. The preoperational stage covers from about two
to seven years old, roughly corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at this
stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now make mental
representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the use of
symbols. This stage is highlighted by the following:
Symbolic Function. This is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a
thing that represents something else. A drawing, a written word, or a spoken word
comes to be understood as representing a real object like a real MRT train. Symbolic
function gradually develops in the period between 2 to 7 years. Riel, a two - year old
may pretend that she is drinking from a glass which is really empty. Though she
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already pretends the presence of water, the glass remains to be a glass. At around
four years of age. Nico, may, after pretending to drink from an empty glass. turns the
glass into a rocket ship or a telephone. By the age of 6 or 7 the child can pretend
play with objects that exist only in his mind. Enzo, who is six. can do a whole ninja
turtle routine without any costume nor "props". Trisha, who is 7 can pretend to host
an elaborate princess ball only in her mind.
Egocentrism. This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to
assume that everyone also has his same point of view. The child cannot take the
perspective of others. You see this in five year - old boy who buys a toy truck for his
mother's birthday. Or a three year-old girl who cannot understand why her cousins
call her daddy “uncle" and not daddy.
Centration. This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a
thing or event and exclude other aspects. For example, when a child is presented
with two identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child will say they have
the same amount of water. However, once water from one of the glasses is
transferred to an obviously taller but narrower glass, the child might say that there is
more water in the taller glass. The child only focused or centered only one aspect of
the new glass, that it is a taller glass. The child was not able to perceive that the new
glass is also narrower. The child only centered on the height of the glass and
excluded the width in determining the amount water in the glass.
Irreversibility. Pre - operational children still have the inability to reverse their
thinking.
They can understand that 2+3 is 5. but cannot understand that 5-3 is 2.
Animism. This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or

characteristics to inanimate objects. When at night, the child is asked, where the sun
she will reply, "Mr. Sun is asleep."
Transductive reasoning. This refers to the pre – operational child's type of

reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive. Reasoning appears to be from
particular to i.e., if A causes B. then B causes A. For example, since her mommy
comes home everyday around six o'clock in the evening. when asked why it is
already night, the child will say, because my mom is already home."
Stage 3. Concrete - Operational Stage. This stage is characterized by the ability of

the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects. This covers
approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary school years. The
concrete operational stage is marked by the following:
Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of
objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or
dimension. This allows the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete
objects and situations.
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Reversibility. During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow that
certain operations can be done in reverse. For example, they can already
comprehend the commutative property of addition, and that subtraction is the
reverse addition. They can also understand that a ball of clay shaped into a dinosaur
can again be rolled back into a ball of clay.
Conservation. This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like
number. mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in
appearance. Because of the development of the child's ability of decentering and
also reversibility the concrete operational child can now judge rightly that the amount
of water in a taller hut narrower container is still the same as when the water was in
the shorter but wider glass. The children progress to attain conservation abilities
gradually being a pre - conserver. a transitional thinker and then a conserver.
Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on
one dimension such as weight. volume or size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. In the final stage of formal operations covering
ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve
abstract problems and can hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the following:
Hypothetical Reasoning. This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis

about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision or
judgment. This can be done in the absence of concrete objects. The individuals can
now deal with "What if" questions.
Analogical reasoning. This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance
and then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in another similar
situation or problem. The individual in the formal operations stage can make an
analogy. If United Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is to _______. The
individual will reason that since the UK is found in the continent of Europe then the
Philippines is found in what continent? Then Asia is his answer. Through reflective
thought and even in the absence of concrete objects, the individual can now
understand relationships and do analogical reasoning.
Deductive Reasoning. This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule
to a particular instance or situation. For example, all countries near the north pole
have cold temperatures. Greenland is near the North pole. Therefore, Greenland has
cold temperature.
ERIKSON’S PHYCOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
Introduction to the 8 Stages:
1. Erikson's "psychosocial” term is derived from the two source words - namely
psychological (or the root, "psycho” relating to the mind, brain, personality, etc) and
social (external relationships and environment), both at the heart of Erikson's theory,
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Occasionally you'll see the term extended to biopsychosocial, in which " bio " refers
to life, as in biological.
2. Erikson's theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. But Erikson

extended the theory and incorporated cultural and social aspects into Freud's
biological and sexually - oriented theory.
3. It's also interesting to see how his ideas developed over time, perhaps aided
by his own journey through the psychosocial crisis stages model that underpinned
his work.
4. Like other influential theories, Erikson's model is simple and well. designed.
The theory is a basis for broad or complex discussion and analysis of personality
and behavior, and also for understanding and for facilitating personal development -
of self and others. It can help the teacher in becoming more knowledgeable and at
the same time understanding of the various environmental factors that affect his own
and his students ' personality and behavior.
5. Erikson's eight stages theory is a tremendously powerful model. It is very

accessible and obviously relevant to modern life, from several different perspectives
for understanding and explaining how personality and behavior develops in people.
As such Erikson's theory is useful for teaching, parenting, self - awareness,
managing and coaching, dealing with conflict, and generally for understanding self
and others.
6. Various terms are used to describe Erikson's model, for example Erikson's
biopsychosocial or bio - psycho - social theory (bio refers to biological, which in this
context means life); Erikson's human development cycle or life cycle, and variations
of these. All refer to the same eight stages psychosocial theory, it being Erikson's
most distinct work and remarkable model.
7. The epigenetic principle. As Boeree explains, "This principle says that we

develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages. Our
progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of
success, in all the previous stages. A little like the unfolding of a rose bud each petal
opens up at a certain time, in a certain order which nature, through its genetics, has
determined. We interfere in the natural order of development by pulling a petal
forward prematurely or out of order, we ruin the development of the entire flower”.
Erikson's theory delved into how personality was formed and believed that the earlier
stages served as a foundation for the later stages. The theory highlighted the
influence of one's environment, particularly on how earlier experiences gradually
build upon the next and result into one's personality.
8. Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces. A
helpful term used by Erikson for these opposing forces is “contrary dispositions”.
Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life stage and its inherent challenges.
Erikson used the words ‘syntonic' for the first - listed positive ' disposition in each
crisis (e.g., Trust) and ‘dystonic' for the second - listed negative disposition (e.g.,
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Mistrust). To signify the opposing or conflicting relationship between each pair of
forces or dispositions, Erikson connected them with the word 'versus’.
9. If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial

strength which will help us through the rest of the stages of our lives. Successfully
passing through each crisis involves achieving a healthy ratio or balance between
the two opposing dispositions that represent each crisis.
10. On the other hand, if we don't do so well, we may develop maladaptation and
malignancies, as well as endanger all our future development. A malignancy is the
worse of the two. It involves too little of the positive and too much of the negative
aspect of the task, such as a person who can't trust others. A maladaptation is not
quite as bad and involves too much of the positive and too little of the negative, such
as a person who trusts too much.
11. The crisis stages are not sharply defined steps. Elements tend to overlap and
mingle from one stage to the next and to the preceding stages. It's a broad
framework and concept, not a mathematical formula which replicates precisely
across all people and situations.
12. Erikson was keen to point out that the transition between stages is
"overlapping”. Crisis stages connect with each other like inter – laced fingers, not like
a series of neatly stacked boxes. People don't suddenly wake up one morning and
be in a new life stage. Changes don't happen in regimented clear - cut steps.
Changes are graduated, mixed-together and organic.
13. Erikson also emphasized the significance of mutuality and "generativity” in his
theory. The terms are linked. Mutuality reflects the effect of generations on each
other, especially among families, and particularly between parents and children and
grandchildren. Everyone potentially affects everyone else's experiences as they pass
through the different crisis stages. Generativity, actually a named disposition within
one of the crisis stages (Generativity Stagnation, stage seven), reflects the
significant relationship between adults and the best interests of children - one's own
children, and in a way everyone else's children - the next generation, and all
following generations.
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Stage One
Psychosocial Crisis
The first stage, infancy, is approximately the first year or year and a half of life. The
crisis is trust vs. mistrust. The goal is to develop trust without completely eliminating
the capacity for mistrust. If the primary caregivers, like the parents can give the baby
a sense of familiarity, consistency, and continuity, then the baby will develop the
feeling that the world is a safe place to be, that people are reliable and loving. If the
parents are unreliable and inadequate, if they reject the infant or harm it. if other
interests cause both parents to turn away from the infant's needs to satisfy their own
instead, then the infant will develop mistrust. He or she will be apprehensive and
suspicious around people.
Maladaptation/ Malignancy
Please understand that this doesn't mean that the parents have to be perfect. In fact,
parents who are overly protective of the child, who are there the minute the first cry
comes out, will lead that child into the maladaptive tendency which Erikson calls
sensory maladjustment: Overly trusting, even gullible, this person cannot believe
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anyone would mean them harm, and will use all the defenses at their command to
find an explanation or excuse for the person who did him wrong. Worse, of course, is
the child whose balance is tipped way over on the mistrust side. They will develop
the malignant tendency of withdrawal, characterized by depression, paranoia, and
possibly psychosis.
Virtue
If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue of hope, the strong
belief that, even when things are not going well, they will work out well in the end.
One of the signs that a child is doing well in the first stage is when the child isn't
overly upset by the need to wait a moment for the satisfaction of his or her needs:
Mom or Dad doesn't have to be perfect: I trust them enough to believe that, if they
can't be here immediately, they will be here soon: things may be tough now, but they
will work out. This is the same ability that, in later life, gets us through
disappointments in love, our careers, and many other domains of life.
Stage Two
Psychosocial Crisis
The second stage is early childhood, from about eighteen months to three or four
years old. The task is to achieve a degree of autonomy while minimizing shame and
doubt. If mom and dad, or caregiver permits the child. now a toddler, to explore and
manipulate his or her environment, the child will develop a sense of autonomy or
independence. The parents should not discourage the child, but neither should they
push. A balance is required. People often advise new parents to be "firm but
tolerant" at this stage, and the advice is good. This way the child will develop both
self - control self - esteem. On the other hand, is rather easy for the child to develop
instead a sense of shame and doubt if the parents come down hard on any attempt
to explore and be independent, the child will soon give up with the belief that he/ she
cannot and should not act on his/ her own. We should keep in mind that even
something as innocent as laughing at the toddler's efforts can lead the child to feel
deeply ashamed and to doubt his or her abilities. There are other ways to lead
children to shame and doubt. If you give children unrestricted freedom and no sense
of limits, or if you try to help children do what they should learn to do for themselves.
you will also give them the impression that they are not good for much. If you aren’t
patient enough to wait for your child to tie his or her shoe - laces, your child will
never learn to tie them, and will assume that this is too difficult to learn!
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Nevertheless, a little " shame and doubt " is not only inevitable, but beneficial.
Without it, you will develop the maladaptive tendency Erikson calls impulsiveness,
a sort of shameless willfulness that leads you, in later childhood and even adulthood,
to jump into things without proper consideration of your abilities. Worse, of course, is
too much shame and doubt which leads to the malignancy Erikson calls
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compulsiveness. The compulsive person feels as if their entire being rides on
everything they do, and so everything must be done perfectly. Following all the rules
precisely keeps you from mistakes, and mistakes must be avoided at all costs. Many
of you know how it feels to always be ashamed and always doubt yourself. A little
more patience and tolerance with your own children may help them avoid your path.
And give yourself a little stack, too!
Virtue
If you get the proper positive balance of autonomy and shame and doubt, you will
develop the virtue of willpower or determination. One of the most admirable - and
frustrating things about two and three – year old is their determination. " Can do is
their motto. If we can preserve that can do " attitude (with appropriate modesty to
balance it) we are much better off as adults.
Stage Three
Psychosocial Crisis
Stage three is the early childhood stage, from three or four to five or six. The task is
to learn initiative without too much guilt. Initiative means a positive response to the
world's challenges, taking on responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling purposeful.
Parents can encourage initiative by encouraging children to try out their ideas. We
should accept and encourage fantasy and curiosity and imagination. This is a time
for play, not for formal education. The child is now capable, as never before, of
imagining a future situation, one that isn't a reality right now. Initiative is the attempt
to make that non - reality a reality. But if children can imagine the future, if they can
plan, then they can be responsible as well, and guilty. If my two-year-old flushes my
watch down the toilet, I can safely assume that there were no evil intentions. " It was
just a matter of a shiny object going round and round and down. What fun! But if my
five-year-old does the same thing ... well, she should know what's going to happen to
the watch what's going to happen to daddy's temper, and what's going to happen to
her! She can be guilty of the act and she can begin to feel guilty as well. The
capacity for moral judgment has arrived. Erikson is, of course, a Freudian, and as
such, he includes the Oedipal experience in this stage. From his perspective, the
Oedipal crisis involves the reluctance a child feels in relinquishing his or her
closeness to the opposite sex parent. A parent has the responsibility, socially, to
encourage the child to "grow up - you're not a baby anymore!”. But if this process is
done too harshly and too abruptly, the child learns to feel guilty about his or her
feelings.
Too much initiative and too little guilt means a maladaptive tendency Erikson calls
ruthlessness. To be ruthless is to be heartless or unfeeling or be without mercy "
The ruthless person takes the initiative alright They have their plans, whether it's a
matter of school or romance or politics or career. It's just that they don't care who
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they step on to achieve their goals. The goals are the only things that matters, and
guilty feelings and mercy are only signs of weakness. The extreme form of
ruthlessness is sociopathy. Ruthlessness is bad for others, but actually relatively
easy on the ruthless person. Harder on the person is the malignancy of too much
guilt, which Erikson calls inhibition. The inhibited person will not try things because
"nothing ventured, nothing lost" and, particularly, nothing to feel guilty about. They
are so afraid to start and take a lead on a project. They fear that if it fails, they will be
blamed.
Virtue
A good balance leads to the psychosocial strength of purpose. A sense of purpose is

something many people crave for in their lives, yet many do not realize that they
themselves make their purposes, through imagination and initiative. I think an even
better word for this virtue would have been courage, the capacity for action despite a
clear understanding of your limitations and past failings.
Stage Four
Psychosocial Crisis
Stage four is the school - age stage when the child is from about six to twelve The
task is to develop * capacity for industry while avoiding an excessive sense of
inferiority Children must me the imagination and dedicate themselves to education
and to learning the social skills their society requires of them. There is a much
broader social sphere at work now: The parents and other family members are
joined by teachers and peers and other members of the community at large. They all
contribute. Parents must encourage, teachers must care, peers must accept.
Children must learn that there is pleasure not only in conceiving a plan, but in
carrying it out. They must learn the feeling of success, whether it is in school or on
the playground, academic or social A good way to tell the difference between a child
in the third stage and one in the fourth stage is to look at the way they play games.
Four-year-old may love games, but they will have only a vague understanding of the
rules may change them several times during the course of the game, and be very
unlikely to actually finish the game, unless it is by throwing the pieces at their
opponents. A seven - year – old on the other hand, is dedicated to the rules,
considers them pretty much sacred, and is more likely to get upset if the game is not
allowed to come to its required conclusion. If the child is allowed too little success,
because of harsh teachers or rejecting peers, for example, then he or she will
develop instead a sense of inferiority or incompetence. Additional sources of
inferiority, Erikson mentions, are racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination. If
a child believes that success is related to who you are rather than to how hard you
try, then why try?
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Too much industry leads to the maladaptive tendency called narrow virtuosity. We
see this in children who aren't allowed to "be children,” the ones that parents or
teachers push into one area of competence. Without allowing the development of
broader interests. These are the kids without a life: child actors, child athletes, child
musicians, child prodigies of all sorts. We all admire their industry, but if we look a
little closer. It's all that stands in the way of an empty life. Much more common is the
malignancy called inertia. This includes all of us who suffer from the inferiority
complexes Alfred Adler talked about if at first you don't succeed don't ever try again!
Many of us didn't do well in mathematics, for example, so we'd die before we took
another math class. Others were humiliated instead in the gym class, so we never try
out for a sport or play a game of basketball. Others never developed social skills -
the most important skills of all and so we never go out in public. We become inert.
Virtue
A happier thing is to develop the right balance of industry and inferiority that is mostly
industry with just a touch of inferiority to keep us sensibly humble. Then we have the
virtue called competency.
Stage Five
Psychosocial Crisis
Stage five is adolescence, beginning with puberty and ending around 18 or 20 years
old. The task during adolescence is to achieve ego identity and avoid role confusion.
It was adolescence that interested Erikson first and most, and the patterns he saw
here were the bases for his thinking about all the other stages.
Ego identity means knowing who you are and how you fit in to the rest of society. It
requires that you take all you've learned about life and yourself and mold it into a
unified self - image, one that your community finds meaningful.
There are a number of things that make things easier: First, we should have a
mainstream adult culture that is worthy of the adolescent's respect, one with good
adult role models and open lines of communication.
Further, society should provide clear rites of passage, certain accomplishments and
rituals that help to distinguish the adult from the child. In primitive and traditional
societies, an adolescent boy may be asked to leave the village for a period of time to
live on his own, hunt some symbolic animal, or seek an inspirational vision. Boys and
girls may be required to go through certain tests of endurance, symbolic ceremonies.
or educational events. In one way or another, the distinction between the powerless,
but irresponsible time of childhood and the powerful and responsible time of
adulthood.
is made clear.
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Without these things, we are likely to see role confusion, meaning an uncertainty
about one's place in society and the world. When an adolescent is confronted by role
confusion, Erikson says he or she is suffering from an identity crisis. In fact, a
common question adolescent in our society ask is a straightforward question of
identity "Who am I?”
One of Erikson's suggestions for adolescence in our society is the psychosocial

moratorium. He suggests you take a little time out. If you have money, go to Europe.
If you don’t, bum around the Philippines. Quit school and get job. Quit your job and
go to school. Take a break, smell the roses, get to know yourself. We tend to want to
get to "success" as fast as possible, and yet few of us have ever taken the time to
figure out what success means to us. A little like the young Oglala Lakota perhaps
we need to dream a little.
There is such a thing as too much " ego identity, " where a person is so involved in a
particular role in a particular society or subculture that there is no room left for
tolerance Erikson calls this maladaptive tendency fanaticism. A fanatic believes that
his way is the only way. Adolescents are, of course, known for their idealism, and for
their tendency to see things in black - and - white. These people will gather others
around them and promote their beliefs and life - styles without regard to others’ rights
to disagree.
The lack of identity is perhaps more difficult still, and Erikson refers to the malignant
tendency here as repudiation. To repudiate is to reject. They reject their membership
in the world of adults and even more, they reject their need for an identity. Some
adolescents prefer to go to groups that go against the norms to form their identity:
religious cults, militaristic organizations, groups founded on hatred, groups that have
divorced themselves from the painful demands of mainstream society. They may
become involved in destructive activities- drugs, or alcohol – or they may withdraw
into their own psychotic fantasies. After all, being “bad" or being "nobody" is better
than not knowing who you are!
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the virtue Erikson called fidelity.
Fidelity means loyalty, the ability to live by societies standards despite their
imperfections and incompleteness and inconsistencies. We are not talking about
blind loyalty, and we are not talking about accepting the imperfections. After all, if
you love your community, you will want to see it become the best it can be. But
fidelity means that you have found a place in that community, a place that will allow
you to contribute.
Stage Six
Psychosocial Crisis
If you have made it this far, you are in the stage of young adulthood, which lasts from
about 18 to about 30. The ages in the adult stages are much fuzzier than in the
childhood stages, and people may differ dramatically. The task is to achieve some
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degree of intimacy, as opposed to remaining in isolation. Intimacy is the ability to be
close to others, as a lover, a friend, and as a participant in society. Because you
have a clear sense of who you are. you no longer need to fear " losing " yourself, as
many adolescents do. The "fear of commitment" some people seem to exhibit is an
example of immaturity in this stage. This fear isn't always obvious. Many people
today are always putting off the progress of their relationships: I'll get married for
have a family, or get involved in important social issues) as soon as I finish school,
as soon as I have a job, as soon as I have a house, as soon as...If you've been
engaged for the last ten years, what's holding you back?
Neither should the young adult need to prove him or herself anymore. A teenage
relationship is often a matter of trying to establish identity through "couple - hood."
Who am I? I'm her boyfriend. The young adult relationship should be a matter of two
independent egos wanting to create something larger than themselves. We intuitively
recognize this when we frown on relationship between a young adult and a teenager:
We see the potential for manipulation of the younger member of the party by the
older.
Erikson calls the maladaptive form promiscuity, referring particularly to the tendency
to become intimate too freely, too easily, and without any depth to your intimacy.
This can be true of your relationships with friend and neighbors and your whole
community as well as with lovers. The malignancy he calls exclusion, which refers to
the tendency to isolate oneself from love, friendship, and community, and to develop
a certain hatefulness in compensation for one's loneliness.
Virtue
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will instead carry with you for the rest of
your life the virtue or psychosocial strength Erikson calls love. Love, in the context of
his theory, means being able to put aside differences and antagonisms through
mutuality of devotion. It includes not only the love we find in a good marriage, but the
love between friends and the love of one's neighbor, co- worker, and compatriot as
well.
Stage Seven
Psychosocial Crisis
The seventh stage is that of middle adulthood. It is hard to pin a time to it, but it
would include the period during which we are actively involved in raising children.
For most people in our society, this would put it somewhere between the middle
twenties and the late fifties. The task here is to cultivate the proper balance of
generativity and stagnation. Generativity is an extension of love into the future. It is a
concern for the next generation and all future generations. As such, it is considerably
less "selfish" than the intimacy of the previous stage: Intimacy, the love between
lovers or friends, is a love between equals, and it is necessarily mutual. With
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generativity, the individual, like a parent, does not expect to be repaid for the love he
gives to his children, at least not as strongly. Few parents expect a “return on their
investment" from their children: If they do, we don't think of them as very good
parents! Although the majority of people practice generativity by having and raising
children, there are many other ways as well. Erikson considers teach me writing
invention, the arts and sciences, social activism. and generally contributing to the
welfare of future generations to be generativity as well anything. In fact, that satisfies
that old need to be needed. Stagnation, on the other hand, is self - absorption, caring
for no one. The stagnant person stops to be a productive member of society.
It is perhaps hard to imagine that we should have any " stagnation on our lives, but
the maladaptive tendency Erikson calls overextension illustrates the problem: Some
people try to be so generative that they no longer allow time for themselves, for rest
and relaxation. The person who is overextended no longer contributes well. I'm sure
we all know someone who belongs to so many clubs or is devoted to so many
causes or tries to take so many classes or hold so many jobs that they no longer
have time for any of them! More obvious, of course, is the malignant tendency of
rejectivity. Too little generativity and too much stagnation and you are no longer
participating in or contributing to society. And much of what we call the meaning of
life "is a matter of how we participate and what we contribute”. This is the stage of
the midlife crisis. Sometimes men and women take a look at their lives and ask that
big, bad question "what am I doing all this for?” Notice the question carefully:
Because their focus is on themselves, they ask what, rather than whom they are
doing it for. In their panic at getting older and not having experienced or
accomplished what they imagined they would when they were younger, they try to
recapture their youth Men are often the most flamboyant examples: They leave their
long-suffering wives, quit their humdrum jobs, buy some “hip” new clothes, and start
hanging around singles bars. Of course, they seldom find what they are looking for,
because they are looking for the wrong thing!
Virtue
But if you are successful at this stage, you will have a capacity for caring that will
serve you through the rest of your life.
Stage Eight
Psychosocial Crisis
This last stage. referred to delicately as late adulthood or maturity, or less delicately
as old age, begins sometime around retirement, after the kids have gone, say
somewhere around 60. Some older folks will protest and say it only starts when you
feel old and so on, but that's an effect of our youth - worshipping culture, which has
even old people avoiding any acknowledgement of age. In Erikson's theory, reaching
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this stage is a good thing, and not reaching it suggests that earlier problems retarded
your development!
The task is to develop ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair. This stage
seems like the most difficult of all. First comes a detachment from society, from a
sense of usefulness, for most people in our culture. Some retire from jobs they've
held for years. others find their duties as parents coming to a close, most find that
their input is no longer requested or required. Then there is a sense of biological
uselessness, as the body no longer does everything it used to. Women go through a
sometimes dramatic menopause. Men often find they can no longer "rise to the
occasion". Then there are the illnesses of old age. such as arthritis, diabetes, heart
problems. concerns about breast and ovarian and prostate cancers. There come
fears about things that one was never afraid of before, the flu for example, or just
falling down. Along with the illnesses come concerns of death Friends die. Relatives
die. One's spouse dies. It is of course, certain that you, too, will have your turn.
Faced with all this. it might seem like everyone would feel despair. In response to
this despair. some older people become preoccupied with the past. After all, that's
where things were better. Some become preoccupied with their failures, the bad
decisions they made, and regret that (unlike some in the previous stage) they really
don't have the time or energy to reverse them. We find some older people become
depressed, spiteful, paranoid, hypochondriacal, or developing the patterns of senility
with or without physical bases.
Ego integrity means coming to terms with your life, and thereby coming to terms with
the end of life. If you are able to look back and accept the course of events, the
choices made your life as you lived it as being necessary, then you needn't fear
death. Although most of you are not yet at this point in life, perhaps you can still
sympathize by considering your life up to now. We've all made mistakes, some of
them pretty nasty ones: Yet, if you hadn't made these mistakes. You wouldn't be who
you are. If you had been very fortunate, or if you had played it safe and made very
few mistakes, your life would not have been as rich as is.
The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called presumption. This is what happens
when a person " presumes " ego integrity without actually facing the difficulties of old
age. The person in old age believes that he alone is right. He does not respect the
ideas and views of the young. The malignant tendency is called disdain. by which
Erikson means a contempt of life, one's own or anyone's. The person becomes very
negative and appears to hate life.
Virtue
Someone who approaches death without fear has the strength Erikson calls wisdom.
He calls it a gift to children because healthy children will not fear life if their elders
have integrity enough not to fear death. "He suggests that a person must be
somewhat gifted to be truly wise, but I would like to suggest that you understand
"gifted" in a broad a fashion as possible. I have found that there are people of very
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modest gifts who have taught me a great deal, not by their wise words but by their
simple and gentle approach to life and death, by their "generosity of spirit”.
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Preconventional Level
Moral reasoning is based on the consequence/result of the act, not on the whether
the act itself is good or bad.
Stage 1: Punishment/Obedience. One is motivated by fear of punishment. He will

act in order to avoid punishment.
Stage 2: Mutual Benefit. One is motivated to act by the benefit that one may obtain
later. You scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.
Conventional Level
Moral reasoning is based on the conventions or “norms” of society. This may include
approval of others, law and order.
Stage 3: Social Approval: One is motivated by what others expect in behavior –

good boy, nice girl. The person acts because he/she values how he/she will appear
not others. He/she gives importance on what people will think or say.
Stage 4: Law and Order: One is motivated to act in order to uphold law and order.
The person will follow the law because it is the law.
Post-conventional Level
Moral reasoning is based on enduring or consistent principles. It is not just

recognizing the law, but the principles behind the law.
Stage 5: Social Contract: Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will act based
on social justice and the common good.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles: This is associated with the development of

conscience. Having a set of standards that drives one to possess moral
responsibility to make societal changes regardless of consequence to oneself.
Examples of persons are Mother Teresa, Martin Luther King Jr.
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

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When Vygotsky was a young boy he was educated under a teacher who used the
Socratic method. This method was a systematic question and answer approach that
allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice higher levels of
understanding. This experience together with his interest in literature and his work as
a teacher, led him to recognize social interaction and language as two central factors
in cognitive development. His theory became known as the Socio – Cultural Theory
of Development.
Social Interaction. Piaget's theory was more individual, while Vygotsky was more
social. Piaget's work on Piagetian's tasks focused heavily on how an individual's
cognitive development became evident through the individual's own processing of
the tasks. Vygotsky, on the other hand gave more weight on the social interactions
that contributed to the cognitive development of individuals. For him. the social
environment or the community takes on a major role in one's development.
Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in social

activities, making the social context of learning crucial. Parents, teachers and other
adults in the learners ' environment all contribute to the process. They explain,
model, assist, give directions and provide feedback to the learner. Peers, on the
other hand, cooperate and collaborate and enrich the learning experience.
Cultural factors. Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on the
cognitive development of children. Piaget believed that as the child develops and
matures, he goes through universal stages of cognitive development that allows him
to move from simple explorations with senses and muscles to complex reasoning.
Vygotsky, on the other hand, looked into the wide range of experiences that a culture
would give to a child. For instance, one culture's view about education, how children
are trained early in life all can contribute to the cognitive development of the child.
Language. Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others
already have. Learners can use language to know and understand the world and
solve problems. Language serves a social function, but it also has an important
individual function. It helps the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking.
Children talk to themselves. Observe preschoolers play and you may hear, "Gagawin
ko itong airplane
(holding a rectangular block), tapos ito ang airport (holding two long blocks)." For
Vygotsky, this talking - to - oneself " is an indication of the thinking that goes on in
the mind of the child. This will eventually lead to private speech. Private speech is a
form of self - talk that guides the child's thinking and action. Vygotsky believed in the
essential role of activities in learning. Children learn best through hands - on
activities than when listening passively. Learning by doing is even made more fruitful
when children interact with knowledgeable adults and peers.
Zone of Proximal Development

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When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be immediately proficient
at it. So. alone she may perform at a certain level of competency. We refer to this as
the zone of actual development. However, with the guidance of a More
Knowledgeable Other (MKO), competent adult or a more advanced peer, the child
can perform at a higher level of competency. The difference between what the child
can accomplish alone and what she
can accomplish with the guidance of
another is what Vygotsky referred to
as zone of proximal development.
The zone represents a learning
opportunity where a knowledgeable
adult such as a teacher or parent or
a more advanced peer can assist the
child's development.
The support or assistance that lets

the child accomplish a task he
cannot accomplish independently is
called scaffolding. Scaffolding is not
about doing the task for the child
while he watches. is not about doing
shortcuts for the child. Unzipping the
lunch bag, opening the food container and putting straw in the child's tetrapack juice
for him is not scaffolding. Scaffolding should involve the judicious assistance given
by the adult or peer so that the child can move from the zone of actual to the zone of
proximal development. When the adult unzips the zipper an inch or two, and then
holds the lunch bag still so that the child can continue to unzip the lunch bag is
scaffolding. Loosening the food container lid just a bit and letting the child open the
lid himself is scaffolding. Leading the straw to the hole and letting the child put the
straw through the tetra pack hole is scaffolding.
The examples given above shows how a right amount of assistance can allow the
child to accomplish the task. The instructor should scaffold in such a way that the
gap is bridged between the learner's current skill levels and the desired skill level. As
learners become more proficient, able to complete tasks on their own that they could
not initially do without assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn. This is called
scaffold and fade - away technique. Scaffolding, when done appropriately can
make a learner confident and eventually he can accomplish the task without any
need for assistance.
BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY
Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model: Structure of Environment

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The microsystem. The microsystem is the layer nearest the child. It comprises
structures which the child directly interacts with. It includes structures such as one's
family, school and neighborhood. As such, the microsystem covers the most basic
relationships and interactions that a child has in his/ her immediate environment.
Does the child have strong and nurturing relationships with the parents and family?
Are his/ her needs met? In this layer, relationship
effects happen in two directions - both away from the child and toward the child. This
means that the child is affected by people with whom he interacts, and in turn these
people are also affected by the child. For example, a mother's deep affection for her
child moves her to answer to the baby's needs and keep the baby safe. In turn the
baby's smiles and coos bring the mother feelings of warmth and an affirmation that
indeed she is a good mother. The child is affected by the behavior and beliefs of the
parents. However, the child also affects the behavior and beliefs of the parent.
Bronfenbrenner calls these bi - directional influences, and he shows how they occur
among all levels of environment. This is quite similar to what Erikson termed as "
mutuality " in his psychosocial theory. Bronfenbrenner's theory looks into the
interaction of structures within a layer and interactions of structures between layers.
At the microsystem level, the child is most affected by these bi - directional
influences. However, interactions at outer layers still influence the structures of the
miscrosystem.
The mesosystem. This layer serves as the connection between the structures of the
child's microsystem. For example, the mesosystem will include the link or interaction
between the parents and teachers, or the parent and health services or the
community and the church.
The exosystem. This layer refers to the bigger social system in which the child does
not function directly. This includes the city government, the workplace, and the mass
media. The structures in this layer may influence the child's development by
somehow affecting some structure in the child's microsystem. This includes the
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circumstances of the parents work like the location schedules. We see a change in
the children's routine when for example the mother works in a call center. That was
seen in that burger chain commercial where the mom and the children meet up at
the fast food for breakfast just before the children go to school and the mom going
home from work in a call center. The child may not interact directly with what is in the
exosystem, but he is likely feel the positive or negative impact this system creates as
it interacts with the child's own system.
The macrosystem. This layer is found in the outermost part in the child's
environment. The macrosystem includes the cultural values, customs, and laws. The
belief system contained in one's macrosystem permeates all the interactions in the
other layers and reaches the individual. For example, in Western countries like the
US, most of the young people are expected to be more independent by the time they
end their teenage years, while in Asian countries like ours, parents are expected to
support or at least want to support their children for a longer period of time. It is not
uncommon to see even married children still living with their parents. In China and
also in other parts of the world, sons are more valuable than daughters. This may
pose challenges for girls as they are growing up. Because of differences in beliefs
and customs, children from different parts of the world experience different child -
rearing practices and therefore differences in development as well.
The chronosystem. The chronosystem covers the element of time as it relates to a

child's environments. This involves patterns of stability and change in the child's life.
This involves whether the child's day is characterized by an orderly predictable
pattern, or whether the child is subjected to sudden changes in routine. We can also
look into the pace of the child's everyday life. Is it a hurried or relaxed pace? This
system can affect or influence the child externally, like the timing of other siblings
coming or the timing of parental separation or even death.
Effect can also be internal, like in the bodily changes that occur within the developing
child, like the timing of menstrual onset for girls. As children get older, they may react
differently to environmental changes. The children may have also acquired the ability
to cope and decide to what extent they will allow changes around them to affect
them.
No longer Nature vs. Nurture, but Nurturing Nature! The long debate may be coming
to an end. For decades, if not for centuries, there was a long drawn debate on which
had more impact on child development, nature or nurture. Another way of putting it
is. it heredity or environment that influences child development more. More and more
research now point out that both a child's biology and his environment play a role in
the child's growth and development. Development theories now stress on the role
played by each and the extent to which they interact in ongoing development. The
ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context of the child's
environment. Bronfenbrenner pointed out that as a child develops, the interplay
within the layers of environment systems becomes more complex. This dynamic
interaction of the systems happens meantime, while the child's physical and
cognitive structures also grow and mature. This bioecological theory helps us
determine how the different circumstances, conditions and relationships in the world
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affect the child as he or she goes through the more or else predictable sequence of
natural growth and development.
The Role of Schools and Teachers
Bronfenbrenner co - founded Head Start, the publicly - funded early childhood

program in the US. He concluded that the instability and unpredictability of family life
is the most destructive force to a child's development. " Researches tell us that
absence or lack of children's constant mutual interaction with important adults has
negative effects on their development. According to the bioecological theory, if the
relationships in the immediate microsystem break down the child will not have the
tools to explore other parts of his environment. Children looking for the affirmations
that should be present in the child parent (or child/ other important adult) relationship
look for attention in inappropriate places.
These deficiencies show themselves especially in adolescence as anti - social

behavior, lack of self - discipline, and inability to provide self-direction.
Bronfenbrenner's theory reminds the school and the teachers of their very important
role. If there is a lack of support, care and affection from the home, if there is a
serious breakdown of the basic relationships in a child's life, what can the school, the
teachers in particular do? This theory helps teachers look into every child's
environmental systems in order to understand more about the characteristics and
needs of each child, each learner. The schools and the teachers can contribute
stability and long - term relationships, but only to support and not replace the
relationships in the home. Bronfenbrenner believes that, "the primary relationship
needs to be with someone who can provide a sense of caring that is meant to last a
lifetime. This relationship must be fostered by a person or people within the
immediate sphere of the child's influence." Schools and teachers ' crucial role are not
to replace the lack in the home if such exists, but to work so that the school becomes
an environment that welcomes and nurtures families. Bronfenbrenner also stressed
that society should value work done on behalf of children at all levels, and
consequently value parents, teachers, extended family, mentors, work supervisors,
legislators.
Adopted from:
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Publications
Let’s Check
Activity 1. Now that you know the most essential terms about the developmental
theories and other relevant theories and principles. Let us try to check your
knowledge pertaining to these terms and its concepts. In the space provided, kindly
supply the answer for each question below.
______________1. What operates during the height of anger according to Freud’s

personality component?
______________2. A teacher presents a morally ambiguous situation to his students
and asks them what to do. The teacher’s technique is based on the theory of?
______________3. According to Erikson, a child who is cold towards the people
around him might have failed to attain what basic goal based on psychosocial
development?
______________4. When a boy of 5 years old shows extreme attachment to his
mother, he is likely to be undergoing what stage of psychosexual development?
______________5. Harold, a 6 y/o boy likes to play with his friends, but easily gets
angry when defeated. Piaget`s theory states that this pupil is under what
development stage?
______________6. According to this development psychologist, children’s thinking
skills move from simplicity to complexity.
______________7. Peter an 8 y/o boy announced in front of his class: “Let us not
cheat because this is what our conscience is telling us”. Peter’s moral stage is most
likely in what level?
______________8. Mr. Francisco was very much worried about the thumb sucking
of his son. A friend of him says that is certain behavior among infants. Who
presented that notion that certain behavior like thumb-sucking is normal behavior?
______________9. Which stage of psychosexual theory does a young boy
experience rivalry with their father for their mother’s attention and affection?
______________10. Violeta goes with her mother in school. She enjoys the
workplace of her mother. Which of the following ecological theories is illustrated by
the situation?
Let’s Analyze
Activity 1. Getting acquainted with the essential terms pertaining to the
developmental theories and other relevant theories and principles is not enough,
what also matters is you should also be able to explain how these concepts and
principles explain the seemingly predictable pattern of human development. Now, I
will require you to explain thoroughly your answers.
At this juncture, you will be required to ELABORATE your answers about the
following questions:
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1. Describe in your own words the components of Freud’s topographical model
and give one concrete example for each.
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2. Differentiate the three (3) personality components according to Freud and

provide scenarios that demonstrate each personality.
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3. Differentiate between concrete operational and formal operational stage of

Piaget. Analyze its major differences. Provide concrete evidences that can
support your answer.
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4. Based from Erikson’s Psychosocial theory of development, identify which stage

do you belong according to your age and discuss whether you balance the
contrary dispositions of that stage. Elaborate your answer by providing
experiential evidences.
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5. Explain the concept behind Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development.

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6. Explain why it is hard for an individual to acquire the morality and reach the
stage 6 of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development?
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7. Expound the quotation below:
“Children need people in order to become human” – Urie Bronfenbrenner

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In a Nutshell
Activity 1. Understanding the different developmental theories and other relevant
theories and principles provides us with broader knowledge about the nature of child
and adolescent’s physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development. Again, it is
an essential concept necessary to be learned by a potential science teacher.
Based from the definition of the most essential concepts of the different theories on
human development and the learning exercises that you have done, please feel free
to write below your arguments or the lessons that you have learned from the topic.
1. ___________________________________________________________________
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2. ___________________________________________________________________
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clarificat
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
in your review.
Erogenous zone Accommodation Malignancy

Fixation Equilibration Maladaptation
Schema Private speech
Assimilation Scaffolding
Big Picture
Week 4-6: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to
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a. Explain the development of the Learners at various stages: Pre-natal,

Infancy, Toddlerhood, and Early Childhood; and
b. Discuss the development of the Learners at various stages: Middle
childhood, Late childhood, and Adolescence.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Explain the different phenomena such

as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of the development of
the Learners at various stages: Pre-natal, Infancy, Toddlerhood, and Early Childhood
to demonstrate ULOa will be operationally defined to establish a common frame of
refence as to how the texts work in your chosen field or career. You will encounter
these terms as we go through the study of this topic. Please refer to these definitions
in case you will encounter difficulty in understanding certain scientific concepts.
1. Endoderm. The inner layer of the cell that develops into the digestive and
respiratory systems.
2. Ectoderm. The outermost layer which becomes the nervous system,
sensory receptors, and the skin parts.
3. Mesoderm. The middle layer which becomes the circulatory, skeletal,
muscular, excretory, and reproductive systems.
4. Myelinization. The process by which the axons are covered and insulated
by layers of fat cells.
5. Holophrases. One-word utterances used by infants.
6. Language Acquisition Device. A metaphorical organ that is responsible
for language learning.
7. Temperament. A word that “captures the ways that people difference,
even at birth, in such things as their emotional reactions, activity level,
attention span, persistence, and ability to regulate emotions.
8. Gender Typing. The process of forming gender roles, gender-based
preferences and behaviors accepted by society.
Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the second three
(3) weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential
knowledge that will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you are
not limited to exclusively refer to these resources. Thus, you are expected to utilize
other books, research articles and other resources that are available in the
university’s library e.g. ebrary, search.proquest.com etc.
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PRE-NATAL PERIOD
Human life begins at conception
That which is in the mother's womb is indeed a developing human being. An unborn
baby of eight (8) weeks is not essentially different from one of eighteen (18) weeks
or twenty - eight (28) weeks. From conception the zygote, the embryo and the fetus
are undeniably human life.
Human life begins from the moment of conception. All that we have and all that we
are have been there at the moment of conception! The fact that you hay brown eyes
and black, straight, or curly hair and the fact that you will tum bald at age 50 have
been there already at the moment of conception. What were added in the process of
development is nutrition.
I remember the film on abortion that I once saw. "The Silent Scream". The mother
submitted herself to a medical doctor for abortion in her third month of pregnancy.
When the abortionist inserted his scalpel into the woman's womb to crush the head
of the fetus, very clearly in that film. the fetus had his/ her mouth open like he was
screaming for help as he evaded the deadly scalpel of the abortionist. That's why the
film was given the title " The Silent Scream ". This only means that the developing
being in the womb is a human being not just a conglomeration of cells or tissues.
Based on these facts, it is wrong to do abortion. The womb is supposed to be the

safest of all places for human development. Unfortunately, however, with the
scourge of abortion, it has become a tomb!
The development that takes place in 3 stages proves that the developing embryo in a
mother's womb is truly a human being.
The Stages of Prenatal Development
Prenatal development is divided into three (3) periods – germinal, embryonic, and
fetal
1. Germinal Period (First 2 weeks after conception). This includes the a creation
of the zygote, b) continued cell division and c) and the attachment of the zygote to
the uterine wall.
The following are the details of development during this period:
a) 24 to 30 hours after fertilization the male (sperm) and female (egg) chromosome
unite
b) 36 hours - the fertilized ovum, zygote, divides into two (2)
c) 48 hours (2days) - 2 cells become 4 cells
d) 72 hours (3 days) - 4 cells become a small compact ball of 16-32 cells
e) 96 hours (4 days) - hollow ball of 64-128 cells
f) 4-5 days - inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the
g) 6-7 days - blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus
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h) 11-15 days - blastocyst invades into uterine wall and becomes implanted in it
(implantation)
In the germinal period, the differentiation of cells already begins as inner and outer
layers of the organism are formed. The blastocyst, the miner layer of cells that
develops during the germinal period, develops later into the embryo. The trophoblast
the outer layer of cells that develops also during the germinal period, later provides
nutrition and support for the embryo (Nelson, Textbook of Pediatrics. 17th ed. 2004).
2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after conception). In this stage, the name of the
mass cells. Zygote, becomes embryo. The following developments take place: a) cell
differentiation intensifies
b) life - support systems for the embryo develop and
c) organs appear
As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers of cells are formed.
The embryo's endoderm, the inner layer of cells, develops into the digestive and
respiratory systems. The outer layer of cells is divided into two parts - the ectoderm
and the mesoderm. The ectoderm is the outermost layer which becomes the nervous
system, sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and skin parts (nails, hair). The
mesoderm is the middle layer which becomes the circulatory, skeletal, muscular,
excretory, and reproductive systems. This process of organ formation during the first
two months of pre - natal development is called organogenesis.
As the three layers of the embryo form, the support systems for the embryo develop
rapidly. These life – support systems are the placenta, the umbilical cord, and the
amnion. The placenta is a life - support system that consists of a disk - shaped group
of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine
but do not join. The umbilical cord contains two arteries and one vein that connects
the baby to the placenta. The amnion is a bag or an envelope that contains a clear
fluid in which the developing embryo floats. All these embryo life - support systems
develop from the fertilized and not from the mother's body.
3. Fetal period (2 months to 7 months after conception) – Growth and

development continue dramatically during this period. The details of the
developmental process are as follows (Santrock, 2002):
a) 3 months after conception - fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 1
ounce; fetus has become active, moves its arms and legs, opens and closes its
mouth, and moves its head; the face, forehead, eyelids, nose, chin can now be
distinguished and also the upper arms, lower arms, hands, and lower limbs; the
genitals can now be identified as male or female.
b) 4 months after conception - fetus is about 6 inches long and weighs 4 to 7 ounces;
growth spurt occurs in the body's lower parts; pre - natal reflexes are stronger,
mother feels arm and leg movements for the first time.
c) 5 months after conception - fetus is about 12 inches long; weighs close to a
pound; structures of the skin (fingernails, toenails) have formed; fetus is more
active.
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d) 6 months after conception- fetus is about 14 inches long and weighs one and half
pound; eyes and eyelids are completely formed; fine layer of head covers the
head; grasping reflex is present and irregular movements occur;
e) 7 months after conception - fetus is about 16 inches long and weighs 3 pounds;
and
f) 8 and 9 months after conception. fetus grows longer and gains substantial weight
about 4 pounds.
Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development
Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects. A
teratogen is that which causes birth defects. It comes from the Greek word " tera "
which means " monster.
Below are clusters of hazards to pre - natal development:

1) Prescription and nonprescription drugs. These include prescription as well as
non - prescription drugs. Antibiotic is an example of a prescription drug that can be
harmful Examples of harmful nonprescription drugs are diet pills. aspirin, and coffee.
Remember the thalidomide tragedy in 1961? Many pregnant women took in

thalidomide, a tranquilizer, to alleviate their morning sickness that gave rise to
several deformed babies.
Cocaine exposure during pre - natal development is associated with reduced

birthweight, length and head circumference (Hurt, et al. 1999 cited by Santrock,
2002). Impaired motor development (Arendt. et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002).
impaired - information processing (Singer. et al. 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002) and
poor attention skills (Bandstra, 2000 cited by Santrock, 2002)
2.) Psychoactive drugs. These include nicotine. caffeine and illegal drugs such as
marijuana, cocaine, and heroin.
Researches found that pregnant women who drank more caffeinated coffee were
more likely to have preterm deliveries and newborns with lower birthweight
compared to their counter parts who did not drink caffeinated coffee (Eskanazi. et al.
1999) quoted by Santrock. 2002).
Heavy drinking by pregnant women results to the so – called fetal alcohol
syndrome (FAS) which is a cluster of abnormalities that appears in the children of
mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy. These abnormalities include
facial deformities and defective limbs. face and heart (Santrock. 2002). Most of these
children are below average in intelligence and some are mentally retarded (Olson,
2000 and Burgess. 1996 quoted by Santrock, 2002).
Fetal and neonatal deaths are higher among smoking mothers. There are also higher
incidences of preterm bins and lower birthweights among children with smoking
mothers (Wang. et al. 2000 quoted by Santrock, 2002). On the average, maternal
heroin addicts deliver smaller than average size babies with more incidence of
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toxemia. premature separation of placenta, retained placenta, hemorrhaging after
birth and breech deliveries (http://www.yale.edu/yhti/ curriculum units/ 1980/ 8/
800503.html
3) Environmental hazards. These include radiation in jobsites and X-rays

environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, and prolonged exposure to beat in saunas
and bathtubs.
Research found that chromosomal abnormalities are higher among the offspring of
fathers exposed to high levels of radiation in their occupations (Schrag and Dixon,
1985 cited by Santrock 2002). Radiation from X - rays also can affect the developing
embryo and fetus, with the most dangerous time being the first several weeks after
conception when women do not yet know that they are pregnant (Santrock, 2002).
Researchers found that toxic wastes such as carbon monoxide. mercury and lead
caused defects in animals exposed to high doses. For instance, early exposure to
lead affects children's mental development. (Markowits, 2000 cited by Santrock,
2000). Remember the action of the U.S.A. for the children's toys with high lead
content manufactured in China?
Prolonged exposure of pregnant mothers to sauna or hot tubs raises the mothers '
body temperature creating fever that endangers the fetus The high temperature due
to fever may interfere with cell division and may cause birth defects or even fetal
death of the fever occurs repeatedly for prolonged periods of time (Santrock, 2002).
4) Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles), syphilis genital

herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and stress, age. (too early or too late, beyond
30)
A rubella (German measles) in 1964-65 resulted in 30,000 pre - natal and neonatal
(newborn) deaths and more than 20,000 affected infants were born with
malformations, including mental retardation, blindness, deafness, and heart
problems (Santrock, 2002).
Syphilis damages organs after they have formed. These damages include eye
lesions, which can cause blindness, and skin lesions. When syphilis is present at
birth other problem involving the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract,
can develop.
About one - third of babies delivered through herpes - infected time canal die another
one - fourth become brain – damaged.
A mother can infect her child in three ways: D during gestates across the placenta. 2)
during delivery through contact with maternal blood or fluids, and 3) postpartum
(after birth) through breast – feeding.
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Studies show that increased stress during pregnancy leads to pro mature birth and
reduced birth weight. Other studies have shown that increased stress during
pregnancy is related to ADHD even schizophrenia later in life.
Admittedly, more research on the effects of emotional states and stress needs to be
conducted for more conclusive findings. It is recognized that maternal malnutrition
during pregnancy may result to inadequate growth in the fetus. If a fetus does not
receive enough nourishment, the rate of cell division is seriously hampered. An
extremely deprived fetus may have 20 % fewer brain cells than normal. If an infant
has been malnourished both in utero and infancy, the brain may be as much as 60 %
smaller than that of the normal child.
Folic acid is necessary for pregnant mothers. Folic acid can reduce the risk of having
a baby with a serious birth defect of the brain and spinal cord, called the 'neural
tube'. A baby with spina bifida, the most common neural tube defect is born with a
spine that is not closed. The exposed nerves are damaged, leaving the child with
varying degrees of paralysis and sometimes mental retardation.
As maternal age increases the risks for numerical chromosomal abnormalities

increase. Maternal age effect.
The mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that of infants born
to mothers in their twenties. A baby with Down syndrome rarely is born to mother an
under age 30 but the risk increases after the mother reaches 30. By age 40, the
probability is slightly over 1 in 100, and by age 50 it is almost in 10. The risk is also
higher before age 18. (Santrock. 2002)
5) Paternal factors - Fathers' exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides, and

petrochemicals may cause abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or
diseases such as childhood cancer.
As in the case pf older mothers, older fathers also may place their offspring at risk for
certain defects (Santrock, 2002).
INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD
Physical Development
Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns
The cephalocaudal trend is the postnatal growth from conception to 5 months when
the head grows more than the body. This cephalocaudal trend of growth that applies
to the development of the fetus also applies in the first months after birth. Infants
learn to use their upper limbs before their lower limbs. The same pattern occurs in
the head area because the top parts of the head – the eyes and the brain – grow
faster than the lower parts such as the jaw.
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The proximodistal trend is the pre-natal growth from 5 months to birth when the
fetus grows from the inside of the body outwards. This also applies in the first month
after birth as shown in the earlier maturation of muscular control of the trunk and
arms, followed by the hands and fingers. When referring to motor development, the
proximodistal trend refers to the development of motor skills from the center of the
body outward.
Height and Weight
• It’s normal for newborn babies to drop 5 -10 percent of their body weight
within a couple of weeks of birth. That is due to the baby’s adjustment to
neonatal feeding. Once they adjust to sucking, swallowing, and digesting, they
grow rapidly.
• Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the first
six months. After six months, breastfed babies usually weigh less than
bottlefed babies.
• In general, an infant’s length increases by about 30 percent in the first five
months.
• A baby’s weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the
second year of life.
• Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along
a natural curve of steady development.
Brain Development
• Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years of life are
the spreading connections of dendrites to each other. Remember neurons,
dendrites, axon, and synapses?
Myelination or myelinization, the process by which the axons are covered

and insulated by layers of fat cells, begins pre-natally and continues after
birth. The process increases the speed at which information travels through
the nervous system.
• At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight. By the
second birthday, the brain is about 75% of its adult weight.
• Shortly after birth, a baby’s brain produces trillions more connections between
neurons than it can possibly use. The brain eliminates connections that are
seldom or never used (Santrock, 2002). The infant’s brain is literally waiting
for experiences to determine how connections are made.
Depressed brain activity has been found in children who grew up in a

depressed environment (Circhetti, 2001, cited by Santrock, 2002).
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Motor Development
Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin from reflexes, to
gross motor skills and fine motor skills.
Reflexes
• The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course automatic, and
serve as survival mechanisms before they have the opportunity to learn. Many
reflexes which are present at birth will generally subside within a few months
as the baby grows and matures.
• There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common reflexes that
babies have are:
Sucking Reflex: The sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the
roof of an infant's mouth. Infants have a strong sucking reflex which helps to
ensure they can latch unto a bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is very strong
in some infants and they may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort
Rooting Reflex: The rooting reflex IS most evident when an infant's cheek is
stroked. The baby responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the
touch and opening their mouth for feeding.
Gripping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm. The
strength of this grip is strong, and most babies can support their entire weight
in their grip.
Curling Reflex: When the inner sole of a baby's foot is stroked, the infant
respond by curling his or her toes. When the outer sole of a baby's foot is
stroked the infant will respond by spreading out their toes.
Startle/Moro Reflex: Infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements by

throwing their arms and legs out and throwing their heads back. Most infants
will usually cry when startled and proceed to pull their limbs back into their
bodies.
Galant Reflex: The galant reflex is shown when an infant's middle or lower
back is stroked next to the spinal cord. The baby will respond by curving his or
her body toward the side which is being stroked.
Tonic Neck Reflex: The tonic neck reflex is demonstrated in infants who are
placed on their abdomens. Whichever side the child's head is facing, the limbs
on that side will straighten, while the opposite limbs will curl.
Gross Motor Skills

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It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness dramatic changes in the
infant's first year of life. This dramatic motor development is shown in babies unable
to even lift their heads to being able to grab things out the cabinet, to chase the ball
and to walk away from parent.
Fine Motor Skills
Fine motor skills, are skills that involve a refined use of the small muscles controlling
the hand, fingers. and thumb. The development of these skills allows one to be able
to complete tasks such as writing. drawing. and buttoning.
The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involve activities that involve precise eye-hand
coordination. The development of reaching and grasping becomes more refined
during the first two years of life. Initially. Infants show only crude shoulder and elbow
movements, but later they show wrist movements, hand rotation and coordination of
the thumb and fore-finger.
Sensory and Perceptual Development
The newborn senses the world into which he/she is born through his/her senses of
vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. Ideally as he she advances physically his/her
sensory and perceptual abilities also develop.
What are some research findings regarding newborns Visual perceptions? Can
newborns see?
• The newborn's vision is about 10 to 30 times lower than normal adult vision.
By 6 months of age, vision becomes better and by the first birthday, the
infant's vision approximates that of an adult. (Banks & Salapatek. 1983 cited
by Santrock, 2002)
• Infants look at different things for different lengths of time. In an experiment

conducted by Robert Fantz (1963 cited by Santrock. 2002). it was found out
that infants preferred to look at patterns such as faces and concentric circles
rather than at color or brightness. Based on these results. it is likely that
pattern perception has an innate basis (Santrock, 2002). Among the first few
things that babies learn to recognize is their mother's face, as mother feeds
and nurses them.
Can newborns hear?
• The sense of hearing in an infant develops much before the birth of the baby.
When in the womb, the baby hears his/her mother's heartbeats. the grumbling
of his/her stomach. The mother's voice and music. How soothing it must have
been for you to listen to your mother 's lullaby.
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• Infants sensory thresholds are somewhat higher than those of adult which
means that stimulus must be louder to be heard by a newborn than by an
adult.
Can newborns differentiate odors?
• In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane (1975) "young infants who were

breastfed showed a clear preference for smelling their mother's breast pad
when they were 6 days old. This preference did not show when the babies
were only two days old. This shows that it requires several days of experience
to recognize their mother's breast pad odor."
Can newborns feel pain? Do they respond to touch?
• They do feel pain. Newborn males show a higher level of cortisol (an indicator
of stress) after a circumcision than prior to the surgery (Taddio, et al, 1997
cited by Santrock. 2002).
• Babies respond to touch. In the earlier part of this Module on motor
development, you learned that a newborn automatically sucks an object
placed in his/her mouth, or a touch of the cheek makes the newborn turn
his/her head toward the side that was touched in an apparent effort to find
something to suck.
Can newborns distinguish the different tastes?
• In a study conducted with babies only two hour old, babies made different
facial expressions when they tasted sweet, sour, and bitter solutions
(Rosentein and Oster, 1988, cited by Santrock. 2002)
• When saccharin was added to the amniotic fluid of a near-term fetus,
increased swallowing was observed.
• This indicates that sensitivity to taste might be present before birth.
Do infants relate information through several senses? In short, are infants capable of
intermodal perception?
• Intermodal perception is the ability to relate, connect and integrate information

about two or more sensory modalities such as vision and hearing.
• In a study conducted by Spelke and Owsley (1979). it was found out that as
early as at 3 1/2 months old, infants looked more at their mother when they
also heard her voice and long at their father when they also heard his voice.
• This capacity for intermodal perception or ability to connect information
coming through various modes gets sharpened considerably through
experience.
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Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage
• An analysis of the 6 substages of the sensorimotor stage of Piaget's cognitive
development shows that development begins from reflexive behaviors to more
refined and more coordinated activities. Cognitive development of infants
evolves in orientation from becoming focused on themselves to becoming
object or world-oriented, from one that is action-based to one that is
mentallybased, from one that does not involve much of coordination of
schemes to one involving intentionality, novelty and curiosity and from a
thinking that is purely sensorimotor to a symbolic one.
• Piaget's substages are termed circular because the adaptive behavior to the
world involves repeated actions. Circular reactions are attempts to repeat an
event that the baby likes. Circular reactions serve as the building blocks for
intelligence (Pasek, P., and Golinkoff. R, 2003).
• Primary circular reactions are oriented toward the infant's own body, whereas
secondary circular reactions are aimed toward the environment including
others. Here is an example of a primary circular reaction:
At first, by accident, the baby gets her thumb in her mouth. But she doesn't
know how to do it again. She waves her hand around and. after many
attempts, eventually succeeds in doing it again. Gradually, she learns how to
do it at will (Pasek. K., and R., Golinkoff, 2003).
• Secondary circular reactions are repetitive actions that involve recreating

events which 4-10 month old babies observe outside of their own bodies,
Such as making their mobile crib shake by kicking their legs (Pasek, K and
R.Golinkoff, 2003).
• Tertiary circular reactions. Seen from approximately 10 to 18 months, is when

a baby does things over and over again. Just a little differently each time. e.g
When a baby seems to enjoy dropping the spoon over and over again in any
different ways, a proof of the creation of novel variations in events Piaget
described the baby at this stage as "the scientist" When parents don't
understand their child's behavior, they see this act as abusive and get
frustrated.
• From dropping the spoon many times in many different ways, the baby
discovers a pattern "objects fall down not up" They create the patterns with
their repetitive actions and then evaluate them. Babies are born pattern
seekers (Pasek, K and R. Golinkoff, 2003).
• Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the infant's most

important accomplishments, according to Piaget." Object permanence is the
understanding that objects continue to exist even when the objects are not
immediately perceptible through the senses. Before the infant's acquisition of
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the sense of object permanence, the principle that applies is "out of sight, out
of mind”.
Learning and Remembering
Do infants learn and remember?
Yes! Pavlov's classical conditioning and Skinner's operant conditioning have been
proven to apply to infants. We’ll ask you to research on researches that prove this.
All of us experience infantile amnesia. the inability to recall events that happened
when we were very young (Spear, 1979). Generally. We can remember little or
nothing that has happened to us before the age of about 5 years, and it 1s extremely
rare for someone to recall many memories before age 3 years. Reports of childhood
memories usually involve memories of significant events (e.g. birth of a sibling or the
death of a parent: Fivush and Hammond, 1991). For example, some adults have
recalled their own hospitalization or the birth of a sibling as far as back as age 3
years (Usher and Neisser, 1993).
Language Development
From day one. infants appear to be programmed to tune in to their linguistic

environment with the specific goal of acquiring language. Infants clearly have
remarkably acute language learning abilities even from an early age (Marcus,
Vijayan. Bandi Rao and Vishton. 1999; Pinker 1997, 1999 cited by Sternberg.
Robert. 2003).
Within the first years of life, we humans seem to progress through the following
stages in producing language (Sternberg. 2005):
1. Cooing. which comprises largely vowel sounds

2. Babbling. which comprises consonant as well as vowel sounds; to most people's
ears, the babbling of infants growing up among speakers from different language
groups sounds very similar
3. One-word utterances: these utterances are limited in both the vowels and the
consonants they utilize (Ingram. 1999 cited by Sternberg 2003)
4. Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech
5. Basic adult sentence structure (present by about age 4 years) with continuing
vocabulary acquisition.
The infant utters his/her first word- followed by one or two more, and soon after, yet a
few more. The infant uses these one-word utterances termed holophrases-to convey
intentions. desires and demands. Usually, the words ae nouns describing familiar
objects that the child observes (e.g. book, ball, baby) or wants (e.g. Mama. Dada).
By 18 months of age, children typically have vocabularies of 3 to 100 words (Siegler.

1986). Because the young child's vocabulary is very limited at this point in the
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development process, the child overextends the meaning of words in his/her existing
lexicon to cover things and Ideas for which a new word is lacking. For example, the
general term for any kind of four-legged animal may be "doggie". In linguistics this is
called overextension error.
Gradually between 1.5 and 2.5 years of age. children start combining single words to
produce two-word utterances. These two-word or three-word utterances with
rudimentary syntax but with articles and prepositions missing are referred to as
telegraphic speech.
Vocabulary expands rapidly, more than tripling from about 300 words at about 2.
years of age to about 1,000 words at about 3 years of age. At about 4 years,
incredibly children acquire the foundations of adult syntax and language structure
(Sternberg. 2003).
It is clear that no toddler blossoms all of a sudden into one capable of telegraphic
speech. As the 5 stages above show, the acquisition of language comes in stages
beginning with cooing. then babbling to one-word utterances, to two- or three-word
utterances or even more but without articles and prepositions thus called telegraphic
speech.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Noam Chomsky (1965, 1972), noted linguist. claims that humans have an innate
language acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is a "metaphorical organ that is
responsible for language learning. Just as a heart is designed to pump blood this
language acquisition devices preprogrammed to learn language, whatever the
language community children find themselves in."
This means that we, humans seem to be biologically preconfigured to be ready to

acquire language. Indeed. children seem to have a knack for acquiring an implicit
understanding of the many rules of language structure, as well as for applying those
rules to new vocabulary and new contexts. This may partly explain why children are
said to learn language fast.
Professor Laura-Ann Petito of Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire and

her colleagues conducted a recent study that concluded that "by 5 months of age.
babies are already specializing by using the left side of their brains for language
sounds and the right side for expression emotion. We all speak out from the right
side of our mouths...Babies babble out from the right side of their mouths.
The right side of the body is controlled by the left side of the brain while the left side
of the body is controlled by the right side of the brain (connections in the brain are
contralateral or crossed). Babies use the right side of their mouths for babbling, then
babbling is language function controlled by the left side of the brain.
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SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Much has been said about the importance of the first three years in human
development. They are so-called the formative years that is why, parents and other
caregivers at this stage of human development play a significant role in the
development of infants and toddlers.
Attachment
For healthy socio-emotional development, the infant needs to establish an enduring

emotional bond characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain closeness to a
specific figure, particularly during stressful situation. This is the social phenomenon
of attachment.
According to Dr. John Bowly, the father of attachment theory, the beginnings of
attachment occur within the first 6 months of baby's life with a variety of built-in
signals that baby uses to keep her caregiver engaged. The baby cries, gazes into
her mother's eyes, smiles, etc. n the next few months, the baby develops in her
degree of attachment to her parents. She smiles more freely at them than at any
stranger whom she seldom sees. This is what Bob Greene must have experienced.
The key to a good start in the social development of the baby is a lot of responsive
interaction with the baby (K.Pasek and R.Golinkoff, 2003). Babies thrive on social
interaction when it is in response to their social bids. Babies seem to let us know
when they want to interact or not. The timing of the caregiver's response to the baby
is important.
Temperament
Another factor related to the infant's socio-emotional development is temperament.

Temperament is a word that "captures the ways people differ, even at birth, in such
things as their emotional reactions, activity level, attention span, persistence, and
ability to regulate their emotions" (K. Pasek and R. Golinkof. 2003). Every baby
expresses personality traits we call temperament. How a child responds emotionally
to objects, events, and people is a reflection of his individual temperament.
2. Researchers Thomas, Chess, and Birch described nine different temperament

categories (Honig, 2010, Secure Relationships: Nurturing Infant-Toddler
Attachments in Early Care Settings.)
These include:
Activity level
Mood
Threshold for distress
Rhythmicity
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Intensity of response
Approach-Withdrawal
Distractibility
Adaptability
Persistence
To determine a child's temperament, make the following observations
Activity level. Some babies are placid or inactive. Other babies thrash about a lot
and, as toddlers, are always on the move. At this stage, they must be watched
carefully.
The mood. Some babies are very smiley and cheerful. Although securely attached
emotionally to their teachers, others have a low-key mood and look more solemn or
unhappy.
Child's threshold for distress. Some babies are very sensitive. They become upset
very easily when stressed. Other babies can more comfortably wait when they need
a feeding or some attention. The rhythmicity of children. Some babies get hungry or
sleepy on a regular and predictable basis. Other babies sleep at varying times,
urinate, or have bowel movements at unpredictable times, and get hungry at different
times. they are hard to put on a schedule."
The intensity of response in each baby. When a baby's threshold for distress has
been reached, some babies act restless. Others act cranky or fret just a little. Still
others cry with terrific intensity or howl with despair when they are stressed. They
shriek with delight and respond with high energy when reacting to happy or
challenging situations.
Approach to new situations. Some infants are very cautious. They are wary and
fearful of new teachers, being placed in a different crib, or being taken to visit a new
setting. Other infants approach new persons, new activities, or new play p0sSibilities
with zest and enjoyment.
Distraction. Some children can concentrate on a toy regardless of surrounding

bustle or noise in a room. Others are easily distracted.
Adaptability of each child. Some children react to strange or difficult Situations with
distress but recover fairly rapidly. Others adjust to new situations with difficulty or
after a very long period.
Child's attention span. Some children have a long attention span. They continue
with an activity for a fairly long time. Others flit from one activity to another.
Based on these temperament traits, psychiatrists Alexander Thomas and Stella

Chess studied babies temperament and clustered temperaments into 3 basic types
1) the easy child; 2) the difficult child; and 3) the slow-to-warm-up child and
those that did not fall under any of the 3 basic types. The "easy child" easily readily
establishes regular routines, is generally cheerful, and adapts readily to new
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experiences. The "difficult child" is irregular in daily routines, is slow to accept new
experiences and tends to react negatively and intensely to new things while the
"slow-to warm-up-child" shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental changes, is
negative in mood, and adjusts slowly to new experiences.
The Emergence of the Moral Self
A sense of morality presupposes awareness of the existence of moral standards and

the ability to evaluate oneself against standards. Once children can recognize
themselves as entities. they become capable of self-evaluation and self-description
against a set of standards. In the research conducted by Professor Deborah Stipek
and her colleagues at the University of California, Los Angeles, (Pasek, K. and R.
Golinkoff) about 50% of the 19-to-24 month-olds and 80 % of the 25-to-29 months
old and almost all 30-to-40-month-olds are capable of self-evaluation. These age
groups of babies therefore have a sense of morality.
Children who aren't capable of self-evaluation and self-description don't have the
capacity to experience a sense of shame and remorse. Moral behavior cannot occur
when children do not recognize themselves as social beings whose behavior can be
evaluated against some standard." (Pasek, K and R. Golinkoff, 2003)
It is not then surprising why some babies show their parents they have done
something wrong sometimes even with laughter or at other times with no particular
emotion. It is not because they are bad babies. It is simply because 'they are not yet
able to hold a standard in mind and evaluate situations in terms of these standards.
The development of emotions
Here are the milestones of the baby and the toddler's emotional development and
social development:
Early infancy (birth-six months)
It is not clear whether infants actually experience emotions, or if adults, using adult
facial expressions as the standard, simply superimpose their own understanding of
the meaning of infant facial expressions.
Between six and ten weeks, a social smile emerges, usually accompanied by other
pleasure-indicative actions and sounds. Including cooing and mouthing. This social
smile occurs in response to adult smiles and interactions.
As infants become more aware of their environment, smiling occurs in response to a

Wider variety of contexts. They may smile when they, see a toy they have previously
enjoyed. Laughter, which begins at around three or four months, requires a level of
cognitive development because it demonstrates that the child can recognize
incongruity. That 15, laughter is usually elicited by actions that deviate from the
norm, such as being kissed on the abdomen or a caregiver playing peek-a-boo.
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Because it fosters reciprocal interactions with others. laughter promotes social
development.
Later infancy months (7-12)
During the last half of the first year. infants begin expressing fear, disgust, and anger
because of the maturation of cognitive abilities. Anger often expressed by crying is a
frequent emotion expressed by infants. Although some infants respond to distressing
events with sadness, anger is more common.
Fear also emerges during this stage as children become able to compare an
unfamiliar event with what they know. Unfamiliar situations or objects often elicit fear
responses in infants. One of the most common is the presence of an adult stranger,
a fear that begins to appear at about seven months. A second fear of this stage is
called separation anxiety. Infants seven to twelve months old may cry in fear if the
mother or caregiver leaves them in an unfamiliar place.
Socialization of emotion begins in infancy. It is thought that this process is significant

in the infant's acquisition of cultural and social codes for emotional display. teaching
them how to express their emotions, and the degree of acceptability associated with
different types of emotional behaviors.
Another process that emerges during this stage is social referencing. Infants begin to
recognize the emotions of others and use this information when reacting to novel
situations and people. As infants explore their world, they generally rely on the
emotional expressions of their mothers or caregivers to determine the safety or
appropriateness of a particular endeavor.
Toddlerhood years (1-2)
During the second year, infants express emotions of shame or embarrassment, and
pride. These emotions mature in all children and adults contribute to their
development.
Emotional understanding
During this stage of development, toddlers acquire language and are learning to
verbally express their feelings. This ability. rudimentary as it is during early
toddlerhood, is the first step in the development of emotional self-regulation skills. In
infancy, children largely rely on adults to help them regulate their emotional states. If
they are uncomfortable, they may be able to communicate this state by crying. but
have little hope of alleviating the discomfort on their own.
In toddlerhood, however, children begin to develop skills to regulate emotions with

the emergence of language providing an important tool to assist in this process.
Being able to articulate an emotional state in itself has a regulatory effect in that it
enables children to communicate their feelings to a person capable of helping them
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manage their emotional state, Speech also enables children to self-regulate, using
soothing language to talk themselves through difficult situations.
Empathy, a complex emotional response to a situation, also appears in toddlerhood,

usually by age two. he development of empathy requires that children read others
emotional cues, understand that other people are entities distinct from themselves,
and take the perspective of another person (put themselves in the position of
another).
Erikson's Psychosocial theory
The first two stages (of the 8 stages of a person's psychosocial development) apply
at the periods of infancy and toddlerhood, that is why they are discussed below:
Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)
Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
Virtue: Hope
The first stage of Erik Erikson's centers around the infants basic needs being met by
the parents. The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother, for food,
sustenance, and comfort. The child's relative understanding of world and society
come from the parents and their interaction with the child. If the parents expose the
child to warmth, regularity. and dependable affection, the infant's view of the world
will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide a secure environment and to
meet the child's basic need a sense of mistrust will result. According to Erik Erikson,
the major developmental task in infancy is to learn whether or not other people,
especially primary caregivers regularly satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are
consistent sources of food, comfort, and affection, an infant learns trust- that others
are dependable and reliable. If they are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the
infant instead learns mistrust- that the world is in an undependable, unpredictable,
and possibly dangerous place.
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)
Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
Main Question: "Can do things myself or must I always rely on others?"
Virtue: Will
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to
explore their surroundings. The parents still provide a strong base of security from
which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents’ patience and
encouragement help foster autonomy in the child. Highly restrictive parents,
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however, are more likely to instill the child with a sense of doubt and reluctance to
attempt new challenges.
As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become capable
of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves, wash and
dress themselves, and use the bathroom. If caregivers encourage self-sufficient
behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy- a sense of being able to handle
many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too much too soon, refuse to
let children perform tasks of which they are capable, or ridicule early attempts at self-
sufficiency, children may instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to
handle problems.
EARLY CHILDHOOD (The Preschooler, 3-5 years of age)
Big ideas about the Physical Development of Preschoolers
1. There are significant changes in physical growth of preschooler.

2. The pre-schoolers physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross and
fine motor skills.
3. Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early age.
4. Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important for the
preschoolers.
5. Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth and development
of preschoolers.
6. Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classrooms cam thrive well with the
appropriate adaptations made in the classrooms, materials and activities.
Significant Changes in Physical Growth
Physical growth increases in the preschool years, although it is much slower in pace
than in infancy and toddlerhood. At around 3 years of age, preschoolers move. from
the remaining baby-like features of the toddler, toward a slenderer appearance of a
child. The trunk, arms and legs become longer.
The center of gravity refers to the point at which body weight is evenly distributed.
Toddlers have their center of gravity at a high level, about the chest level. This is
why they have difficulty doing sudden movements without falling down. Preschoolers
on the other hand, have their center of gravity at a lower level, right about near the
belly button. This gives them more ability to be stable and balanced than the toddler.
The preschooler moves from the unsteady stance of toddlerhood to a steadier
bearing. They no longer toddle, that wobbly way that toddlers walk. This also allows
the preschooler to move more success fully than the toddler. Some say that the later
part of the preschooler years at around 5 or 6 is the best time to begin learning skills
that require balance like riding a bike or skating.
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By the time the child reaches three years old. all primary or deciduous, or what are
also called baby or milk teeth are already in place. The permanent teeth which will
begin to come out by age six are also developing. The preschooler years are
therefore a time to instill habits of good dental hygiene.
Gross and Fine Motor Development
Gross motor development refers to acquiring skills that involve the large muscles.
These gross motor skills are categorized into three: locomotor, non-locomotor and
manipulative skills. Locomotor skills are those that involve going from one place to
another, like walking, running, climbing. skipping, hopping. creeping, galloping, and
dodging. Non-locomotor ones are those where the child stays in place, like
bending, stretching. turning and swaying. Manipulative skills are those that involve
projecting and receiving objects, like throwing, striking, bouncing, catching, and
dribbling.
Preschoolers are generally physically active. Level of activity is highest around three
and becomes a little less as the preschooler gets older. Preschoolers should be
provided with a variety of appropriate activities which will allow them to use their
large muscles. Regular physical activity helps preschoolers build and maintain
healthy bones, muscles, and joints, control weight and build lean muscles, prevent or
delay hypertension, reduce feelings of depression and anxiety and increase capacity
for learning.
Fine motor development refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller muscles in
the arm, hands and fingers purposefully. Some of the skills included here are picking
squeezing, pounding. and opening things. holding and using a writing implement. It
also involves self-help skills like using the spoon and fork when eating. buttoning,
zipping, combing, and brushing.
By the end of the preschool years most children manage to hold a pencil with their
thumb and fingers, draw pictures, write letters, use scissors, do stringing and
threading activities. They can also do self-help skills like eating and dressing up
independently. Significant progress in fine motor skills can be expected of
preschoolers especially if they are aptly supported and appropriate activities are
provided for them.
Handedness, or the preference of the use of one hand over the other, is usually
established around 4 years of age. Earlier than this, preschoolers can be observed
to do tasks using their hands interchangeably. We can observe a preschooler
shifting the crayon from left to right and back again while working on a coloring
activity.
Preschoolers’ Artistic Development
At the heart of the preschooler years is their interest to draw and make other forms of
artistic expressions. This form of fine motor activity is relevant to preschoolers.
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Viktor Lowenfeld studied this and came up with the stages of drawing in early
childhood:
Stage 1. Scribbling stage. This stage begins with large zig-zag lines which later
become circular markings. Soon, discrete shapes are drawn. The child may start to
name his/her drawing towards the end of this stage.
Stage 2. Preschematic stage. May already include carly representations (This also
becomes very significant when we discuss about cognitive development). At this
point adults may be able to recognize the drawings. Children at this stage tend to
give the same names to their drawings several times. Drawings usually comprise of
a prominent head with basic elements. Later, arms, legs, hands and even facial
features are included.
Stage 3. Schematic stage. More elaborate scenes are depicted. Children usually
draw from experience and exposure. Drawings may include houses, trees, the sun
and sky and people. Initially, they may appear floating in air but eventually drawings
appear to follow a ground line.
Preschoolers Symbolic and Intuitive Thinking
There are two substages of Piaget's preoperational thought, namely, symbolic

substage and intuitive substage. In the symbolic stage, being able to draw objects
that are not present, by their dramatic increase in their language and make-believe
play. In the intuitive substage, preschool children begin to use primitive reasoning
and ask a litany of questions. The development in their language ability facilitates
their endless asking of questions. While preschool children exhibit considerable
cognitive development, their improved cognitive processes still show some aspects
of immaturity or limitations.
Language Development
Young children’s understanding sometimes gets ahead of their speech. As children

go through early childhood, their grasp of the rules of language increases.
Symbolic thinking involves language, literacy and dramatic play. Children rapidly
conclude that sounds link together to make words and words represent ideas,
people, and things. Throughout the preschool years, children's language
development becomes increasingly complex in the four main areas: phonology
(speech sounds), semantics (word meaning), syntax (sentence construction), and
pragmatics (conversation or social uses of language). As they advance in age and
as they continuously interact with people, preschool children expand rapidly in their
vocabulary through fast mapping, a process by which children absorb the meaning of
a new word after hearing it once or twice in conversation. Preschool children
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combine syllables into words and words into sentences in an increasingly
sophisticated manner.
Language and Social Interaction
Vygotsky believed that young children use language both to communicate socially
and to plan. guide, and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory 1ashion called
inner speech or private speech (Santrock, 2002).
For P1aget. private speech is egocentric and immature, but for Vygotsky it is an
important tool of thought during early childhood. Full cognitive development requires
social interaction and language. Children must use 1anguage to communicate with
others before they can focus on their own thoughts (Santrock, 2002). This implies
the importance of interaction of preschoolers with caregivers for language
development.
Vygotsky asserted that preschool children are unable to achieve their highest
cognitive development (language development included) on their own and that they
can improve their cognitive development through use of scaffolding from more-skilled
children and adults. He introduced the term Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) to
refer to tasks too difficult for a child to master alone but can be mastered with the
guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children (Santrock, 2002). In short,
the ZPD captures the preschool children’s cognitive skills that are in the process of
maturing. The ZPD has a lower limit and an upper limit. The lower limit of the ZPD is
"the level of cognitive development reached by the preschool child independently.
The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with
assistance of an able instructor (Santrock, 2002)
Closely linked to the idea of ZPD in cognitive and language development is the
concept of scaffolding, a term that refers to the "changing support over the course ol
a teaching session, with the more skilled person adjusting guidance to it the child 's
current performance level" (Santrock, 2002). The more skilled person is also called
More Knowledgeable Other (MK0). Can you think of ways of scaffolding
preschoolers to help them reach optimum cognitive and language development?
Information Processing Theory-Attention and Memory
The Information Processing model is another way of examining and understanding

how children develop cognitively. This model conceptualizes children's mental
processes through the metaphor of a computer processing encoding, storing, and
decoding data. The preschoolers' attention span lasts longer than that of toddlers.
The child's ability to pay attention changes significantly during the preschool years.
But one deficit in attention during preschool years is that attention is focused only on
aspects that stand out at the expense of those that are relevant to solving a problem
to performing well on a task Preschool children recognize previously encountered
information, recall old information, and reconstruct it in the present. 1ry asking a
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preschooler what she did on Christmas vacation when she returns to preschool after
the holiday. She will be able to. Among the interesting questions about memory in
the preschool years are those involving short-term memory In short-term memory
(STM) information for up to 15-30 seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal, which
can help keep information in STM for a much longer period (Santrock, 2002).
Differences in memory span occur across the ages due to: a) rehearsal and b)
speed and efficiency of processing information. Older children rehearse items
more than younger children. On this count, preschool children may have shorter
memory span than primary and intermediate pupils. The speed with which a child
processes information is an important aspect of the child's cognitive abilities.
The Young Children's Theory of Mind
Theory of mind refers to individuals thoughts about how mental processes work
(Santrock, 2002).
By the age of 2 or 3, children become aware that the mind exists. They refer to
needs, emotions, and mental states. When a preschool child says, forgot my doll", "I
want my ice cream- these imply that he/she is aware that a mind exists. Cognitive
terms such as know, remember, and think usually appear after perceptual and
emotional terms, but are used by age 3 (Santrock, 2002). As their representation of
the world and ability to remember and solve problems improve. children start to
reflect on their own thought processes. They begin to construct a theory of mind or a
set of ideas about mental activities (Preschoolers Cognitive Development, 2007).
This develops markedly between the ages of three and five. It includes awareness of
one's own thought processes, social cognition, understanding that people can hold
false beliefs, ability to deceive, ability to distinguish appearance from reality and
ability to distinguish fantasy from reality (Preschoolers Cognitive Development,
2007).
Socio-emotional Development
Preschoolers' Initiative
Erikson's view of initiative aptly portrays the emotional and social changes that
happen during the preschool years. Preschoolers deal with the psychological conflict
of initiative versus guilt. Initiative, the tendency of preschoolers to want to take action
and assert themselves. They will yearn to create, invent, pretend, take risks and
engage in lively and imaginative activities with peers. When parents, teachers and
other adults support these attempts and provide a stimulating environment, the
preschooler's sense of initiative will grow. On the other hand, if the adults show
overprotection, extreme restriction and criticisms, the preschooler will develop guilt.
As preschoolers go through the conflict of initiative vs. guilt, they show so much
energy in doing imaginative play activities. Every place becomes a playground to
explore, every single thing an interesting piece to tinker with. Adults sometimes get
exasperated over this behavior and begin to see the preschooler as "naughty or
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"makulit. Some parents and teachers then become overly restrictive, resorting to
threats, intimidation and other scary tactics that disrespect the preschooler just to
establish "control". Consequently, the child may develop excessive guilt. Although a
good amount of guilt helps in making children take responsibility for their behavior,
excessive guilt hampers emotional growth.
Preschoolers who are always punished and criticized end up constructing a view of
themselves as being salbahe (bad) "bobo" (dumb) or even "walang kwenta
(worthless). This is really sad because childhood years should be happy years. One
poster says, "You don't have to hit to hurt. The message emphasizes that even the
things we say and the way we deal with preschoolers can already hurt them at this
vulnerable stage.
The key thing to remember is to apply "judicious permissiveness." This involves

setting realistic boundaries that keep preschoolers safe and respectful of self and
others, while allowing them greater opportunity to explore, take risks and to engage
in creative processes. Preschoolers will develop a healthy sense of initiative in an
affirming, encouraging and stimulating environment.
Self-Concept and the Preschooler
By the end of toddlerhood, preschoolers come out with a clear sense that they are a
separate and distinct person. With their ability to make representations, they can
now think and reflect about themselves. Self-concept refers to the way one sees
himself, a general view about one's abilities, strengths, and weaknesses. The
preschooler's selfconcept mainly focuses on observable characteristics and his/her
usual beliefs, emotions, and attitudes. One will hear a preschooler say, "Kaya ko na!
(I can do it)" "Ako lang nagsuot ng shoes ko." (wore my shoes all by myself.) An
important aspect of self-concept is self-esteem, which specifically refers to one's
judgments about one's worth. Preschoolers are naturally positive. Usually they will
tend to evaluate their skills high and underestimate the tasks. They are confident to
try again even if they don't succeed with something. However, they may become
negative because of repeated frustration and disapproval. Preschoolers need a lot of
patience and encouragement from adults.
Environmental Factors and Gender in the Preschoolers' Socio-emotional

Development
As the preschooler's ability to create schemas develop, they become capable of

gender typing, the process of forming gender roles. gender-based preferences and
behaviors accepted by society. They come to form gender stereotypes. Preschoolers
begin to associate certain things like toys, tools. games. clothes, jobs, colors or even
actions or behaviors as being only for boys" or "only for girls. Consequently, they
form their own gender identity, the view of oneself as being masculine or feminine.
Parten’s stages of Play

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1. Unoccupied. The child appears not to be playing but directs his attention on
anything that interests him.
2. Onlooker. The child spends time watching others play. He may talk to them
but does not enter into play with them
3. Solitary Play. The child plays independently.
4. Parallel Play. The child plays with toys similar to those near him, but only
plays beside and not with them. No interaction takes place.
5. Associate Play. the child plays with others. There is interaction among them,
but no task assignment, rules, and organization are agreed upon.
6. Cooperative. The child plays with others bound by some agreed rules and
roles.
Caregiving Styles
Caregiving styles affect the socio-emotional development of the children. Caregivers

here refer to both parents and teachers and even other adults that care for the child.
Baumrind gave a model that describes the different types of caregiving styles. She
identified varying degrees of demandingness and responsiveness as determinants of
four styles of caregiving.
Responsiveness refers to caregiver behaviors that pertain to expression of affection

and communication. It refers to how warm, caring, and respectful the adult is to the
child. It involves openness in communication and the willingness to explain things in
ways that the child will understand.
Demandingness refers to the level of control and expectations. This involves

discipline and confrontation strategies.
1. Authoritative: high demandingness/high responsiveness

2. Authoritarian: high demandingness/low responsiveness
3. Permissive: low demandingness/high responsiveness
4. Negligent: low demandingness/low responsiveness
*Gray, Co Lette & Macbian Seon (2015). Learning theories in childhood. USA: Sage
Publications
Let’s Check
Activity 1. Now that you know the most essential terms and concepts pertaining to
the development of the learners at various stages: Pre-natal, Infancy, Toddlerhood,
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and Early Childhood. Let us try to check your knowledge. In the space provided,
kindly supply the answer for each of the questions below.
_____________1. During Germinal Period, how many days will it take for an inner
cell mass to attach to the wall of uterus?
_____________2. This is an outer layer of cells that provides nutrition and support
for the embryo.
_____________3. What is the other term for Rubella?
_____________4. What trend is emphasized when the head grows more than the
body?
_____________5. A reflex that is triggered when an infant’s mouth is touched?
_____________6. In what developmental stage does an individual start to learn how
to talk?
_____________7. A language development term used to describe an individual’s
ability to produce consonant and vowel sounds?
_____________8. This is considered to be the “formative years” of human
development?
_____________9. When does socialization of emotion begin?
_____________10. What is the term used to describe when infants cry in fear if the
caregiver leaves them in an unfamiliar place is called?
Let’s Analyze
Activity 1. Getting acquainted with the essential terms pertaining to the development
of the learners at various stages: Pre-natal, Infancy, Toddlerhood, and Early
Childhood is not enough, what also matters is you should also be able to explain the
underlying theories and principles of the physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional
development of these life stages. Now, I will require you to explain thoroughly your
answers.
1. What are proofs that which is developing in the mother’s womb is a living
human being?
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2. One of the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years of life are
the spreading connections of dendrites. Explain how this process takes place.
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3. Do all toddlers learn language at the same pace?

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4. Explain how Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development relates to Preschool’s

cognitive development.
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In a Nutshell
Activity 1. Understanding the principles and concepts pertaining to the development
of learners at various stages namely, Pre-natal, Infancy, Toddlerhood, and Early
Childhood provides us with broader knowledge about the physical, cognitive, and
socio-emotional development of these individuals. Again, these are essential
concepts necessary to be acquired by a potential science teacher.
Based from the definition of the most essential concepts and terms of the
development of learners at various stages namely, Pre-natal, Infancy, Toddlerhood,
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and Early Childhood and the learning exercises that you have done, please feel free
to write below your arguments or the lessons that you have learned from the topic.
1. ___________________________________________________________________
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2. ___________________________________________________________________
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3. ___________________________________________________________________
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4. ___________________________________________________________________
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5. ___________________________________________________________________
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clarificat
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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in your review.
Endoderm LAD
Ectoderm Temperament
Mesoderm Gender Typing
Holophrases Myelinization
Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. Discuss the development of the Learners

at various stages: Middle childhood, Late childhood, and
Adolescence.
Metalanguage
For you to demonstrate ULOb, you will need to have an operational understanding of the
following terms below:
1. Coordination. Is a series of movements organized and timed to occur in a

particular way to bring about a particular result.
2. Balance. Is the child’s ability to maintain the equilibrium or stability of his/her
body in different positions.
3. Speed. The ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time.
4. Agility. One’s ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the body.
5. Power. The ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible
period.
6. Inductive logic. Involves thinking from a specific experience to a general
principle.
7. Deductive logic. Using a general principle to determine the outcome of a
specific event.
8. Hormones. Specialized chemical substances that interact with bodily cells.
9. Spermache. Signals the first sign of puberty and sexual maturity in boys.
10. Corpus collosum. A structure that joins and coordinates the two
hemispheres of the brain.
Essential Knowledge
Before we proceed further with the study of the development of the learners at
various stages: Middle childhood, Late childhood, and Adolescence, it is highly
important to revisit the terms and concepts related to this study to understand better
its scope and limitation. As a potential educator, you should have a commendable
knowledge of these essential terms.
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MIDLLE CHILDHOOD (The Primary Schooler, 6 – 12 years old)
Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady. During this
stage. Physical development involves: (1) having good muscle control and
coordination (2) developing eye-hand coordination, 6) having good personal hygiene
and (4) being aware of good safety habits.
Height and Weight
In this development stage children will have started their elementary grades
specifically their primary years Grades 1 to 3.
This period of gradual and steady growth will give children time to get used to the
changes in their bodies. An average increase in height of a little over two inches a
year in both boys and girls introduce them to many different activities that they can
now do with greater accuracy.
Weight gain averages about 6.5 pounds a year. Most children have slimmer
appearance compared to their preschool years because of the shifts in accumulation
and location of their body tats. A child's legs are longer and more proportioned to the
body than they were before.
A number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or how much changes in
the body will take place:
1. exercise
2. genes
3. food
4. medical conditions
5. climate
6. diseases/illnesses
Bones and Muscles
Childhood years are the peak bone-producing years. This is the best time to teach
children of good dietary and exercise habits to help them have strong, healthy bones
throughout their lives. Many lifestyle factors, like nutrition and physical activity, can
substantially influence the increase of bone mass during childhood.
Because children's bones have proportionately more water and protein-like materials
and fewer minerals than adults. ensuring adequate calcium intake will greatly help
them in strengthening bones and muscles
Motor Development
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Young school-aged children are gaining control over the major muscles of their
bodies. Most children have a good sense of balance. They like testing their muscle
strength and skills. They enjoy doing real life tasks and activities. They pretend and
fantasize less often because they are more attuned with everything that is happening
around them. Children in this stage love to move a lot they run, skip, hop jump,
tumble, roll and dance. Because their gross motor skills are already developed, they
can now perform activities like catching a ball with one hand, tying their shoelaces,
they can manage zippers and buttons.
Performing unimanual (require the use one hand) and bi-manual (require the use of
two hands) activities becomes easier children’s graphic activities. such as writing
and drawing, are no more controlled but are still developing. They can print their
names and copy simple designs, letters, and shapes. They hold pencils, crayons
utensils correctly with supervision.
Motor development skills include coordination, balance, speed, agility, and power.
Let us look into the definitions of the different motor skills. Coordination is a series of
movements organized and timed to occur in a particular way to bring about a
particular result (Strickland, 2000). The more complex the movement is, the greater
coordination is required. Children develop eye-hand and eye-foot coordination when
they play games and sports. Balance is the child’s ability to maintain the equilibrium
or stability of his/her body in different positions. Balance is a basic skill needed
especially in this stage when children are very active. During this time, children have
improved balancing skills. Static balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a
fixed position, like balancing on one foot moving (Owens. 2006). Dynamic balance
is the ability to maintain equilibrium while moving. Speed is the ability to cover a
great distance in the shortest possible time while agility is one's ability to quickly
change or shift the direction of the body. These skills are extremely important in most
sports. Power is the ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible
period.
All these motor skills are vital in performing different activities, games and sports.
Development of these skills may spell the difference between success and failure in
future endeavors of the child.
Jean Piaget’s concrete operational stage
Concrete operation is the third stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. It

spans from ages 7 to approximately 11 years. In this developmental stage, children
have better understanding of their thinking skills. Children begin to think logically
about concrete events, particularly their own experiences, but have difficulty
understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts, thus most of them still have a hard
time at problemsolving.
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Logic. Concrete operational thinkers, according to Piaget, can already make use of
inductive logic but have great difficulty in using deductive logic.
Reversibility. One of the most important developments in this stage is an

understanding of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed.
Cognitive Milestones
Elementary-aged children encounter developmental milestones. They develop

certain skills within a particular time frame. The skills they learn are in sequential
pattern, meaning they need to understand numbers before they can perform
mathematical equations.
Specifically, young primary school-aged children can tell left from right. They are able
to speak and express themselves develops rapidly. In school, they share about
themselves and their families. During play, they practice using the words and
language they learn in school. They start to understand time and days of the week.
They enjoy rhymes, riddles, and jokes. Their attention span is longer They can follow
more involved stories. They are learning letters and words. By six, most can read
words or combinations of words.
Information Processing Skills
Several theories argue that like the computer, the human mind is a system that can
process information through the application of logical rules and strategies. They also
believe that the mind receives information, performs operations to change its form
and content, stores and locates it and generates responses from it.
Erik Erikson’s Fourth stage of Psychosocial Development
Industry vs. inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will have to resolve in
this stage. Industry refers to a child's involvement in situations where long. patient
work is demanded of them, while inferiority is the feeling created when a child gets a
feeling of failure when they cannot finish or master their school work.
In this stage, children, will most likely, have begun going to school. School
experiences become the priority, with children so busy doing schoolwork. The
encouragement of parents and caring educators helps to build a child's sense of
selfesteem, strengthening their confidence and ability to interact positively in the
world.
Primary school children's self-concept is influenced not only by their parents, but also
by the growing under of people they begin to interact with, including teachers and
classmates. Children have a growing understanding of their place in the world. They
already know that they can please their parents and teaches They are comfortable
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and show confidence in doing things they are good at, but also show frustration in
things that they find difficult.
School Years
In the transition from pre-elementary to primary school, children tend to become

increasingly self-confident and able to cope well with social Interactions. They are
not focused on themselves anymore but are also aware of the needs and desires of
others ness and equality become important to them as they learn to care for people
who are not part of their families. Characteristics like loyalty and dependability are
being considered as well as responsibility and kindness.
Building Friendships
Making friends is a crucial but very important part of children’s social and emotional
growth. As soon as they are able to walk and talk, they will tend to show natural
inclination to be around other children.
Children, during this stage, most likely belong to a peer group. Peer groups are
characterized by children who belong approximately to the same age group and
same social economic status. It is found along the stages of childhood through
adolescence. but for children, until the age of seven or eight, they think of
themselves more than that others. They may play well with groups but may need
some time to play alone.
Anti-social Behavior
Some adult may perceive that some children’s behavior towards other children as
antisocial. When children poke, pull, hit, or kick other children when they are first
introduced, it is fairly normal. Parents and teachers can help children make friends.
You can consider the following:
• Expose the children to kid-rich environments

• Create a play group in your class and let the children mingle with their
classmates.
• When your children hit other children, remind them that their behavior hurts
others.
• Coordinate with the parents and other teachers so that the children will have
greater opportunity to interact with other children.
Self-Control
Once children reach school age, they begin to take pride in their ability to do things
and their capacity to exert effort. They like receiving positive feedback from their
parents and teachers.
LATE CHILDHOOD (The Intermediate Schooler)

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Children in their late childhood stage always seem to be in a hurry. They get so busy
with their schoolwork, interacting with their friends, exploring other possible activities,
but this period of physical development seems to take on a leisurely place.
On the average, girls are generally as much as two years ahead of boys in terms of
physical maturity. Puberty may begin early. Budding breasts for girls, which is the
initial sign of puberty. Some girls may also start with their menstrual period as early
as 8 and some as late 13.
Many of the bodily structures like the liver, muscles, skeletons, kidneys and face
follow a normal curve of development for both girls and boys. Other structures like
the brain, intestines, and other organs and bodily systems mature at their own time.
thus, affecting growth patterns. Children gain an average of 7 pounds in weight, and
average of 2% inches in height and an average of an inch in head circumference
each year. Children at this stage have growth spurts sudden boost in height and
weight, which are usually accompanied by increase in appetite and food intake.
Increase in body fats also occurs in preparation for the growth that occurs during
adolescence. The body fat increase occurs earlier in girls and is greater in quantity.
Girls appear to be chubby while boys tend to have more lean body mass per inch of
height than girls. These are all normal part of development. At this stage, children
may become very concerned about their physical appearance. Girls especially, may
become concerned about their weight and decide to eat less. Boys may become
aware of their stature. These differences in body composition become very
significant
Since this stage can bring about insecurities, parents and teachers must be very
conscious about their dealings with these children. Appropriate activities must be
designed so that children will be guided into right direction.
Initial Cognitive Characteristics
Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive abilities that they can now
utilize. Their thinking skills have become more effective as compared during their
primary years. Their schoolwork is now more complicated. Reading texts have
become longer, problem-solving has become an everyday part of their lives.
Their ability to use logic and reasoning give them chances of thinking about what
they want and how to get it. They now become very interested in talking about the
future or even their potential careers. They develop special interest in collections,
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hobbies, and sports. They are even capable of understanding concepts without
having direct handson experiences.
Reading Development
Children in this stage, is marked by a wide application of word attack. Because of the
presence of previous knowledge, they now have a wide vocabulary. which enables
them to understand the meanings of unknown words through context clues (This is
the "Reading to Learn" Stage in reading development.) They are no longer into the
fairy tales and magic type of stories but are more interested in longer and more
complex reading materials, e:g. fiction books and series books.
Attention
Older children have longer and more flexible attention span compared to younger
children. Their span of attention is dependent on how much is required by the given
task. In terms of schoolwork. Older children can concentrate and focus more for
longer period of hours especially if they are highly interested in what they are doing.
Creativity
Children at this stage are open to explore new things.
Understanding Self-Competence, Self-identity and Self-Concept
One of the most widely recognized characteristics of this period of development is

the acquisition of feelings of self-competence. This is what Erik Erikson referred to
when he described the developmental task of middle childhood the social crisis
industry versus inferiority. Industry refers to the drive to acquire new skills and do
meaningful "work".
The child should have a growing sense of competence. The child's definitions of self
and accomplishment vary greatly according to interpretations in the surrounding
environment. Varied opportunities must be provided in order for children to develop a
sense of perseverance. They should be offered chances to both fail and succeed,
along with sincere feedback and support.
During late childhood, children can now describe themselves with internal and
psychological characteristics and traits. They most likely employ more social
comparison distinguishing themselves from others. In dealing with other children,
they show increase in perspective-taking. This ability increases with age.
Perspective taking enables the child to: (a) judge others’ intentions, purposes and
actions, (b) give importance to social attitudes and behaviors and to (c) increase
skepticism of others claims.
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Emotional Development
Similar to the other areas of development, children at this stage, show improved
emotional understanding, increased understanding that more than one emotion can
be experienced in a single experience. They may also show greater ability to show
or conceal emotions, utilize ways to redirect feelings and a capacity for genuine
empathy.
Another milestone in this stage is the development of the children’s emotional

intelligence (EQ), which involves the ability to monitor feelings of oneself and others
and use this to guide and motivate behavior.
Emotional Intelligence has four main areas
Developing emotional self-awareness
Managing emotions (self-control)
Reading emotions (perspective taking)
Handling emotions (resolve problems)
Building Friendships
As children go through their late childhood, the time they spend in peer interaction
increases. For them, good peer relationships are very important. The approval and
belongingness they receive contribute to the stability and security of their emotional
development. Peer size also increases and less supervision by adults is required. At
this stage children prefer to belong to same-sex peer groups.
There are five types of Peer Status:
Popular- frequently nominated as the best-friend and one who is rarely disliked by
peers.
Average- receives a number of positive and negative nominations from peers.
Neglected- very seldom nominated as best-friend but is not really disliked.
Rejected- infrequently nominated as a best-friend but one who is also disliked by

peers.
Controversial- frequently nominated as a best friend but at the same time is disliked
by peers
Popular children which peers find very positive have the following skills and as a
result they become the most favored in the group:
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1. They give out reinforcement.
2 They act naturally.
ADOLESCENCE (The High School Learners)
Defining Adolescence
The period of adolescence begins with biological changes of puberty and ends with
the role and work of adult life. The specific ages for this period vary from person to
person but distinct phases have been identified. The advent of puberty may come
early for some and late for some others. But everyone goes through these stages.
These stages are: early adolescence characterized by puberty mostly occurring
between ages 10 and 13; 2). middle adolescence characterized by identity issues
within the ages of l4 and 16; and 3). late adolescence which marks the transition into
adulthood at ages 17 and 20.
Adolescence is a period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive and

socioemotional changes, physical transition being particularly coupled with sexual
transformation. This Module is focused on physical development that takes place
during adolescence. All the while, the aspect of individuality in adolescent
development is unique to each individual, although there are common issues that
depend on race and culture, inclusive of dependence versus independence, changes
in parent-adolescent relationship, exploration, need for more privacy and idealization
of others.
Pubertal changes
In all cultures, biological change comprises the major transition from childhood to
early adolescence. This is manifested by a change in physical appearance, a more
rapid ate of development (next to the speed of growth of the fetus in the uterus)
known as growth spurts he phenomenon commonly results in a feeling of
awkwardness and unfamiliarity with bodily changes. In addition, alterations in
sleeping habits and parentadolescent relationship may be experienced
accompanying puberty changes.
The growth spurts
Throughout life, the growth hormone conditions gradual increases body size, and
weight but hormone flooding occurs during adolescence causing an acceleration
known as the growth spurt. Body changes include change in body dimensions (leg
length, shoulder width, trunk length). In particular, spurt in height is ascribed to trunk
growth rather than leg growth.
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In girls, the growth spurt generally begins at age 10 reaching its peak at age 11
anda-half, and decreasing at age 13, while slow continual growth occurs for several
more years.
Boys begin their growth spurt later than girls at around age 12, reaching a peak at 14
and declining at age 15 and-a-half. At age 16 and ¼, girls reach 98 percent of their
adult height, while boys do so at age 17 and 1/4. Growth in height is conditioned by
stages h bone maturation, The muscles also grow in terms of size and strength,
while a similar spurt occurs for weight, muscle size, head, and face maturation, and
especially the development of the reproductive organs.
Briefly, all the muscular and skeletal dimensions appear to take part in the growth
spurt during adolescence.
Sexual maturity
The series of hormonal changes accompanying puberty is complex. Hormones are

recognized to be powerful and highly specialized chemical substances that interact
with bodily cells. The triggering by hormones of the hypothalamus glands on
hormones of the pituitary glands signals the entire process of sexual maturation.
During the process, gonadotropic hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary,
which lies beneath the base of the brain and are situated approximately at the
geometric center of the human head. Gonads, which are the ovaries in the female
and the testis in the male, are then stimulated by the gonadotropic hormones, in turn
stimulating their own hormones. When the male testis is stimulated by the
gonadotropic hormones, testosterone is secreted, while estrogen is secreted when
the female ovary is stimulated.
Secondary male sex characteristics are stimulated by testosterone, comprised by the

growth of the testis and scrotum (recognized to be the first sign of puberty), penis
and first pubic hair, the capacity for ejaculation, the growth spurt, voice change,
facial hair development/ beard growth, and continuing growth of pubic hair. The
acceleration of the growth of the penis precedes the growth spurt in height. Pubic
hair growth precedes the first appearance of facial hair growth. Occurring late in
puberty, the lowering of the voice, caused by the enlargement of the larynx and
double lengthening of the vocal cords, is viewed to be the most obvious aspect of
adolescent development. In girls, estrogen secretion triggers the beginning of breast
enlargement, the appearance of pubic hair, the widening of the hips, a growth spurt,
and menarche (first menstruation). The elevation of the female breast is the first
external sign of puberty in girls, while the growth of the uterus and vagina
accompanies continued enlargement of the breast. Generally, girls achieve
menarche beginning II to 11.5 years (5 percent), up to 12 and 12.5 years (25
percent) and at age 13 (60 percent). There are, however, differences in reaching
menarche in accordance with ethnic differences. Studies show that African American
and European American girls may exhibit secondary sex activities as early as 8.87
years and 9.96 years; menarche as early as 11.6 years and 12.4 years, respectively.
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In contrast with menarche, spermache signals the first sign of puberty and sexual
maturity in boys. At about age 12 or 13, boys experience the enlargement of the
testis and the manufacture of sperms in the scrotum, most likely experiencing their
first ejaculation of semen a sticky fluid produced by the prostate gland. The need to
discharge semen occurs more or less periodically following pressure caused by the
production of seminal fluid by the prostate gland. Nocturnal emissions or "wet
dreams" occur during sleep often caused by sexual dreams.
Masturbation or manipulation of physical sexual organs is caused by conscious

fantasizing, both among boys and girls. It is important to note that science and
religion differ in their regard to masturbation.
Modern medical science sees it as an inevitable transitional phenomenon among

adolescents. On the other hand, religion generally regards it as gravely sinful,
ascribing sin even to sexual fantasies. To view the issue objectively, a guilt complex
on the matter is unhealthy to growth. On the other hand, habitual masturbation is an
aberration when it can the growing adolescent from confidence in heterosexual
(male- female friendship) relationship. In the end, while the growing youth need not
feel guilty about natural sexual urges, they need to be forewarned about habitually
giving in these urges. Outgrowing the acts of during adulthood when males and
inhibit masturbation is wholesome especially during adulthood when males and
females need to relate to each other in mature relationship.
Similarly remarkable as the physical changes in the transitional period of

adolescence, are changes in thinking patterns. These changes are marked by the
acquisition of new cognitive skills due to the brain's increasing in weight and refining
synaptic connections (technically known as the corpus collosum) which join and
coordinate the two hemispheres of the brain. Another brain development is the
process of continuous concentration of the brain cells in the prefrontal cortex and
related temporal and parietal areas (technically known as myelination).
This second development covers the brain systems whose executive functions relate
to attention, verbal fluency, language and planning. Through brain scanning, three
peaks in brain maturation have been identified by neurological scientists and these
are at age 12, age 15, and age 18.5, coinciding with the operational thinking
processes of logical reasoning. Accompanying brain changes in cognitive capability,
the adolescent begins to acquire spatial awareness and formulate abstract or
general ideas involving numbers, order, and cause-effect. All these changes propel
the adolescent from the world of the sensible and concrete thoughts to the world of
the possible and the universal (abstract ideas, such as on the generally good. true
and beautiful).
Piaget's Formal Operational Thinker

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Piaget formulated the theory of Formal Operational Thinking which demonstrates
how the cognitive capacity of the adolescent allows him/her to go beyond the
sensible and concrete to dwell on what is abstract, hypothetical, multidimensional
and possible. n this realm of thought, the adolescent begins to attain subtlety in
thinking, entering the sphere of possible. More specifically, formal operational
thinking consists in:
(a) propositional thinking- making assertions outside visual evidence, and stating
what may be possible in things not seen by the eyes (for example, whether an
unseen object is red or green, big or small, flat or round)
(b) relativistic thinking-subjectively making an opinion on facts involving one's own
bias, prejudice of distortion of facts-which may be either right or wrong (for example,
arguing for or against the superiority of the races, whether white, brown, yellow or
black);
(c) real versus possible-examining a situation and exploring the possible in terms
of situations or solutions (e.g. possible success in implementing a student project or
a school policy)
For Piaget one indication of the presence of formal operational thinking ability of the
adolescent thinker for combinational analysis which is his taking stock of the effects
of several variables in a situation, testing one variable at a time, and not randomly.
An application of a situation which requires combinational analysis is the School
laboratory experiment activity wherein high school students test chemical elements
singly and in combination resulting in an understanding chemical changes.
A new thought capacity, known as Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning, emerges in

the adolescent reasoning from general facts/situations to a particular conclusion. The
school pendulum experiment is an example of deducing from variables and
generating and recognizing a truth, expressed by the transitional process of deriving
a conclusion from a hypothesis.
Scientific evidence shows that while adolescents may obtain the capacity for formal
operational thinking, only experience and education will allow them to actually
practice it. School math and science courses, such as in performing Physics-type
problems (balance scales, pendulums, projections of images and shadows, etc.)
certainly help in actualizing formal operational thinking, although only 40 to 50
percent of adults in Western cultures have shown evidence of success in formal
cognitive thinking processes.
Outside formal operational thinking which can be developed by mathematical and

science studies, the adolescent enters into a new capability which makes him a
Problem-Solving Thinker. This involves identifying problems and seeking new and
creative solutions for them. The problem-finding thinker is one who is able to rethink
and reorganize ideas and ask important questions, even defining totally new
problems not previously seen.
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The adolescent may further experience an increase in depth of thought. Thus,
he/she is able to bring what is logically "best" for everyday life, whether or not this
may be the objectively correct solution or response to a situation or problem.
Self-Understanding
Physical and cognitive developments do not come in isolation but are accompanied
by growth in self-image and maturation of feelings among adolescents. The
formation of a self-concept is of paramount significance since this relates to enduring
traits that make the person fully human. Inhumanity, as sadly demonstrated by the
egotistic, the cruel and the despotic (think of Herod, Hitler, Stalin, etc.) have caused
much suffering and sadness to mankind in human history
In early adolescence (10-13 years), the teen begins to acquire a reflective idea of
one's self, not only in terms of the immediate present which younger children also
see, but in terms of their past and their future. During adolescent years, the teen also
begins to see his/her role and importance to society. This development requires self-
thought or introspective thinking along generalized ideas, such as in thinking that
one is bright, flexible, intelligent, etc. From self-image, there is the all-important value
known as selfesteem. This is an appreciation of who one is, regardless of possible
limitations or deficiencies in bodily and mental qualities. In the end, it becomes
useless and unhealthy to seriously compare ourselves with others in self-pity (e.g.
not being as good looking or not having high class grades as the other fellow). One
can only think of unlimited number of personages who are incomparable in physical
traits (such as the beautiful people of the celebrity world) and in intellectual acumen
(Aristotle, Einstein, Bill Gates, etc.). Since the growing youth ordinarily cannot be
these people, making comparisons of self with others is really a futile exercise.
Publications
Let’s Check
Activity 1. Now that you know the concepts and the most essential terms of the
development of the learners at various stages: Middle childhood, Late childhood, and
Adolescence. Let us try to check your knowledge pertaining to these terms and its
concepts. In the space provided, kindly answer the following questions elaborately.
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1. Identify the most important physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional
developmental events that occur in Middle Childhood stage. Present your
answer using a graphic organizer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

developmental events that occur in Late Childhood stage. Present your
answer using a graphic organizer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

developmental events that occur in Adolescent stage. Present your answer
using a graphic organizer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________.
Let’s Analyze
Activity 1. Getting acquainted with the essential terms pertaining to the development
of the learners at various stages: Middle childhood, Late childhood, and Adolescence
is not enough, what also matters is you should also be able to explain the underlying
theories and principles of the physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development
of these life stages. Now, I will require you to explain thoroughly your answers.
At this juncture, you will be required to ELABORATE your answers about the
following questions:
1. Explain how the theory of Jean Piaget helps explain the cognitive development
of the primary schoolers. Do not forget to emphasize the cognitive stage
where these learners are likely to operate.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________.
2. Explain how the theory of Erikson helps explain the socio-emotional

characteristics of Intermediate schoolers. Do not forget to emphasize the
psychosocial stage where these learners are likely to operate.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
____________________.
3. Explain how the theory of Jean Piaget helps explain the cognitive development
of the High school learners. Do not forget to emphasize the cognitive stage
where these learners are likely to operate.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________
In a Nutshell
Activity 1. Understanding the principles and concepts pertaining to the development

of learners at various stages namely, Middle Childhood, Late Childhood, and
Adolescence provides us with broader knowledge about the physical, cognitive, and
socio-emotional development of these individuals. Again, these are essential
concepts necessary to be acquired by a potential science teacher.
Based from the definition of the most essential concepts and terms of the
development of learners at various stages: Middle Childhood, Late Childhood, and
Adolescence and the learning exercises that you have done, please feel free to write
below your arguments or the lessons that you have learned from the topic.
1. ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________
2. ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________
3. ___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________
clarificat
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
in your review.
Coordination Power Deductive Logic

Speed Hormones Corpus collosum
Balance Spermache Menarche
Agility Inductive Logic
Big Picture
Week 7--9: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to
a. Discuss the Learner-centered psychological principles.

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Discuss the learner-centered
psychological principles.
Metalanguage
For you to demonstrate ULOa, you will need to have an operational understanding
of the following terms pertaining to learner-centered psychological principles. Please
refer to the Essential Knowledge section for the definitions of these terms.
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Essential Knowledge
Before we proceed further with the study of the learner-centered psychological
principles, it is highly important to revisit the terms related to this study to understand
better its scope and limitation. As a potential teacher, you should have a
commendable knowledge of these essential terms.
Learner-centered Psychological Principles
1. LCP focuses on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under
the control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or physiological
factors.
2. LCP also attempts to acknowledge external environment or con textual factors
that interact with these internal factors.
• Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors (6 principles)

• Motivational and Affective Factors (3 principles)
• Developmental and Social Factors (2 principles)
• Individual Differences (3 principles)
A. COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTOR 1.

Nature of Learning Process
the learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an international
process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
2. Goals of the Learning Process

the successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of Knowledge
the successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways. Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build
links between new information and experiences and their existing knowledge base.
4. Strategic Thinking the successful learner can create and use a repertoire of
thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals. Successful
learners use in their approach to learning reasoning, problem solving, and concept
learning.
5. Thinking about thinking

Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning
or performances goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods,
and monitor their progress towards these goals.
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6. Context of Learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and
instructional practices.
B. MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTOR
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning

the rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectation for success or
failure can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and information
processing.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to
personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort

Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex
knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and
strategic effort, along with persistence over time.
C. DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTOR
10. Developmental influences on learning learning is most effective when

differential developmental within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and
social domains is taken into account. Individuals learn best when material is
appropriate to their developmental level and is presented in an enjoyable and
interesting way.
11. Social influences on learning

Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to
collaborate with others on instructional tasks.
D. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTOR
12. Individual differences in learning

Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents. Educators
need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify
them, if necessary.
13. Learning and diversity

the same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all
learners.
14. Standards and assessment

Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all
stages of the learning process.
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Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into
five areas:
1. The knowledge base
One’s knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning.
2. Strategic processing and control

Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in
order to learn more effectively.
3. Motivation and affect

Factors such as intrinsic motivation, reasons for wanting to learn, personal goals and
enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences

Learning is a unique journey for each person because each learner has his own
unique combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context
Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an individual.
Publications
Let’s Check
Activity 1. Now that you know the most essential terms related to the concepts
underlying learner-centered psychological principles. Let us try to check your
knowledge about this topic. In the space provided, kindly provide an example for
each of the following questions.
1. Give at least one situational example from any of the sub-category of

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________________.
2. Give at least one situational example from any of the sub-category

Motivational and Affective Factors.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________.

Developmental and Social Factors.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________.

Individual Differences Factors.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________.
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Let’s Analyze
Activity 1. Getting acquainted with the essential terms pertaining to the concepts of
the learner-centered psychological principles is not enough, what also matters is you
should also be able to relate these principles into the different theories we discussed
from the beginning of this course. Now, I will require you to explain thoroughly your
answers.
1. Based from the developmental theories we discussed, identify the theories

that relate to the cognitive and metacognitive factors of the learner-centered
psychological principles. Mention as many as you can and please expound
your answer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________
2. Based from the developmental theories we discussed, identify the theories

that relate to the motivational and affective factors of the learner-centered
your answer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________.
3. Based from the developmental theories we discussed, identify the theories that
relate to the developmental and social factors of the learner-centered
your answer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________.
4. Based from the developmental theories we discussed, identify the theories that
relate to the individual differences factors of the learner-centered
your answer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
____________________
In a Nutshell
Activity 1. Understanding the terms and concepts underlying learner-centered

psychological principle provides us knowledge about the factors that diversify
learners in terms of learning. Again, it is an essential concept necessary to be
acquired by a potential science teacher.
Based from the definition of the most essential concepts of the learner-centered
psychological principle and the learning exercises that you have done, please feel
free to write below your arguments or the lessons that you have learned.
1. ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________
2. ___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________
3. ___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________
4. ______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
__________
clarificat
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
in your review.
Cognitive Factors Developmental

Metacognitive Individual Differences
Social Factors Emotional Factors
Affective Factors

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UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Teacher Education

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning

Course/Subject: EDUC 101 – The Child and Adolescent Learners

Name of Teacher: MARK JOHN T. PEPITO

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT

ULOa Discuss the basic concepts, principles, and

ULOb Analyze the different developmental theories

ULOb Discuss the development of the learners

ULOa Discuss the different learner-centered

Course Coordinator: Mark John T. Pepito

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

If the assessment task is done in real time through

your course coordinator. This is non-negotiable for all

Please note that academic dishonesty such as

However, if the late submission of assessment paper

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

For students who have not created their

GSTC Help Desk Contact Ronadora E. Deala, GSTC Facilitator 0921-212-2846

Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Discuss the basic concepts, principles,

What is Human Development?

Meaning of human development

Some major principles of human development:

Here are some major principles of human development:

1. Development is relatively orderly. Naschielle and Kenn will learn to sit,

2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of

3. Development takes place gradually. Naschielle and Kenn won't develop

4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of

Two approaches to human development:

1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. No developmental

The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

Infancy (from birth to 2 years)

As newborns, we were not emphy - headed organisms. We cried, kicked coughed

Middle and Late Childhood (6-12 years)

In middle and late childhood, we were on a different plane, belonging to a generation

Early adulthood (19-29 years)

Middle adulthood (30-60 years)

Late adulthood (61 years and above)

Concept of developmental tasks

In each stage of development, a certain task or tasks are expected of every

The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)

1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth) - It involves tremendous growth from

Issues on Human Development

1. Nature versus Nurture - Which has a more significant influence on human

1. “Growth is an evidence of life.” What does it mean?

2. State the 5 major principles of human development from a life-span perspective.

3. Interpret the following quotation in relation to human development:

“Man is an unfinished project. He is always in the process of becoming.”

4. With regards to the nurture-nature, continuity-discontinuity, and change-stability

5. Does a developmental task in a higher level require accomplishment of the lower

Do you have any question forion?

Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. Analyze the different developmental

For you to demonstrate ULOb, you will need to have an operational

FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

Genital Stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual development

Freud's Personality Components

The Three Components and Personality Adjustment