EDUC 103 Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching (SIM-SDL)

College of Teacher Education
Ground Floor, GET Building

Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 300-5456/300-0647 Local 102
UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
All Programs
Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged
Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Course/Subject: EDUC 103 (FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED
TEACHING)
SIM/ SDL Author: Chrestine B. Torrejos
Name of the Teacher: Mercy Joy R. Mendez
THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR

REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE.
THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE
OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
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Table of Contents
Course Outline i
WEEK 1-3
ULO1 Apply principles of learner –centered teaching in planning instructional
Activities for students
Metalanguage 7
Essential Knowledge 8
Self-Help 47
Let’s Check! 49
Let’s Analyze 50
In A Nutshell 53
Q&A List 53
ULO2 Discuss how student’s cognitive abilities enable learning to take place
Metalanguage 54
Self-Help 61
Let’s Check! 62
Let’s Analyze 63
In A Nutshell 64
Q&A List 65
WEEK 4-6
ULO3 Defend how motivation of students drive their desire to learn
Metalanguage 66
Essential Knowledge
67 Self-Help
74
Let’s Check! 75
Let’s Analyze 76
In A Nutshell 77
Q&A List 78
ULO4 Explain how emotions facilitate the learning experience of students.

Metalanguage 79
Self-Help 93
Let’s Check! 94
Let’s Analyze 95
In A Nutshell 96
Q&A List 96
WEEK 7-9
ULO5 Create an instructional plan that reflects a learner-centered teaching
principles and approach in an inclusive learning environment.
Metalanguage 97
Self-Help 123
Let’s Check! 124
Let’s Analyze 125
In A Nutshell 126
Q&A List 128
Keyword Index 129
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Course Outline: EDUC 103 – FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED

TEACHING
Course Coordinator: Mercy Joy R. Mendez

Email: mercyjoy_mendez@umindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation: LMS message/ thru mobile phone/ messenger
Mobile: 0936-957-1069
Phone: none
Effectivity Date: May 25, 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-Line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 54 Hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Requisites: None
Credit: 3
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face to face sessions.
Course Outline Policy
Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is designed
for blended learning mode of instructional delivery with
scheduled face to face or virtual sessions. The
expected number of hours will be 54 including the face
to face or virtual sessions. The face to face sessions
shall include the summative assessment tasks (exams)
since this course is crucial in the licensure examination
for teachers.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3 rd, 6th and
9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall be
attached with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task (if the task is performance), the
name of the course coordinator, date of submission
and name of the student. The document should be
emailed to the course coordinator. It is also expected
that you already paid your tuition and other fees before
the submission of the assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time
by the course coordinator.
Since this course is included in the licensure
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examination for teachers, you will be required to take

the Multiple-Choice Question exam inside the
University. This should be scheduled ahead of time by
your course coordinator. This is non-negotiable for all
licensure-based programs.
Turnitin Submission (IF To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment
NECESSARY) tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin
with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This
means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the
students will either opt to redo her/his paper or explain
in writing addressed to the course coordinator the
reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the paper has
reached more than 30% similarity index, the student
may be called for a disciplinary action in accordance
with the University’s OPM on Intellectual and Academic
Honesty.
Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to
complete the task for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day
or part day that the assessment item is late.
However, if the late submission of assessment paper

has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks
Assignments/Assessments after the submission. This will be returned by email or
via Blackboard portal.
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator

will require some or few of the students for online or
virtual sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate
the originality of the assessment task submitted and to
ensure that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an assessment
task. The resubmission is premised on the student’s
failure to comply with the similarity index and other
reasonable grounds such as academic literacy
standards or other reasonable circumstances e.g.
illness, accidents financial constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the program
Papers and Appeal coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the
score given to an assessment task. The letter should
explicitly explain the reasons/points to contest the
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grade. The program coordinator shall communicate

with the students on the approval and disapproval of
the request.
If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean with
the original letter of request. The final decision will
come from the dean of the college.
Grading System Course exercises – 40% (including BlackBoard forum)
1st exam – 10%
2nd exam – 10%
3rd Exam – 10%
Final exam – 30%
Preferred Referencing Style (IF APA 6th Edition
THE TASK REQUIRES)
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account

which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard
portal. Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the
students to have access to the materials and resources
of the course. All communication formats: chat,
submission of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be
through the portal and other university recognized
platforms.
You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.
For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Jocelyn Bacasmot
Email: jbacasmot@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 082-3050647 local 102
Contact Details of the Program Giovanni Pelobillo, MaEd
Head Email: giovanni_pelobillo@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 082-3050647 local 102
Students with a Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with
the course coordinator about the nature of his or her
special needs. Depending on the nature of the need,
the course coordinator with the approval of the program
coordinator may provide alternative assessment tasks
or extension of the deadline of submission of
assessment tasks. However, the alternative
assessment tasks should still be in the service of
achieving the desired course learning outcomes.
Online Tutorial Registration (IF You are required to enroll in a specific tutorial time for
NECESSARY) this course via the www.cte.edu.ph portal. Please note
that there is a deadline for enrollment to the tutorial.
Instructional Help Desk Contact College of Teacher Education (CTE): 0923-602-8780
BSED: BSED@umindanao.edu.ph
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Details BPE: BPE@umindanao.edu.ph

BEED: BEED@umindanao.edu.ph
BSNED: BSNED@umindanao.edu.ph
BECED: BECED@umindanao.edu.ph
Library Contact Brigida E. Bacani (Head-LIC)
library@umindanao.edu.ph
09513766681
Well-being Welfare Support Held GSTC Head: Ronadora E. Deala
Desk Contact Details Email: ronadora_deala@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 09212122846
GSTC Facilitator : Ivy Jane Regidor
Email: gstcmain@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 09105681081
Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS
CC’s Voice: Hello prospective Science teacher! Welcome to this course EDUC 103 –
FACILITATING LEARNER- CENTERED TEACHING. By now, I am confident
that you really wanted to become a teacher and that you have visualized
yourself already being in front of the classroom teaching.
CO Before the actual teaching performance, you have to deal with one of the major
jobs of a science teacher: Design an instructional plan that reflects the
application of learner- centered principles which is the ultimate course
outcome (CO) of this subject. When we talk about facilitating learner-centered
teaching, cognitive, affective, and motivation factors that facilitate the process
of learning, learning theories that support the need for a learner-centered
approach to teaching are intimately attached. Thus, in this course you are
expected to recall your knowledge or read in advance the rudiments of
facilitating learner-centered teaching.
Let us begin!
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Big Picture
Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected to
1. apply principles of learner –centered teaching in planning instructional

activities for students; and
2. discuss how student’s cognitive abilities enable learning to take place.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO 1. Apply principles of learner –centered

teaching in planning instructional activities for students
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of Facilitating Learner-
Centered Teaching and to demonstrate ULO1 will be operationally defined to establish a
common frame of reference as to how the texts work in your chosen field or career. You will
encounter these terms as we go through the study of relevant to the study of Facilitating
Learner-Centered Teaching. Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter
difficulty in understanding concepts in Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching.
1. Contextual Learning - is reality-based, outside-of-the-classroom experience, within a

specific context which serves as a catalyst for students to utilize their disciplinary knowledge,
and which presents a forum for further formation of their personal values, faith, and
professional development.
2. Self- regulation - is the ability to monitor and manage your energy states, emotions,
thoughts, and behaviors in ways that are acceptable and produce positive results such as
well-being, loving relationships, and learning.
3. Feedback - information about reactions to a product, a person's performance of a task,

etc. which is used as a basis for improvement.
4. Formative assessment - refers to the ongoing process students and teachers engage in
when they. Focus on learning goals. Take stock of where current work is in relation to the
goal. Take action to move closer to the goal.
5. Summative assessment - are often high stakes, which means that they have a high point
value; used o evaluate student learning at the end of an instructional unit by comparing it
against some standard or benchmark
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Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first three (3)
weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge that will
be laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you are not limited to exclusively
refer to these resources. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research articles and
other resources that are available in the university’s library e.g. ebrary,
search.proquest.com etc.
LESSON 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO LEARNER- CENTERED TEACHING
Learner Centered Teaching (LCT) has become a popular phrase among educators
nowadays. It has been named in several ways such as student-centred approach or learner-
centered pedagogy in many textbooks and journal articles. Looking at the research literature
surrounding learner-centred teaching in the past 20 years, a book published in 2002 by Maryllen
Weimer stands as one of the earlier attempts to comprehensively discuss and define what is LCT
about.
In Weimer’s book titled, ‘Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice’, five
key changes were significantly taking place in schools. Each of the features will be discussed briefly
below and are presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Five Key Changes in Learner Centered Teaching Practices
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Balance of Power
• In a traditional classroom, the power to decide what lessons to discuss, what learning
activities students must engage in, and what assessment tasks to give mainly belongs to
the teacher with little input from students. On the other hand, in a student-centered
classroom, a teacher shares that power by consulting learners prior to making final
decisions.
• The traditional exercise of power in the classroom often benefits the teacher more than
it promotes student learning. The uniform instructional approach or ‘one-size-fits-all’
concept certainly is more convenient on the part of the teacher who has worked hard in
planning, implementing, and assessing outcomes of learning. However, this uniform
approach has been criticized by scholars by being unresponsive to the diversity of
needs, interests, and readiness among students.
• In order to balance power in the classroom, learners are frequently consulted and given
immediate and ongoing feedback by the teacher. The teacher empowers students by
giving them the opportunity to choose and make decisions like selecting among lesson
topics, choose learning activities, determine pace of learning, and select an assessment
task to demonstrate one’s mastery of targeted learning competencies.
Function of Content
• Current research evidence from educational psychology calls for a

change in the function of curriculum content which should be less
on covering it and more on using content to develop a learner’s
individual way of understanding or sense-making. Teachers need
to allow learners to raise their own questions, generate their own
answers or solutions.
• From a constructivist perspective, knowledge cannot simply be

given to students: Students must construct their own meanings” (Stage, Muller, Kinzie,
and Simmons, 1998, p. 35). In other words, learners are capable of constructing and
reconstructing their knowledge through active personal effort. This view debunks the
current belief about students’ learning from passively receiving information transmitted
from teachers via lectures.
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• In order to facilitate learning that changes how students think and understand, teachers
must begin by finding out students’ prior knowledge or conceptions and then design
learning activities that will change these pre-instructional concepts.
• Learner-centered teaching also regards content as more of competency-based learning

in which students master targeted skills and content before progressing to another
lesson. The more important practice here is to accommodate students’ differing pace of
learning. For instance, some students may be able to demonstrate they know how to use
a microscope in 1 hour while others need 2 hours of practice to demonstrate proficiency
in manipulating it.
• With patient guidance and ongoing support from teachers, competency-based learning
would ensure that students advance to new material when they are ready, at their own
pace, whether they can move quickly or whether they need more time.
Role of the Teacher
Constructivism theory brings the role of the teacher as that of a facilitator of

learning, not as the fountain of learning. He/she instead encourages students
to explore multiple knowledge sources, make sense of it, and personally
organize the information taken from different sources.
• As generally observed, less knowledgeable and experienced learners

will interact with content in less intellectually robust ways, but the goal
is to involve students in the process of acquiring and retaining information.
• This shifting view on the role of the teacher deemphasizes the focus on teaching
techniques and methods if they are considered separate from the subject matter and
learning structures of the discipline.
• Teachers no longer function as exclusive content expert or authoritarian classroom

managers and no long work to improve teaching by developing sophisticated
presentation skills.
• Greater involvement with students by the teacher is central to student motivation.

Diekelmann et al (2004) show how a nursing teacher increasingly included students in
‘cocreating compelling courses’ and was surprised ‘by the insights students shared
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regarding how to create compelling courses and their willingness to collaborate with
…[her] to improve teaching and learning experiences’ (Diekelmann et al, 2004, p.247).
• Maclellan finds that ‘the teacher is involved in clarifying the subject matter, offering
examples, or suggesting arguments for or against a point of view may minimize the
students’ need to think’ while, equally, ‘little engagement by the tutor, leaving students
to determine both what and how to learn without any criteria to judge their process, is
unsatisfactory, inefficient and makes a nonsense of formal, higher education as a
planned and designed system (Maclellan, 2008, p.418).
• Teachers must become comfortable with changing their leadership style from directive
to consultative-- from "Do as I say" to "Based on your needs, let's co-develop and
implement a plan of action.
Responsibility for Learning
• In recent years, work on self-regulated learning has advanced, and the goal
of 21st century education ought to be the creation of independent,
autonomous learners who assume responsibility for their own learning.
• Adults are known to be capable of self-directed learning and that

continuous learning occurs across their career span and lifetime.
• Each student may require different ways of learning, researching and analysing the
information available.
• It establishes that students can and should be made responsible for their own learning.
• Learning skills of autonomous self-regulating learners can be learned and must be

taught even at an early age. This is even more important when entering higher
education.
• The learning skills acquired in basic education and higher education will be used
throughout the course of their professional and personal lives.
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• Learning is cooperative, collaborative, and community-oriented.
• Students are encouraged to direct their own learning and to work with other students on
research projects and assignments that are both culturally and socially relevant to them.
• Class often starts with a mini-lesson, which then flows into students making choices
about what they need to do next to meet specific learning targets aligned to the
standards.
Evaluation Purpose and Process
• The literature on self-directed learning also underscores the

importance of assessment, only in this case it is the ability of
students to self-assess accurately. Sophisticated learners know
when they do or do not understand something.
• They can review a performance and identify what needs

improvement.
• They have mechanisms for its collections and methods for evaluating it and acting on
it.
Four Principles of Student-centered Approach
A more recent research on the student-centered approach was reported by Kaput in 2018 that was
funded by the Nellie Mae Education Foundation and UMass Donahue Institute. This study surveyed
12 public high schools in New England in terms of how they apply learner-centered teaching in
their classroom practices. The said survey summarized their findings in to 4 tenet which are:
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Learning is Students engage in different ways and in different places.

Personalized
Learning is Students move ahead when they have demonstrated mastery of

competency- content, not when they’ve reached a certain birthday or endured
based the required hours in a classroom.
Learning Learning takes place beyond the traditional school day, and even
happens anytime, the school year. Learning is also not restricted to the classroom.
anywhere
Students take Students are engaged in their own success, as well as incorporate
ownership of their interests and skills into the learning process.
their learning
Kaput’s study reported that the majority of the participating schools were effective in
personalizing the learning of their students and creating an environment where students took
ownership of their learning. However, the study also found that the participating schools struggled
with implementing and practicing “anytime, anywhere learning” due to a series of challenges that
both teachers and administrators faced. Teachers from the participating schools largely responded
that student-centered learning promoted higher student engagement and facilitated learning that
was more relevant to students. Further, a large percentage of the teachers contended that
students in student-centered environments explored the curriculum with more depth and retained
knowledge more effectively than in traditional settings.
Top 20 Principles for PreK–12 Teaching and Learning
The American Psychological Association (APA) published in 2015 its top 20

principles for teaching and learning for basic education teachers. These
principles were based on decades of research on human learning and can
well serve as lampposts for today’s teachers on how to facilitate learner-
centered teaching. A brief statement of APA on the implications of the top
20 principles to current teaching practices is quoted below:
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“Psychological science has much to contribute to enhancing teaching and learning in

the classroom. Teaching and learning are intricately linked to social and behavioral
factors of human development, including cognition, motivation, social interaction, and
communication” (APA, 2015, p.8)
As a future educator, the top 20 principles revolve around the following key concepts to keep in
mind whenever we design our instructional plans and implement them with our students.
S P
Prior Knowledge Self- Formative Assessment
Regulation
M L
Learner’s Belief on Intelligence Mastery Summative Assessment
Goals
I C
Creativity Interpersonal Measuring with Standards
Relationship
S T
Teacher Expectations Social Pair Interpretation
Interaction
E L
Long Term Knowledge Emotional Feedback
Wellbeing
P Student
C Support
Contextual Learning Positive
Relationship
P S
Student Support Practice
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LESSON 1.2 LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING APPROACHES
According to this image of teaching and learning, the ideal classroom for the 21st century
learners will no longer be one in which 30-50 students are always listening to the teacher or silently
working on their own. Although contemporary teaching practices still involve lecture, drill, and
practice, students need to be trained to work in alternative arrangements such as:
• talking to each other in small and large groups

• making public their personal knowledge and beliefs
• constructing and testing their knowledge with peers and teachers.
Among the popular instructional approaches that have been extensively researched for more than
two decades are the Cooperative Learning Approach, Differentiated Instruction Approach, and the
Personalized Learning Approach. A comparison of these 3 pedagogical approaches along with the
traditional approach is shown in the table below using the 5 essential elements of Learner-Centered
Pedagogy by Weimer.
Table 1
A Comparison of Teaching Approaches
Elements Traditional Cooperative Differentiated Personalized
Instructional Learning Instructional Learning

Approach Approach
Approach approach
Balance of Dominant Dominant More choices Mostly reliant

Power teachers teachers given to students on on student
based on their motivation,
ability levels and engagement,
interest interest
Minor role Empowered
learners students teams
for learning
Function of Imposed a Same content Differentiated Flexible

content highly processed by content in terms curriculum
structured students in of difficulty content
curriculum groups, fixed levels, more according
content in a timeline of flexible pace of personalized
fixed pace and learning paths,
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timeline of learning learning highly flexible

learning pace of learning
Role of Knowledge Facilitator Designer of Collaborator/co-

teacher Expert differentiated creator of
of learning tasks learning tasks to knowledge
Authoritarian done in accommodate
classroom collaborative readiness, profile
manager peer-group and interest of
settings students
Responsibil Students are Learning is co- Learning co- Students design

ity for expected to fully created by created with individualized
Learning understand students in group students in group learning plans to
knowledge settings settings achieve mastery
passed on by of targeted
their teachers learning
outcomes
Cooperative Learning Approach (CLA)
The Cooperative learning Approach (CLA) started becoming popular in the 1990’s in an
attempt to move away from traditional pedagogical approach that relied heavily on uniform
instruction for a large-sized classroom. The CLA used the social interdependence theory, which
proposes that the behavioral outcomes of a person are affected by their own and others' actions.
Said theory became the framework for designing teaching-learning activities in peer group settings.
Johnson and Johnson (1994) described five factors that influence the effectiveness of cooperation in
classrooms which are shown in the figure below.
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Figure 1
Five Factors for an Effective Cooperative Learning Approach
Positive Interdependence.
• Students commit to personal success as well as the success of every member of the
group. If students are having difficulties, their group mates are there to support them.
• Positive interdependence can also promote motivation to learn, because students are
learning not just for themselves but also for the benefit of their groups.
• Working in groups involved sharing information helping each other in doing the
group task so that they progress together.
Individual and group accountability.
• The group is accountable for achieving its goals, and each member must be
accountable for contributing a fair share of the work toward the group goal
Interpersonal and small group skills.
• Group members learn how to how to apply teamwork skills that has collaborative
leadership, making fair decisions,
• Students also develop friendship by building trust, communicating freely, and
resolving conflict.
Promotive Interaction
• Students promote each other's success by sharing resources or information that will
help every member.
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• Peers take time to encourage, and praise each other's efforts to learn.
Group Processing
• Group members need to feel free to communicate openly with each other to express
concerns as well as to celebrate accomplishments.
• achieving their goals and maintaining effective working relationships.
• Students frequently reflect and discuss on how well they are achieving their goals and
work to maintain effective working relationships.
Differentiated Instructional Approach (DIA)
The pedagogical concept of differentiation as opposed to uniform instruction was first

popularized by Carol Ann Tomlinson with her book How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability
Classrooms, published in 1995. In Tomlinson’s 2nd edition in 2014, she described teachers in
differentiated classes as using time flexibly, applying a range of instructional strategies, and
becoming partners with their students so that both what is learned and the learning environment
are shaped to authentically support the learning process of the student.
In DI approach, teachers usually differentiate their teaching by modifying three aspects in his/her
classroom practice. Each aspect of practice is presented below with examples on how each is
applied in actual teaching practice.
Figure 2
Differentiating 3 Aspects of Pedagogy
Differentiating Content
• The most important part is to diagnose the learners’ prior knowledge so as to determine
his/her readiness to learn new content. In fact, diagnostic assessments form the
foundation for designing differentiated teaching-learning activities to better construct or
build upon students’ prior knowledge.
• Via differentiation, teachers respond proactively to differences in students' knowledge,
skills, learning styles, interests, and cognitive needs in order to create multiple access
points to content.
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• Teachers may differentiate several learning tasks or pathways within the same lesson that
match the needs of specific students or student groups.
• Teachers should hold all students to the same expectations and goals related to mastery
of essential content but may utilize different techniques and modified activities to help
each student meet outlined objectives (Bondie, Dahnke & Zusho, 2019).
Differentiating Process
• Teachers utilize whole-class, small-group, and individual explorations. Students are allowed
to work with peers who show similar academic needs at a given time.
• Students of mixed readiness are also allowed to work together so that they may draw upon
the strengths of others.
• Students may also choose to work with classmates who have similar interests or learning
styles or even collaborate with those who have different interests or learning style profile.
• Students themselves sometimes decide on their work groups and arrangements, and
sometimes teachers also decide.
• Teachers may also use technology to create blended learning classrooms that allow for
multiple leveled activities and centers.
Differentiating Product
• Flexibility in the work products and performances that students complete to

demonstrate newly acquired knowledge or skills supports accurate evaluation of
students' capabilities while also allowing students to leverage their strengths to
achieve the same standards as their peers.
• Assessments can be implemented before, during, and after instruction to monitor
student progress relative to differentiated instruction.
• Create and implement assessments that accurately measure competencies, analyze
assessment results to identify students who are below mastery level
• Students are provided with alternative ways to act skillfully and demonstrate what
they know
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Personalized Learning Approach (PLA)
In personalized Learning systems, instead of counting the number of hours students are in
their seats, students move through coursework and graduate based on their ability to show they
have mastered the material
The United States National Education Technology Plan 2017 defines personalized learning as
follows:
Personalized learning refers to instruction in which the pace of learning and the instructional
approach are optimized for the needs of each learner. Learning objectives, instructional approaches,
and instructional content (and its sequencing) may all vary based on learner needs.
Personalized learning is a progressively student–driven model where students deeply engage

in meaningful, authentic, and rigorous challenges to demonstrate desired outcomes (Zmuda, Curtis
& Ullman, 2015). Four design elements have been associated to the personalization movement
(Olofson et. al, 2018) which are shown in the Figure 3.
Figure 3
Design Elements of Personalized Learning Approach
Flexible Pathways
• Learning activities must be meaningful and relevant to learners, driven by their

interests, and often are self-initiated.
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• Students are provided the opportunity to choose in-school and out-of-school learning
modalities that are attuned to their socio-economic capability, interests and needs.
Personalized Learning Plans
• Learning plans are co-crafted by students with their parents and teachers which best
suit their needs, interests, and abilities. This plan creates a customized approach that
uniquely responds to the ability and interest profile of the learner.
• Students are encouraged to identify their own interests, passions, and strengths and
integrate these, in partnership with educators, into meaningful learning experiences
with clear goals.
Competency-Based Graduation Requirements
• Competency standards are made clear to students at the beginning of the course as
well as and how these are to be assessed at the end.
• Teachers must continuously assess student learning against clearly defined standards
and goals and students’ input into the assessment process is essential.
• Students must also have access to real-time feedback and performance data for self-
monitoring.
Student Ownership and Agency
• Teacher refrains from imposing or fully controlling the pathways of learning. Instead,
student and teacher collaborates in designing learning activities that will help them
meet the competency based-graduation requirements.
• Students will work with the teacher to develop a challenge, problem, or idea clarify
learning goals, envision the assessment, and create a personal learning plan.
• Ownership within the context of personalized learning also requires students to set,
monitor, and reflect on their personal progress towards their set learning goals. This is
a way to empower them with ownership over their own work and progress.
The table below provides a list of commonly applied teaching strategies under CLA, DIA and PLA.
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Table 2
Teaching Strategies According to Approach
Traditional Cooperative Differentiated Personalized
Instructional Learning Approach Instructional Learning Approach
Approach Approach
Lecture Thin-Pair-Share Tiered Lessons Team Wikis
Teacher-demo Jigsaw II Choice Boards Group Blogs
Drills Team-Game- Graphic Organizers Personal Vlogs

Tournaments (TGT)
Recitation Web-Quests Discussion Threads
Student-Teams
Student Report Achievement Learning Logs Chat Groups
Division (STAD)
Role Play Learning Contracts Polling
Numbered Heads
Games Gallery Walk Project e-Portfolio
Inside-Outside
circle
In summary, as you progress from a beginning career stage educator into a

distinguished career stage teacher, you will definitely grow in your teaching competencies in
using a Learner-Centered Pedagogical Approach which now favors heavily on the
Personalized learning Approach. This is primarily due to the availability of education
technology tools that can be accessed by both students and teachers alike
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LESSON 1.3 LEARNING THEORIES
People learn through repetition. Learner is a passive blank slate shaped by environmental
stimuli, both positive and negative reinforcement. This topic helps you understand behaviorism and
its connection to learning reinforcement.
BEHAVIORISM
This particular learning theory assumes that the learner is essentially passive, simply responding to
their environmental stimuli. Behavioral theorists therefore believe that a learner basically begins as
a clean slate, and their behavior is shaped by positive/negative reinforcement
The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. It
emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and
punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind, and the possibility of thought processes
occurring in the mind. Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from
Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiological is well known for his work in

classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most
renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell. Initially,
Pavlov was measuring the dog’s salivation in order to study
digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical conditioning.
Pavlov’s Experiment.
Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no response from the dog. Placing dog
food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog initiated salivation (unconditioned response).
During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with food. After
conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produce salivation (conditioned
response). This is classical conditioning.
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\\\\\
Figure 1
Pavlov’s Experiment Schematic
PAVLOV ALSO HAD THE FOLLOWING FINDINGS:
Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it
well salivate at the other similar sounds
Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response to
the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an elapsed time, but will
soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern which
bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.
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Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food,
another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is
rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.
CONNECTIONISM
Connectionism is a learning theory developed by George Siemens and Steven Downs. It stresses the
connections and combinatorial creativity. All the knowledge is out there – it’s a matter of making the
connections. Siemens (2004) states, “A community is the clustering of similar areas of interest that
allows for interaction, sharing, dialoguing, and thinking together.”
For example, if a learner is trying to learn how Donald Trump has risen to power, they may start on a
Facebook post that a friend made, which could then take them to an article, but the text is dense
and confusing, so instead the student the student scroll down to the comments sections and finds
another link to blog, and from the blog there is an embedded YouTube video that they watch to
more fully understand the issue. The student has used various forms of gathering information using
the internet, and has gleaned the most salient information by using many different modes to more
fully understand the issue.
Edward Lee Thorndike
1904-1990
Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R

framework of behavioral psychology. More than a hundred years
ago he wrote a text book entitled, Educational Psychology. He was
the first one to use this term. He explained that learning is the
result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such
associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the
nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The model for S-R theory
was trial and error learning in which certain responses came to be
repeated than others because of rewards. The main principle of
connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without
considering any unobservable internal states. Thorndike’s theory on connectionism stated that
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learning has taken place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is
formed. He came up with three primary laws.
Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that lead to the
development of operant conditioning within Behaviorism. Whereas classical conditioning depends
on developing associations between events, operant conditioning involves learning from the
consequences of our behavior.
Skinner wasn’t the first psychologist to study learning by consequences. Indeed, Skinner's theory of
operant conditioning is built on the ideas of Edward Thorndike.
Figure 1
Simplified graph of the result of the puzzle box experiment.
He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encouraged to escape to reach a scrap of fish
placed outside. Thorndike would put a cat into the box and time how long it took to escape. The
cats experimented with different ways to escape the puzzle box and reach the fish.
Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened the cage. When it had escaped
it was put in again, and once more the time it took to escape was noted. In successive trials the cats
would learn that pressing the lever would have favorable consequences and they would adopt this
behavior, becoming increasingly quick at pressing the lever.
Edward Thorndike put forward a “Law of effect” which stated that any behavior that is
followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by
unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.
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THORDIKE’S THEORY ON CONNECTIONISM stated that learning has taken place when a
strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three
primary laws:
Law of Effect.
The Law of Effect stated that a connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened
when the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the stimulus and the
response is weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this “law”
when he found that negative reward, seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily
motivate performance.
Law of Exercise.
Tell us that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond in practice the stronger it will become.
“Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated with this. However, like the law of effect, the law of
exercise also had to revise when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not
necessarily enhance performance.
Law of Readiness.
This states that, the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger
will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it
becomes annoying to the person. Example, if the teacher says, “Okay we will now watch the movie
(stimulus) you’ve been waiting for.” And suddenly the power goes off, the students will feel
frustrated because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but were prevented from doing so.
Likewise, if the person is not at all ready to respond to stimuli and is asked to respond, that becomes
annoying. For instance, the teacher asks the question and expects the students to respond right
away when he is still not ready. This will be annoying to the student. This is why teacher should
remember to say the question first, and wait for a few seconds before calling on anyone to answer.
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Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism:
1. Learning requires both practice and reward (laws of effect/exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action
(law of readiness)
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.
Behaviorism: Tolman & Bandura
Generalization: Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism
Usually, people who worked on a maze activity, which you just

did, would say they found the second maze easier. This is
because they say that the two mazes were identical, except that
the entrance and exit points had been reversed. Their experience
in Maze A was much easier for them to answer Maze B. People are building mind maps of events
that they perceived. These mental maps help them to respond to other things or tasks later,
particularly if they see the similarity. You may start responding with trial and error (behavioral), but
later on your response becomes more internally driven (cognitive perspective). This is what neo-
behaviorism is all about. It has behavioral aspects, but it also has a cognitive perspective.
There are two neo-behaviorism-reflecting theories that stand out. Edward Tolman's
purposive behaviorism and Albert Bandura's theory of social learning. Both theories are influenced
by behaviorism (focused on internal elements and learning).
Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism
Purpose behaviorism has also been referred to as sign learning theory and is often seen as a link
between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman 's theory was based on the psychological views
of the Gestalt Psychologist and the behaviorist John Watson.
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Tolman believes that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves building belief in the
acquisition of knowledge about the environment and then the discovery of knowledge through
purposeful and objective behavior.
Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by

pursuing
signs for a goal, i.e. learning is acquired through meaningful

behavior. He stressed that the organized aspect of learning is
acquired through meaningful behavior. He emphasized that the
organized aspect of learning is that the stimuli allowed in are not
connected by simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing
reactions. Rather, the incoming impulses are usually worked out
and elaborated in the central control room into a tentative cognitive environment map. And it is this
tentative map, indicating routes and pathways, and environmental relations that finally determines
what kind of response the animal will finally make.
Tolman's form of behaviorism underscored the relationship between stimuli rather than stimulus-
response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (sign) would be associated with already meaningful
stimuli (significant ones) through a series of pairings; there was no need for reinforcement to
establish learning. In your labyrinth activity, the new stimulus or "sign" (maze B) has become
associated with the already meaningful stimulus, the signicate (maze A). So you may have connected
the two stimuli, Labyrinth A and Labyrinth B, and used your knowledge and experience in Labyrinth
A to learn how to respond to Labyrinth A.
Tolman’s Key Concepts
This is a learning theory that was in response to behaviorism. Psychologist who promoted
this idea claimed that behaviorism failed to explain cognition. In this theory, mind is an information
processor. It emphasizes understanding the concept as a whole instead of just the piece.
This is the learning theory that was taught in developing online education using Blooms
Taxonomy. Examples of cognitivist strategies for learning higher-level thinking are starting a lesson
with a hook to create interest, a review quiz to promote prior learning, using learning outcomes,
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chunking content into organized bite-sized pieces, using graphic organizers, and the student takes on
an active role on learning. The teacher gives lots of encouragement and positive feedback.
Social Learning Theory:
Albert Bandura
The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the

importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes,
and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1977) states:
“Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention
hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their
own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most
human behavior is learned observationally through
modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new
behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.
Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction
between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences.
The component processes underlying observational learning are:
1. Attention - includes modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity,

prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal
level, perceptual set, past reinforcement).
2. Retention - includes symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor
rehearsal)
3. Motor Reproduction - includes physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction,

accuracy of feedback.
4. Motivation, including external, vicarious and self-reinforcement.
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1. People can learn by observing the behavior of the others and the outcomes of those
behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning.
4. Social learning can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning

theories and cognitive learning theories.
People are often to reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested that the
environment also reinforces modeling. This is several possible ways;
1. The observer is reinforced by the model
2. The observer reinforce by a third person
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously.
1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have indirect
effects on learning.
2. Reinforcement ad punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a

behavior that has been learned
3. The expectation of reinforcement process that promote learning.
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1. Learning without performance. (through observation and actual imitation)
2. Cognitive processing during learning (attention)
3. Expectations (consequences)
4. Reciprocal causation (person, behavior and environment)
5. Modeling (live models, and symbolic models)
1. Attention – mental focus or concentration, willingness of the child to observe and mimic
the behavior of a model.
2. Retention – To encode the behavior in the memory, ability to store information.
3. Motor Production – To actually perform the behavior observe
4. Motivation/Reinforcement – Force that drives one to act.
COGNITIVISM
Cognitivism revived the psychological study of thinking, developing scientifically rigorous ways of
studying unobservable mental activity. In this module you will encounter different questions on how
cognitivism brings on the development of learning, and you will find answers or solution to these
questions.
What is Cognitivism?
Cognitivism is "the psychology of learning which emphasizes human cognition or intelligence as a

special endowment enabling man to form hypotheses and develop intellectually"
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(Cognitivism) and is also known as cognitive development. The underlying concepts of cognitivism
involve how we think and gain knowledge. Cognitivism involves examining learning, memory,
problem solving skills, and intelligence. Cognitive theorists may want to understand how problem
solving changes throughout childhood, how cultural differences affect the way we view our own
academic achievements, language development, and much more. (Feldman, Cognitivism)
How Does Learning Occur?
Cognitive theories stress the acquisition of knowledge and internal mental structures and, as such,
are closer to the rationalist end of the epistemology continuum (Bower & Hilgard, 1981). Learning is
equated with discrete changes between states of knowledge rather than with changes in the
probability of response. Cognitive theories focus on the conceptualization of students’ learning
processes and address the issues of how information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by
the mind. Learning is concerned not so much with what learners do but with what they know and
how they come to acquire it (Jonassen, 1991b). Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental
activity that entails internal coding and structuring by the learner. The learner is viewed as a very
active participant in the learning process.
Which factors Influence Learning?
Cognitivism, like behaviorism, emphasizes the role that environmental

conditions play in facilitating learning. Instructional explanations,
demonstrations, illustrative examples and matched non-examples are
all considered to be instrumental in guiding student learning. Similarly,
emphasis is placed on the role of practice with corrective feedback. Up
to this point, little difference can be detected between these two
theories. However, the “active” nature of the learner is perceived quite
differently.
The cognitive approach focuses on the mental activities of the learner that lead up to a response and
acknowledges the processes of mental planning, goal-setting, and organizational strategies (Shuell,
1986). Cognitive theories contend that environmental “cues” and instructional components alone
cannot account for all the learning that results from an instructional situation. Additional key
elements include the way that learners attend to, code, transform, rehearse, store and retrieve
information. Learners’ thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and values are also considered to be influential in
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the learning process (Winne, 1985). The real focus of the cognitive approach is on changing the
learner by encouraging him/her to use appropriate learning strategies.
How Does Transfer Occur?
According to cognitive theories, transfer is a function of how information is stored in memory

(Schunk, 1991). When a learner understands how to apply knowledge in different contexts, then
transfer has occurred. Understanding is seen as being composed of a knowledge base in the form of
rules, concepts, and discriminations (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991). Prior knowledge is used to establish
boundary constraints for identifying the similarities and differences of novel information. Not only
must the knowledge itself be stored in memory but the uses of that knowledge as well. Specific
instructional or real-world events will trigger particular responses, but the learner must believe that
the knowledge is useful in a given situation before he will activate it.
Classroom Implications
In a classroom environment, there are many variables that influence and contribute to learning.
When creating and implementing a learning environment, it is imperative that the teachers not only
create a setting that promotes learning, but also take the time to understand each child. Classrooms
are widely diverse and complex. Students learn differently and are at various developmental levels.
Teachers who properly manage their classrooms and establish expectations will be able to
incorporate diverse teaching philosophies and create an excellent learning environment for each
student. It is important that teachers create a learning environment that encourages students to do
their best and makes learning interesting. This creates a motivational climate within the classroom.
There are two factors that are critical to motivate students, value and effort. (Classroom
Management) Students must understand that the work they are performing is
worthwhile. Value measures the importance of a student's work to himself and others. Effort is the
amount of time and energy students put into their work. Understanding the value of academic tasks
and the effort needed to complete those tasks can motivate students to perform better in the
classroom environment (Classroom Management)
Cognitive Development Implied in the Classroom (“Piaget’s Theory”)
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• Teachers should carefully assess the current stage of a child's cognitive development and
only assign tasks for which the child is prepared. The child can then be given tasks that are
tailored to their developmental level and are motivating.
• Teachers must provide children with learning opportunities that enable them to advance
through each developmental stage. This is achieved by creating disequilibrium. Teachers
should maintain a proper balance between actively guiding the child and allowing
opportunities for them to explore things on their own to learn through discovery.
• Teachers should be concerned with the process of learning rather than the end product. For
example, the teacher should observe the way a child manipulates play dough instead of
concentrating on a finished shape.
• Children should be encouraged to learn from each other. Hearing others' views can
help breakdown egocentrism. It is important for teachers to provide multiple opportunities
for small group activities.
• Piaget believed that teachers should act as guides to children's learning processes and that
the curriculum should be adapted to individual needs and developmental levels.
Examples of Cognitive Games in the Classroom
Cognitive games are designed to help stimulate various regions of the brain. These games are used
to improve reflexes, help people learn, promote critical thinking, and help people learn different
patterns of association. Cognitive games are helpful when used to learn a foreign language and
memorize new material. Various learning techniques are used
in the classroom because there are various learning styles. There are many games that promote and
influence cognitive learning.
Examples of cognitive games include:
Educational Websites and Computer Games
Most educational websites computer games focus on stimulating a young child's senses
while engaging them in various cognitive tasks. Below are three of the many learning websites that
are available to enhance cognitive development in young children. Example, PBS kids Educational
Games, Spelling City, Cognitive Fun Games etc.
Sorting Games
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Sorting games require individuals to utilize recognition and reasoning. Teachers can engage children
in games in which the children sort items by various criteria, such as color, size, texture, and other
physical attributes of the items. A more advanced approach to sorting is discussing how the items
are similar. This process promotes critical thinking.
Flash Cards
Flash cards can be used various tasks. This involves notecards or an even scrap of paper in
which two parts of information is written on either side of the notecard. These can be as simple as
having cards with a red dot on one side and the word red on the other. Flash cards are typically used
in a classroom for drills or in private study. These cards are used to aid memorization. Pre-made
flash cards are available for many subjects. Teachers and students may also make homemade flash
cards, depending on how and what they are studying. Flash cards may also be personalized and
printed from certain websites. (Flashcards) Flash cards can be utilized into various games as well.
Board Games
Teachers may include board games in their classrooms to promote cognitive development. Unlike
computer and video games, boardgames are tangible. Children can manipulate different pieces in
the game. Board games can be implemented to enhance mathematical and linguistic skills and
enhance a child's ability to understand and follow directions. Example, monopoly and bingo
Puzzles
Finding a solution to a puzzle develops a child's problem solving ability.Children who actively solve
puzzles that they are able to touch and piece together are more likely to understand certain
concepts and develop their own theories about those concepts.
In this unit you will be introduce to many of the issues understanding and applying constructivism
and constructivist principles for instructional design purposes.
Students learn new things through experience. They build knowledge through experiences and
interactions. In cognitive learning, the students are taught to do something in constructivism. The
students are encouraged to discover something on their own; this is known as self-directed learning.
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The major difference is that cognitive learning is about building on prior knowledge, and
constructivism is about building new ideas and concepts based on your own discoveries.
What are the principles of constructivism?
1. Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed
Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that learners build new
knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This prior knowledge influences what new or
modified knowledge an individual will construct from new learning experiences (Phillips, 1995).
2. Learning is an active process.
The second notion is that learning is an active rather than a passive process. The passive view of
teaching views the learner as ‘an empty vessel’ to be filled with knowledge, where constructivism
states that learners construct meaning only through active engagement with the world (such as
experiments or real-world problem solving). Information may be passively received, but
understanding cannot be, for it must come from making meaningful connections between prior
knowledge, new knowledge, and the processes involved in learning.
3. All Knowledge is socially constructed
Learning is a social activity - it is something we do together, in interaction with each other, rather
than an abstract concept (Dewey, 1938). For example, Vygotsky (1978), believed that community
plays a central role in the process of "making meaning." For Vygotsky, the environment in which
children grow up will influence how they think and what they think about.Thus, all teaching and
learning is a matter of sharing and negotiating socially constituted knowledge. For example,
Vygotsky (1978) states cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided learning
within the zone of proximal development as children and their partner's co-construct knowledge.
4. All knowledge is Personal
Each individual learner has a distinctive point of view, based on existing knowledge and values.This
means that same lesson, teaching or activity may result in different learning by each pupil, as their
subjective interpretations differ.This principle appears to contradict the view the knowledge is
socially constructed. Fox (2001, p. 30) argues (a) that although individuals have their own personal
history of learning, nevertheless they can share in common knowledge, and (b) that although
education is a social process, powerfully influenced by cultural factors, nevertheless cultures are
made up of sub- cultures, even to the point of being composed of sub-cultures of one. Cultures and
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their knowledge-base are constantly in a process of change and the knowledge stored by individuals
is not a rigid copy of some socially constructed template. In learning a culture, each child changes
that culture.
5. Learning exists in the mind
The constructivist theory posits that knowledge can only exist within the human mind, and that it
does not have to match any real world reality (Driscoll, 2000). Learners will be constantly trying to
develop their own individual mental model of the real world from their perceptions of that world. As
they perceive each new experience, learners will continually update their own mental models to
reflect the new information, and will, therefore, construct their own interpretation of reality.
What are the three main types of constructivism?
Typically, this continuum is divided into three broad categories:
Cognitive constructivism based on the work of Jean Piaget, social constructivism based on the work
of Lev Vygotsky, and radical constructivism. According to the GSI Teaching and Resource Center
(2015, p.5): Cognitive constructivism states knowledge is something that is actively constructed by
learners based on their existing cognitive structures. Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of
cognitive development.
Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to existing
knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their existing intellectual
framework to accommodate that information. According to social constructivism learning is a
collaborative process, and knowledge develops from individuals' interactions with their culture and
society.
Social constructivism was developed by Lev Vygotsky (1978, ) who suggested that, every function in
the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level and, later on, on the
individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child
(intrapsychological).
Radical constructivism was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld (1974) and states that all knowledge
is constructed rather than perceived through senses. Learners construct new knowledge on the
foundations of their
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existing knowledge. However, radical constructivism states that the knowledge individuals create
tells us nothing about reality, and only helps us to function in your environment. Thus, knowledge is
invented not discovered. The humanly constructed reality is all the time being modified and
interacting to fit ontological reality, although it can never give a ‘true picture’ of it. (Ernest, 1994, )
What is the role of the teacher in a constructivist classroom?
The primary responsibility of the teacher is to create a collaborative problem-solving environment

where students become active participants in their own learning. From this perspective, a teacher
acts as a facilitator of learning rather than an instructor. The teacher makes sure he/she understands
the students' preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then build on
them (Oliver, 2000).
Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching, where the adult continually adjusts the level of his
or her help in response to the learner's level of performance. In the classroom, scaffolding can
include modeling a skill, providing hints or cues, and adapting material or activity (Copple &
Bredekamp, 2009).
Features of a Constructivist Classroom
Tam (2000) lists the following four basic characteristics of constructivist learning environments,
which must be considered when implementing constructivist teaching strategies:
1) Knowledge will be shared between teachers and students.

2) Teachers and students will share authority.
3) The teacher's role is one of a facilitator or guide.
4) Learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students .
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LESSON 1.4 OUTCOMES OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers
The Philippine Government has consistently pursued teacher quality reforms through a number of
initiatives. As a framework of teacher quality, the National Competency-Based Teacher Standards
(NCBTS) was institutionalized through CHED Memorandum Order No. 52, s. 2007 and DepED Order
No. 32, s. 2009. It emerged as part of the implementation of the Basic Education Sector Reform
Agenda (BESRA), and was facilitated by drawing on the learning considerations of programs, such
as the Basic Education Assistance for Mindanao (BEAM), the Strengthening Implementation of
Visayas Education (STRIVE) project and the Third Elementary Education Project (TEEP).
The K to 12 Reform (R.A. 10533) in 2013 has changed the

landscape of teacher quality requirements in the Philippines. The
reform process warrants an equivalent supportive focus on
teacher quality – high quality teachers who are properly equipped
and prepared to assume the roles and functions of a K to 12
teacher.
The Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers, which is built on NCBTS, complements the
reform initiatives on teacher quality from pre-service education to in-service training. It articulates
what constitutes teacher quality in the K to 12 Reform through well-defined domains, strands, and
indicators that provide measures of professional learning, competent practice, and effective
engagement. This set of standards makes explicit what teachers should know, be able to do and
value to achieve competence, improved student learning outcomes, and eventually quality
education. It is founded on teaching philosophies of learner-centeredness, lifelong learning, and
inclusivity/inclusiveness, among others. The professional standards, therefore, become a public
statement of professional accountability that can help teachers reflect on and assess their own
practices as they aspire for personal growth and professional development.
Teacher Quality in the Philippines
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The Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers defines teacher quality in the Philippines. The
standards describe the expectations of teachers’ increasing levels of knowledge, practice and
professional engagement. At the same time, the standards allow for teachers’ growing
understanding, applied with increasing sophistication across a broader and more complex range of
teaching/learning situations.
The following describes the breadth of 7 Domains that are required by teachers to be effective in
the 21st Century in the Philippines. Quality teachers in the Philippines need to possess the
following characteristics:
• Recognize the importance of mastery of content knowledge and its interconnectedness

within and across curriculum areas, coupled with a sound and critical understanding of the
application of theories and principles of teaching and learning. They apply developmentally
appropriate and meaningful pedagogy grounded on content knowledge and current
research. They display proficiency in Mother Tongue, Filipino and English to facilitate the
teaching and learning process, as well as exhibit the needed skills in the use of
communication strategies, teaching strategies and technologies to promote high-quality
learning outcomes.
• Provide learning environments that are safe, secure, fair and supportive in order to
promote learner responsibility and achievement. They create an environment that is
learning-focused and they efficiently manage learner behavior in a physical and virtual
space. They utilize a range of resources and provide intellectually challenging and
stimulating activities to encourage constructive classroom interactions geared towards the
attainment of high standards of learning.
• Establish learning environments that are responsive to learner diversity. They respect
learners’ diverse characteristics and experiences as inputs to the planning and design of
learning opportunities. They encourage the celebration of diversity in the classroom and
the need for teaching practices that are differentiated to encourage all learners to be
successful citizens in a changing local and global environment.
• Interact with the national and local curriculum requirements. They translate curriculum
content into learning activities that are relevant to learners and based on the principles of
effective teaching and learning. They apply their professional knowledge to plan and
design, individually or in collaboration with colleagues, well-structured and sequenced
lessons that are contextually relevant, responsive to learners’ needs and incorporate a
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range of teaching and learning resources. They communicate learning goals to support
learner participation, understanding and achievement.
• Apply a variety of assessment tools and strategies in monitoring, evaluating, documenting

and reporting learners’ needs, progress and achievement. They use assessment data in a
variety of ways to inform and enhance the teaching and learning process and programs.
They provide learners with the necessary feedback about learning outcomes that informs
the reporting cycle and enables teachers to select, organize and use sound assessment
processes.
• Establish school-community partnerships aimed at enriching the learning environment, as

well as the community’s engagement in the educative process. They identify and respond
to opportunities interests and aspirations of the wider school community and other key
stakeholders. They understand and fulfill their obligations in upholding professional ethics,
accountability and transparency to promote professional and harmonious relationships
with learners, parents, schools and the wider community.
• Value personal growth and professional development and exhibit high personal regard for
the profession by maintaining qualities that uphold the dignity of teaching such as caring
attitude, respect and integrity. They value personal and professional reflection and
learning to improve their practice. They assume responsibility for personal growth and
professional development for lifelong learning.
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PHILIPPINE PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS
The 7 Domains of teacher practice comprise of 37 strands that refer to more specific dimensions of
teacher practice.
Domain 1
Content Knowledge &Pedagogy
(7 strands)
1. Content knowledge and its application within and across curriculum areas
2. Research-based knowledge and principles of teaching and learning
3. Positive use of ICT
4. Strategies for promoting literacy and numeracy
5. Strategies for developing critical and creative thinking, as well as other higher-order thinking
skills
6. Mother Tongue, Filipino and English in teaching and learning
7. Classroom communication strategies
Domain 2
Environment (6 stands)
1. Learner safety and security
2. Fair learning environment
3. Management of classroom structure and activities
4. Support for learner participation
5. Promotion of purposive learning
6. Management of learner behavior
Domain 3
Diversity of Learners (5 strands)
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1. Learners’ gender, needs, strengths, interests and experiences

2. Learners’ linguistic, cultural, socio-economic & religious backgrounds
3. Learners with disabilities, giftedness and talents
4. Learners in difficult circumstances
5. Learners from indigenous groups
Domain 4
Curriculum and Planning (5 strands)
1. Planning and management of teaching and learning process
2. Learning outcomes aligned with learning competencies
3. Relevance and responsiveness of learning programs
4. Professional collaboration to enrich teaching practice
5. Teaching and learning resources including ICT
Domain 5
Assessment and Reporting (5 strands)
1. Design, selection, organization and utilization of assessment strategies
2. Monitoring and evaluation of learner progress and achievement
3. Feedback to improve learning
4. Communication of learner needs, progress and achievement to key stakeholders
5. Use of assessment data to enhance teaching and learning practices and programs
Domain 6
Community Linkages and Professional Engagement (4 strands)
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1. Establishment of learning environments that is responsive to community contexts Philippine

Professional Standards for Teachers 7
2. Engagement of parents and the wider school community in the educative process
3. Professional ethics
4. School policies and procedures
Domain 7
Personal Growth and Professional Development (5 strands)
1. Philosophy of teaching
2. Dignity of teaching as a profession
3. Professional links with colleagues
4. Professional reflection and learning to improve practice
5. Professional development goals
Career Stages of Filipino Professional Teachers
Teacher professional development happens in a continuum from

beginning to exemplary practice. Anchored on the principle of
lifelong learning, the set of professional standards for teachers
recognizes the significance of a standards framework that
articulates developmental progression as teachers develop, refine
their practice and respond to the complexities of educational
reforms.
The following statements, which define the work of teachers at different career stages, make
explicit the elements of high-quality teaching for the 21st century. They comprise descriptors that
have been informed by teachers’ understandings of what is required at each of the four Career
Stages. The descriptors represent a continuum of development within the profession by providing
a basis for attracting, preparing, developing and supporting teachers.
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Career Stage 1 or Beginning Teachers
have gained the qualifications recognized for entry into the teaching profession.
have a strong understanding of the subjects/areas in which they are trained in terms of
content knowledge and pedagogy.
possess the requisite knowledge, skills and values that support the teaching and learning
process.
manage learning programs and have strategies that promote learning based on the learning
needs of their students.
seek advice from experienced colleagues to consolidate their teaching practice.
Career Stage 2 or Proficient Teachers
professionally independent in the application of skills vital to the teaching and learning
process.
provide focused teaching programs that meet curriculum and assessment requirements.
display skills in planning, implementing, and managing learning
actively engage in collaborative learning with the professional community and other
stakeholders for mutual growth and advancement.
reflective practitioners who continually consolidate the knowledge, skills and practices of
Career Stage 1 teachers.
Career Stage 3 or Highly Proficient Teachers
consistently display a high level of performance in their teaching practice.

manifest an in-depth and sophisticated understanding of the teaching and learning process.
have high education-focused situation cognition, are more adept in problem solving and
optimize opportunities gained from experience.
work collaboratively with colleagues and provide them support and mentoring to enhance
their learning and practice.
continually seek to develop their professional knowledge and practice by reflecting on their
own needs, and those of their colleagues and students.
Career Stage 4 or Distinguished Teachers
embody the highest standard for teaching grounded in global best practices.
exhibit exceptional capacity to improve their own teaching practice and that of others.
recognized as leaders in education, contributors to the profession and initiators of
collaborations and partnerships.
create lifelong impact in the lives of colleagues, students and others.
consistently seek professional advancement and relevance in pursuit of teaching quality and
excellence.
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exhibit commitment to inspire the education community and stakeholders for the
improvement of education provision in the Philippine.
(Adopted: Acledan, M., Mamocod, C., Neri, M.., Chagas, M., Carillo, M., Cancio, B., Chavez, C.,
Bentayao, A., Namoc, A., Librea, A. (2020) Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching: Module for CHED
ROXI – PROJECT WRITE. Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide for Course Pack making and Module
Development)
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:
Lucas, M. R. &Corpuz, B. (2014). Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive process
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Let’s Check
Take time to thoughtfully answer the checklist below for you to reflect on your prior
knowledge and experience related to student-centred teaching. Check your response
under the YES and NO column.
Checklist on Learner-Centred Pedagogy
Yes No
• Were you allowed by your teachers to set

specific learning goals for your self?
• Have you experienced being given the freedom

to choose a topic for a course requirement?
• Have you experienced being asked by your

teacher for your input or opinion in deciding
what topics to learn in a course?
• Have you experienced being given a chance to

choose a type of assessment task you can do to
effectively demonstrate what you already know?
• Do your teachers frequently check first what you

already know about a certain lesson?
• Has collaboration among students emphasized

more than competition in your learning
experience through the years?
• Have you experienced being given the

opportunity to develop your self- and peer-
assessment skills?
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• Have you experienced being given a flexible date

for submitting your project?
(Adopted: Acledan, M., Mamocod, C., Neri, M.., Chagas, M., Carillo, M., Cancio, B.,
Chavez, C., Bentayao, A., Namoc, A., Librea, A. (2020) Facilitating Learner-Centered
Teaching: Module for CHED ROXI – PROJECT WRITE. Project WRITE XI: An Easy Guide
for Course Pack making and Module Development)
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Let’s Analyze
I.
Let us now examine closely your response to the checklist.
1. Where did most of your responses fall in the checklist? More of Yes or
more of No?
2. If more of yes, how did you feel about those experiences?
3. If more of No, how did you feel under those circumstances?
4. For items which you answered NO, which of these would you have
liked to really have or experience in the past?Why do you say so?
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5. What do you also observe as the most noticeable practice of the

teacher-centred instrutor?
6. What do you also observe as the most noticeable practice of the

teacher-centred instrutor?
7. If you had a more learner-centered instructor, how would feel

about your learning experience under those circumstances?
8. On the other hand, if you had a more teacher-centred

instructor, how would you feel about your learning experience
under such circumstances?.
II.
Activity 1: BBEHAVIORISM
Answer the questions.
1. What kind of stimuli for children’s and adult behavior did you observe?
2. What kinds of behaviors on the part of children elicit reinforcement and

punishment consequences from the adult?
3. What kind of behaviors of adults are reinforced or punished by the children?
4. What kinds of reinforcement and punishments seem to be most “successful”?
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5. Given this experience, what are your thoughts about operant conditioning? Do
you think children reinforce and punish adults reinforce and punish them? How
might the two be interdependent?
Activity 3: WORKING ON A MAZE
1. How did you solve maze A.? What strategy did you use? (trial and error, examined
the maze before proceeding with your pen etc.
2. Was it easier to solve maze B? Why?
Activity 5: WORD PUZZLE/GARDEN OF HERBS
Reflection Questions;
1. As a student, what factor influence learning?
2. What are the negative implications of technology to intellectual and social

development of young children?
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In a Nutshell
I. Now that you have grasped the the key points needed to make a learner-centered
instructional plan, make a simple plan following what you have learned from the unit.
Q & A LIST
Now that you have gone through the lessons, you may list down your concerns
Do you have any question or clarification?
Questions/Issues Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO2. Discuss how student’s cognitive abilities

enable learning to take place
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential terms relevant to the study of facilitating learner-
centered teaching and to demonstrate ULO2 will be operationally defined to establish a
encounter these terms as we go through the study of facilitating learner-centered teaching.
Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in understanding
concepts in facilitating learner-centered teaching.
1. Metacognition - awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.
2. Spaced Retrieval - is an evidence-based memory technique that uses procedural memory

to help people recall information over progressively longer intervals of time.
3. stimuli - causes an action or response, like the ringing of your alarm clock if you didn't
sleep through it.
4. semantic - of or relating to meaning in language
5. Brain lateralization - Lateralization of the brain hemispheres refers to a functional

dominance of one hemisphere over the other, in which one is more responsible or entirely
responsible for control of a function in comparison to the other.
Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first three (3)
weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge that will
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LESSON 2.1 MULTI-STORE MEMORY
This time we shall learn about Multi-Store Memory.
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed the multi-store memory model also known as modal
model which is basically a structural model. Together they proposed the notion that memory
consists of three stores:
• a sensory register
• short-term memory (STM)
• long-term memory (LTM).
To this, they held that information goes through the process in a linear way which has been
described as the information processing model so much like how a computer works with an input,
process and output.
As such, information is said to be detected by the sense organs which then proceeds to the sensory
memory. This, if attended to can enter the short term memory. When the information from the
short-term memory is rehearsed (repeated), it gets transferred to the long-term memory. However,
without maintenance rehearsal (repetition) information may be forgotten and gets lost from short-
term memory by the process of displacement or decay.
The Memory Stores
Each store is a unitary structure and has its own characteristics in terms of encoding, capacity and
duration.
Encoding is the way information is changed so that it can be stored in the memory. There are three
main ways in which information can be encoded (changed):
1. visual (picture),
2. acoustic (sound),
3. semantic (meaning).
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Capacity concerns how much information can be stored.
Duration refers to the period of time information can last in the memory stores.
Store Duration Capacity Encoding
Sensory ¼ to ½ second all sensory sense specific (e.g.

Memory experience (v. different stores for each
larger capacity) sense)
Short Term 0-18 seconds 7 +/- 2 items mainly auditory

Memory
Long Term Unlimited Unlimited Mainly Semantic (but can

Memory be visual and auditory)
Mcleod (2017) pointed out the study conducted by Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) which sshowed that
when learners were presented a list of words only the first few and last few of those have the
tendency to be remembered while the words in the middle list are likely to be forgotten.
The result supports that a separate LTM and STM exists because of the observed primacy and
recency effect where words presented early on in the list have been put into the long-term memory
(primacy effect) due to the span of time to rehearse the word while those words at the end part
proceeded to the short term memory (recency effect).
Moreover, there have been different types of long term memory identified such as episodic
(memories of events), procedural (knowledge of how to do things) and semantic (general
knowledge).
LESSON 2.1 DUAL CODING THEORY
It is time we get to know Dual Coding Theory!
In 1971, a Canadian researcher Allan Paivio proposed ‘that the human mind operates with two
distinct classes of mental representation (or “codes”), verbal representations and mental images,
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and that human memory thus comprises two functionally independent (although interacting)
systems or stores, verbal memory and image memory.’ (Thomas, 2014).
Source:
https://classteaching.wor
dpress.com/2019/04/24/
explaining-through-dual-
coding/
The two codes or

channels in our
memory deal with
visual and verbal stimuli and though they store those stimuli separately, they are linked to each
other and hence makes retrieval easier. Both, words or images stimulate the retrieval of the other.
‘While being independent of each other, they are also able to create what Paivio called “associative
connections” between them. So, they are both apart from one another but can cooperate in forming
linked pairs of words and images. By forming such a link, the encoding process is enriched. It leaves a
double memory trace and, in the words of Professor Paul Kirschner, results in “double-barrelled
learning” because of the resultant double opportunity of being retrieved by either verbal or visual
means.’
(Caviglioli, 2019)
No wonder teachers who employ a Dual Coding mindset in preparing instructional materials have
learning improved because the students’ working memory is increased and cognitive load is
reduced.
Further, Paivio as cited by Caviglio (2019) defined visual information as being synchronous or
simultaneous in structure and that these synonymous terms explains that diagrams can be viewed at
one time bearing most, if not all elements presented.
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Meanwhile, verbal information is sequential by nature wherein each word is addressed one
at a time. There is a need to relate each word to other words to make sense of it. There is a distance
that require cognitive effort so as to come up with the necessary inferences and finally make sense
of the whole text.
It is, therefore, worth to note that “Visuals ignored, don’t teach”. (Clark and Lyons, 2004 cited by
Caviglioli, 2019) Diagrams should be presented to give information requiring less effort to
understand it and for students to think about or else not much learning can take place. They should
be thought of as platforms that enable learners to better analyse texts.
LESSON 2.3 EBBINGHAUS FORGETTING CURVE MODEL
Today we shall learn about the Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve Model
As sure as the sunrise, human beings tend to forget things learned in the past. This lesson will help
us understand how fast we forget.
The ‘forgetting curve’ which refers to the loss of learned information has been a product of a series
of experiments conducted on memory by German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909).
The theory is that humans start losing the memory of learned knowledge over time, in a
matter of days or weeks, unless the learned knowledge is consciously reviewed time and again. A
related concept to the forgetting curve is strength of memory, which states that the time period up
to which a person can recall any memory is based on the strength of the particular memory.’
(Shrestha, 2017)
In an article by Wadsworth (2019), he mentioned in particular its implications to college

students who after a day or two of attending classes, will have forgotten 75% of what was learned
and that forgetting occurs within the first hour. Interestingly, although this is said to be a natural
process, it is possible to disrupt the process.
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Looking at the graph, it can be noticed that our memory starts to fade as days go by.
Again, simple processes can be employed to delay forgetting and can help us retain the information
needed at a later date.
As mentioned earlier, forgetting can be slowed down or disrupted. It can be observed in the second
graph that forgetting can be overcomed by spaced learning. What does spaced learning tell us?
‘While an initial review of material will help you remember in the short term, reviewing material
multiple times and at different intervals will help you retain it for much longer.’ The graph ‘shows
how review affects memory. You can see that every time you review material you both retain much
more information, and your forgetting curve steadies out at a much higher level. Each time you
review material you take much more away. Research indicates that the minimum amount of review
is three.’ (Whitman, yyyy)
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The dramatic increase proves how much review can do to students in retaining learned information
over a period of time. ‘Unfortunately, it also shows that without additional intervention one day
after material is learned content is lost, and one week after, recall is almost as if the review never
happened at all.’ (Whitman, yyyy)
LESSON 2.4 SPACED RETRIEVAL
Spaced Retrieval: What is there to know?
As a memory technique, Spaced Retrieval (SR) is evidence-based and makes use of ‘procedural
memory to help people recall information over progressively longer intervals of time.’ (Desai, 2020)
Now let us discuss a little about memory. According to Desai (2020)
‘A memory is simply a pattern of information in the brain that is stored and retrieved.’ She added
that oftentimes long-term memory is described as either declarative or non-declarative. Declarative
memory consists of those which can be consciously recalled like facts (semantic memory) as well as
personal events (episodic memory) while Non-declarative memory (also called procedural memory)
refers to implicit memory responsible for helping us carry out common tasks even without the
conscious thinking of it. (e.g. riding a bike, washing dishes, etc.)
Moreover, Rawson et. al, (2013) stressed three principles that promote effective long term learning
which include meaningful connections, retrieval practice and spaced practice.
As such teachers need to establish meaningful connections by explaining new concepts in relation to
concepts previously learned. Also, they need to keep the information accessible for retrieval practice
and promote spaced practice that is to distribute practice repetitions over time.
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In 2013 Rawson et. al, studied how much Spaced Retrieval practice have helped students
utilize memorization for an upcoming examination.
The participants were observed using the Spaced Retrieval Practice and Restudy strategies. For SR
Practice learning a concept progressed in three steps (retrieval, monitoring and feedback). While, in
Restudy strategy a concept is presented at least five times more after initial presentation.
Its findings revealed that during the exams, concepts learned with the use of Spaced
Retrieval were better remembered as compared to the Restudy strategy and other strategies.
Interestingly, SR practice ‘did not just yield better results on the exam but prevented the post-exam
rapid forgetting.’ In short, concepts learned remain in the minds of the students long after the exam
was taken.
The above-mentioned study is proof how SR can be employed in the classroom to ensure better
learning for students.
Development)
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:
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Let’s Check
I. Direction: Explain the Multi-Store Memory Model by filling in the description of each type in the
diagram below. Then give a one-paragraph narrative as to how it works according to Atkinson and
Shiffrin (1968).
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Development)
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Let’s Analyze
I. Fill in the PMI chart with what you learned about the Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
Model. Write under Plus column all the positive things you can say; write all the negative
things on the ‘Minus’ column and write all areas you think can still be explored in the
‘Interesting’ column.
Plus Minus Interesting
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Development)
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In a Nutshell
I. Create a simple classroom activity that will address the different theories of
intelligence in a classroom education
Lesson/ Description of
Theory Activity Name
Topic Activity
Gardner
Sternberg
Thurstone
Spearman
Development)
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Q & A LIST
Now that you have gone through the lessons, you may list down your concerns and send it
directly via email following the format below.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Big Picture
3. defend how motivation of students drive their desire to learn; and

4. explain how emotions facilitate the learning experience of students.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO3. Defend how motivation of students drive

their desire to learn
Metalanguage
1. Intrinsic motivation- is the act of doing something without any obvious external rewards
2. Extrinsic motivation - rewards or other incentives — like praise, fame, or money — are
used as motivation for specific activities.
3. ARCS Model - explains the importance to build student motivation to learn and participate
in any classroom activity
4. Attributional beliefs - are personal theories regarding why things happen in individuals’
lives and how they explain other people’s success or failure.
5. Self- efficacy - when an individual’s personal beliefs in his or her ability to perform and
accomplish tasks
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Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the fourth to sixth
week of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge that will
LESSON 3.1 MOTIVATION: DEFINITION AND TYPES
Motivation is “a process whereby a goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained.”

(Schunk, Pintrinch & Meece, 2008)
Meaning of Motivation
Motivation is an inner drive that causes you to do something and persevere at something. It
energizes you to do something. It is the strength of the drive toward an action. While ability refers
to what children can do, motivation refers to what these children will do. Motivation refers to the
initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behavior. When we get motivated to do
something, it is not enough that we start working at that thing but that we get attracted to it. Our
attraction towards it becomes so intense that we persist working on it through thick and thin until
its completion. Learner’s motivation is the primary factor influencing both performance and
success in school.
Indicators of a High Level of Motivation
Your student’s level of motivation is shown in his/her choice of action, intensity and
persistence of effort. If you have a highly motivated student, you have a student who is excited
about learning and accomplishing things. S/he takes the initiative to undertake learning tasks,
assignments and projects without being pushed by his/her teachers and parents. S/he has goals to
accomplish and dreams to realize. S/he is convinced that accomplishing the things s/he is asked to
accomplish in class helps her/him realize the goals s/he has set for herself/himself and his/her
dream in life. S/he is willing to give up the satisfaction of immediate goals for the sake of more
important remote goals. An example is her willingness to give up joining his/her barkada to watch
a movie in order to prepare thoroughly for final examinations.
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A student who is highly motivated to learn enjoys learning and learns much more than the
one who is not as motivated. S/he persists and perseveres in her/his studies even when things turn
out to be difficult. S/he does not give up easily. As a result, his/her performance is satisfactory. In
contrast, a student who is not motivated to learn does not enjoy learning, does not study unless
“pushed”. When s/he feels the difficulty of study, s/he readily gives up. S/he lacks perseverance.
Types of Motivation
Motivation is classified as either intrinsic or extrinsic. It is intrinsic when the source of

motivation is from within the person himself/herself or the activity itself. It is motivation to engage
in an activity for its own sake (Schunk et al, 2008). An example is when a student reads
pocketbooks because s/he herself/himself wants to read them or because reading them is in itself
worthwhile and enjoyable. Motivation is extrinsic when that which motivates a person is someone
or something outside him/her. When a student studies because s/he was told by her/his teacher
or because s/he is afraid to fail and his/her parents will make her/him stop schooling or because it
will lead to a good grade, we can say that s/he is extrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation is
motivation to engage in an activity as a means to an end. In our examples, the student studies to
please her/his teacher, parents or to get a good grade. He does not study for the joy of studying.
Obviously, intrinsic motivation is more beneficial than extrinsic motivation because intrinsic
motivation comes from within the person himself/herself. If that which motivates a person is
something or someone outside, the moment that person or that something is gone, the person’s
motivation is also gone. Intrinsic motivation is evident when people engage in an activity for its
own sake, without some obvious external incentive present. Reading for no reason other than the
joy of reading illustrates intrinsic motivation.
Research indicates that intrinsic motivation is preferable because of its focus on learning and
understanding.
The Role of Extrinsic Motivation
Initially, extrinsic motivation is necessary to develop the love for learning among poorly
motivated students. If good grades, rewards, praises or words of encouragement or fear of failing
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grade can motivate unmotivated students to study, why not? For as long as students are hardly
motivated, external motivation in the form of rewards, incentives or punishment play a significant
role in the development of motivated students.
It is expected, however, that these extrinsic motivational factors be gradually replaced by

internal motivation. In the concrete, this means that after motivating the students to study by way
of reward, praise, encouragement, punishment, hopefully the students develop the genuine love
for learning and becomes intrinsically motivated in the process. In short, we may begin employing
extrinsic motivation at the start but this should fade away as the students get intrinsically
motivated themselves.
LESSON 3.2 ACADEMIC MOTIVATION
intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation.

What Is Academic Motivation?
Academic motivation is defined as a student’s desire regarding academic subjects. Usher et al

(2012).
Motivation is seen to students through their approach, persistence, and level of interest when the
student’s competence is judged against a standard of performance or excellence.
Academic motivation is a broad term incorporating many concepts studied by scholars which
include self-efficacy, determination and resilience. All of these terms are incorporated characteristics
that are related to motivation (Steinmayr et al, 2019).
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Academic motivational components that significantly impact students learning:
1. Beliefs/perception which subdivided into three key concepts:

a. Self-efficacy is when an individual’s personal beliefs in his or her ability to perform and
accomplish tasks. Students are competent when they think they can meet the challenge of
their school- work. Students with high efficacy expectations take on challenging tasks, put
forth efforts, persist when faced with difficulties, and believe that they will succeed in the
future.
b. Autonomy is a term that signifies personal beliefs that individuals have control over their
own learning and decision making
c. Attributional beliefs are personal theories regarding why things happen in individuals’ lives
and how they explain other people’s success or failure. Understanding how students
attribute their success and failure in school, that is, how students explain an outcome or
their understanding of why certain achievement outcomes happen, sheds light on the
source of their subsequent actions
2. Goals setting involves establishing a target to serve as the purpose of an individual’s actions.
It provides a framework within which a person responds to events and results in a unique
pattern of cognition, behavior, and affect.
Goals can be short term (proximal goals) or long term (distal goals) with a few sub-goals that
can be used to assess progress toward a final goal. Goal setting involves establishing
a target to serve as the purpose of an individual’s actions
2 types of goal orientation:
a. Mastery goal-oriented students are those academically oriented to learn and master
materials and to demonstrate their competence by performing well.
b. Students with performance goal orientation, on the other hand, demonstrate their
competence relative to others.
3. Values
When students perceive learning activities and materials with an attitude of “It’s not worth
it,” they will likely not consume efforts to learn. The amount of time and effort spent on an
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activity depends on how much students value the work, as well as “I can do it” self-efficacy
beliefs
Valuing learning tasks implies students’ reasons for engaging in learning activities. Students
perceive task value from different viewpoints, including whether materials or activities are
interesting (intrinsic value), important (attainment value), and useful
4. Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation
a. Students with intrinsic motivation engage in activities, in the absence of external incentives,
for
the inherent challenge and curiosity, and prefer tasks that are inherently interesting
b. Students with extrinsic motivation engage in activities to obtain some outcomes, such as
achieving rewards or avoiding punishments, separable from the activity itself
LESSON 3.3 ARCS MODEL OF MOTIVATION

intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation.
As a teacher, we always say that motivation plays an important role for an individual to keep
going. Indeed, it is an important foundation in the academic path of every student. In fact, even an
infant is interested to learn the world around them. Without motivation, students lead not only to
underachievement but as well skipping to learn. This is due to the negative experiences of most
students and begin to stop trying hard since they think that their effort will not make any difference.
This where the model of John Keller’s ARCS instructional model is anchored upon.
ARCS is a model that highlights on motivation. It emphasizes that learners have to be

motivated to ensure them to continually learn and achieve expected outcomes especially in the new
normal instruction
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Figure 1: ARCS Motivational Model
ARCS design I subdivided in to four, namely:
1. Attention- it refers to the learners’ interest that is critical to get and hold their interests and
attention.
Two ways to gain attention:
a. Perceptual arousal – uses surprise or uncertainly to gain interest. Uses novel, surprising,
incongruous, and uncertain events
b. Inquiry arousal – stimulates curiosity by posing challenging questions or problems to be
solved.
Methods for grabbing attention:
a. Active participation -Adopt strategies such as games, roleplay or other hands-on

methods to get learners involved with the material or subject matter.
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b. Variability – To better reinforce materials and account for individual differences in

learning styles, use a variety of methods in presenting material (e.g. use of videos, short
lectures, mini-discussion groups).
c. Humor -Maintain interest by use a small amount of humor (but not too much to be
distracting)
d. Incongruity and Conflict – A devil’s advocate approach in which statements are posed
that go against a learner’s past experiences.
e. Specific examples – Use a visual stimuli, story, or biography.
f. Inquiry – Pose questions or problems for the learners to solve, e.g. brainstorming
activities.
2. Relevance can assist increase a learner’s motivation. Using concrete language and examples
with which the learners are familiar. The learning process should show the usefulness of the
content so that learners can bridge the gap between content and the real world.
This includes:
a. Experience – Tell the learners how the new learning will use their existing skills.
b. Present Worth – What will the subject matter do for me today?
c. Future Usefulness – What will the subject matter do for me tomorrow?
d. Needs Matching – Take advantage of the dynamics of achievement, risk taking, power,
and affiliation.
e. Modeling – First of all, “be what you want them to do!”
f. Choice – Allow the learners to use different methods to pursue their work or allowing s
choice in how they organize it.
3. Confidence helps students understand their likelihood for success. If they feel they cannot
meet the objectives or that the cost (time or effort) is too high, their motivation will
decrease. This component focuses on developing success expectation among learners, and
success expectation allow learners to control their learning processes.
Components:
a. Grow the Learners – Allow for small steps of growth during the learning process.
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b. Feedback – Provide feedback and support internal attributions for success.

c. Learner Control – Learners should feel some degree of control over their learning and
assessment. They should believe that their success is a direct result of the amount of effort
they have put forth.
4. Satisfaction- learning must be rewarding or satisfying in some way, whether it is from a

sense of achievement, praise from a higher-up, or mere entertainment.
There is direct relation between motivation and satisfaction. Learners should be satisfied of
what they achieved during the learning process.
Three forms:
a. Intrinsic reinforcement (“I feel good about what I have learned”

b. Extrinsic reinforcement (awards like money, medals or tokens)
c. Equity (positive feedbacks)
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Let’s Check
I. Now it is your time to apply your understanding about the types of motivation. Answer the
following questions. (use separate sheets if necessary)
1. Try to look back on your learning experiences. Can you cite some examples of extrinsic
and intrinsic motivation in your life as a student?
2. Are there any instances that extrinsic motivation is necessary? Give examples.
3. Some of the people argue that using rewards put students into the wrong message about
learning and there are research suggesting that rewards actually decrease interest in
intrinsically motivating tasks. Explain.
Development)
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Let’s Analyze
I. Few years from now, you will become a teacher. In a class, you will meet different types of
students with different beliefs and perceptions. What will you do to motivate them to learn
personally sensitive issues like career aspirations or sex education?
Motivational
type of student
Teaching Strategy Short Description
Self-efficient
Autonomous
Attributional
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In a Nutshell
I. Present motivational strategies under each component of ARCS model in the field of expertise.
Complete the table below (use separate sheet):
Topic Components (Arcs) Description
Attention:
Relevance:
Confidence:
Satisfaction:
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Q & A LIST
Now that you have gone through the lessons, you may list down your concerns.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO4. Explain how emotions facilitate the

learning experience of students
Metalanguage
1. Achievement emotions - relate to achievement activities and to success and failure

resulting from these activities. Achievement emotions are pervasive in academic settings,
especially so when the importance of success and failure is made clear to students.
2. Epistemic emotions - are emotions triggered by cognitive problems. Epistemic emotions

are especially important in learning with new, non-routine tasks.
3. Topic emotions - pertain to the topics presented in lessons. Both positive and negative
topic emotions can trigger students’ interest in learning material.
4. Social emotions - relate to teachers and peers in the classroom. These emotions are
especially important in teacher/student interaction and in group learning
5. Emotional Intelligence - includes the ability to engage in sophisticated information

processing about one's own and others' emotions and the ability to use this information as a
guide to thinking and behaviour.
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Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the fourth to sixth
LESSON 4.1 EMOTIONAL RESPONSES OF LEARNERS
Definition of Emotions
There are many different types of emotions that have an influence on how we live and interact with
others. At times, it may seem like we are ruled by these emotions. The choices we make, the actions
we take, and the perceptions we have are all influenced by the emotions we are experiencing at any
given moment.
Emotions are all those feelings that so change men as to affect their judgement, and that are also
attended by pain or pleasure, wrote Aristotle (384-322 BCE).
Some emotions are very specific, in so far as they concern a particular person, object, or situation.
Others, such as distress, joy, or depression are very general. Some emotions are very brief and
barely conscious, such as a sudden flush of embarrassment or a burst of anger. Others, such as long-
lasting love or simmering resentment, are protracted, lasting hours, months, or even years (in which
case they can become a durable feature of an individual’s personality).
An emotion may have pronounced physical accompaniments, such as facial expression, or it may be
invisible to observers. An emotion may involve conscious experience and reflection, as when one
“wallows” in it, or it may pass virtually unnoticed and unacknowledged by the subject. An emotion
may be profound, in the sense that it is essential to one’s physical survival or mental health, or it
may be trivial or dysfunctional. An emotion may be socially appropriate or inappropriate.
Types of Emotional Responses
a. Subjective Experience
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While experts believe that there are a number of basic universal emotions that are experienced by
people all over the world regardless of background or culture, researchers also believe that
experiencing emotion can be highly subjective.4 Consider anger, for example. Is all anger the same?
Your own experience might range from mild annoyance to blinding rage.
While we have broad labels for emotions such as "angry," "sad," or "happy," your own experience of
these emotions may be much more multi-dimensional, hence subjective.
We also don't always experience pure forms of each emotion. Mixed emotions over different events
or situations in our lives are common. When faced with starting a new job, you might feel both
excited and nervous. Getting married or having a child might be marked by a wide variety of
emotions ranging from joy to anxiety. These emotions might occur simultaneously, or you might feel
them one after another.
b. Physiological Response
If you've ever felt your stomach lurch from anxiety or your heart palpate with fear, then you realize
that emotions also cause strong physiological reactions.
Many of the physiological responses you experience during an emotion, such as sweaty palms or a
racing heartbeat, are regulated by the sympathetic nervous system, a branch of the autonomic
nervous system.
The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary body responses, such as blood flow and
digestion. The sympathetic nervous system is charged with controlling the body's fight or flight
reactions. When facing a threat, these responses automatically prepare your body to flee from
danger or face the threat head-on.
While early studies of the physiology of emotion tended to focus on these autonomic responses,
more recent research has targeted the brain's role in emotions. Brain scans have shown that
the amygdala, part of the limbic system, plays an important role in emotion and fear in particular.5
The amygdala itself is a tiny, almond-shaped structure that has been linked to motivational states
such as hunger and thirst as well as memory and emotion. Researchers have used brain imaging to
show that when people are shown threatening images, the amygdala becomes activated. Damage to
the amygdala has also been shown to impair the fear response.6
c. Behavioral Response
The final component is perhaps one that you are most familiar with—the actual expression of
emotion. We spend a significant amount of time interpreting the emotional expressions of the
people around us. Our ability to accurately understand these expressions is tied to what
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psychologists call emotional intelligence, and these expressions play a major part in our overall body
language.
Research suggests that many expressions are universal, such as a smile to indicate happiness or a
frown to indicate sadness. Sociocultural norms also play a role in how we express and interpret
emotions.
In Japan, for example, people tend to mask displays of fear or disgust when an authority figure is
present. Similarly, Western cultures like the United States are more likely to express negative
emotions both alone and in the presence of others, while eastern cultures like Japan are more likely
to do so while alone.7
Academic Emotions
As future educators, we need to fully recognize the role of emotions in learning. We need to view
our students’ emotional state as a subjective experience, physiological response and behavioral
response within the learning environment that is being created and managed by the teacher.
Rentiers and Rivers (2014) in fact described emotions as playing a critical role in the learning and
teaching process because they impact on learners’ motivation, self-regulation and academic
achievement.
According to Pekrun’s UNESCO book series on Emotions in Learning published in 2014, there are four
groups of academic emotions that are especially relevant for students’ learning which are shown in
the figure below.
Figure 1. Four Groups of Academic Emotions of Learners
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Achievement Emotions relate to achievement activities and to success and failure resulting from
these activities. Achievement emotions are pervasive in academic settings, especially so when the
importance of success and failure is made clear to students.
• Examples are enjoyment of learning;

• hope and pride related to success;
• and anxiety and shame related to failure.
Epistemic Emotions are emotions triggered by cognitive problems. Epistemic emotions are
especially important in learning with new, non-routine tasks. Examples are
• curiosity or surprise about a new learning task

• confusion and frustration about obstacles
• delight when the problem is solved
Topic Emotions pertain to the topics presented in lessons. Both positive and negative topic emotions
can trigger students’ interest in learning material. Examples are
• empathy with the fate of one of the characters portrayed in a novel

• anxiety and disgust when dealing with a health pandemic issues
• enjoyment of a painting discussed in an art course
Social Emotions relate to teachers and peers in the classroom. These emotions are especially
important in teacher/student interaction and in group learning. Example are
• love for peers and teacher

• sympathy and compassion for classmates
• admiration for teachers and groupmates
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• contempt or anger for negligence of peers in group tasks or projects

• social anxiety over peer acceptance
Given these different triggers of emotions in the classroom, it is no wonder that a teacher must be
equipped and ready to manage and respond proactively to the emotional state of the learners.
Being ignorant or blind to the emotional undercurrents in the learning environment can be very
counterproductive to a learner-centered approach to teaching. You must learn to become sensitive
to the academic-related emotions of learners as a subjective experience, a physiological response,
and a behavioral response in your class.
LESSON 4.2 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
As a teacher, we always say that emotional intelligence plays an important role for an
individual to keep going. Indeed, it is an important foundation in the academic path of every
student. In fact, even a child is interested to learn what is happening around him/her.
With emotional intelligence, students are not only lead to achievement but success in
learning as well. This is due to the positive experiences of students.
Emotional Intelligence includes the ability to engage in sophisticated information processing

about one's own and others' emotions and the ability to use this information as a guide to thinking
and behaviour.
Components
Mayer & Salovey (2000) suggest that there are four different levels of emotional intelligence
including emotional perception, the ability to reason using emotions, the ability to understand
emotions, and the ability to manage emotions.
1. Perceiving emotions
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The first step in understanding emotions is to perceive them accurately. In many cases, this
might involve understanding nonverbal signals such as body language and facial expressions.
2. Reasoning with emotions
The next step involves using emotions to promote thinking and cognitive activity. Emotions
help prioritize what we pay attention and react to. We respond emotionally to things that
garner our attention.
3. Understanding emotions
The emotions that we perceive can carry a wide variety of meanings. If someone is
expressing angry emotions, the observer must interpret the cause of the person's anger and
what it could mean. For example, if your teacher is acting angry, it might mean that they are
dissatisfied with your work, or it could be because they got caught in a check point on their
way to work that morning or that they have been fighting with their partner.
4. Managing emotions
The ability to manage emotions effectively is a crucial part of emotional intelligence and the
highest level. Regulating emotions and responding appropriately as well as responding to
the emotions of others are all important aspects of emotional management.
The four branches of this model are arranged by complexity with the more basic processes at
the lower levels and the more advanced processes at the higher levels. For example, the lowest
levels involve perceiving and expressing emotion, while higher levels require greater conscious
involvement and involve regulating emotions. The chart below can best explain the levels of EI.
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Figure 1.
A circular depiction of the four-branch model of Emotional Intelligence (Mayer & Salovey 1997)
Impact of Emotional Intelligence
Interest in teaching and learning social and emotional intelligence has grown in recent years.
Social and emotional learning (SEL) programs have become a standard part of the curriculum for
many schools.
The goal of these initiatives is not only to improve health and well-being but also to help
students succeed academically and prevent bullying. There are many examples of how emotional
intelligence can play a role in daily life. Emotionally intelligent people know that emotions can be
powerful, but also temporary. When a highly charged emotional event happens, such as becoming
angry with a co-worker, the emotionally intelligent response would be to take some time before
responding. This allows everyone to calm their emotions and think more rationally about all the
factors surrounding the argument.
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Emotionally intelligent people are not only good at thinking about how other people might feel
but they are also adept at understanding their own feelings. Self-awareness allows people to
consider the many different factors that contribute to their emotions.
A large part of emotional intelligence is being able to think about and empathize with how other
people are feeling. This often involves considering how you would respond if you were in the same
situation.
People who have strong emotional intelligence are able to consider the perspectives, experiences,
and emotions of other people and use this information to explain why people behave the way that
they do.
Effective Ways to Use EI
Emotional intelligence can be used in many different ways in one's daily life. Some different ways to
practice emotional intelligence include:
(The picture depicts the many different ways in one’s life how we use emotional intelligence)
• Being able to accept criticism and responsibility

• Being able to move on after making a mistake
• Being able to say no when you need to
• Being able to share your feelings with others
• Being able to solve problems in ways that work for everyone
• Having empathy for other people
• Having great listening skills
• Knowing why you do the things you do
• Not being judgemental of others
Emotional intelligence is essential for good interpersonal communication. Some experts believe that
this ability is more important in determining life success than IQ alone. Fortunately, there are things
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that you can do to strengthen your own social and emotional intelligence. Understanding emotions
can be the key to better relationships, improved well-being, and stronger communication skills.
LESSON 4.3 POSITIVE TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONS
Teacher–student relationships are accepted as influential but the dynamics of the said
relationships are not well understood, especially with difficult students.
Positive relationships with students, in which high levels of affiliation prevail are one of the
primary reasons for teachers to stay in the profession ( O'Connor, 2008; Veldman, van Tartwijk,
Brekelmans, & Wubbels, 2013).
Moreover, it is one of the most important sources of enjoyment of, and motivation for, teaching
(Hargreaves, 2000). On the other hand, problematic teacher–student relationships which are
characterized by conflict and low levels of affiliation are mentioned by teachers to be sources of
stress and negative emotions (Yoon, 2002). Overall, there is consensus that the most common
sources of teacher work stress stem from relationships with individual students (Friedman, 2006).
Positive relationships
Context in positive relationships
In most accounts of positive relationships, teachers describe teacher or student interpersonal

behaviour taking place out of class. Most behaviour described in positive relationships took place
outside the class context. Although mainly situated before or after the lesson in the classroom or in
the hallway, teachers recognize fieldtrips as important opportunities to build and maintain
relationships and contact with students outside school life, such as on occasions when meeting up
to go to a movie or a concert or coincidental meetings that occur due to living in the same areas.
Topic of talk in positive relationships
In class, the topic of talk mainly revolves around the subject taught and coursework or classroom
management, although informal talk like joking around with the student is also possible.
In the out-of-class context, the topics of conversation can be more diverse. Talk again involves
the subject taught or classroom management. It can also involve student need, disturbing student
behavior and, mostly, informal talk. When a student's need becomes the topic of the conversation,
this mainly concern problems a student experienced at home, problems at school in general like
bullying or problems with the student's future career like what subjects to choose.
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Informal talk mainly concerns mutual interests such as hobbies or interest in one another's
private life, joking around or greeting each other when passing. Although in some accounts of
positive relationships the topics could be highly varied, there are others where teacher and student
talk mainly involved one topic. This especially applies to informal talk, student's needs, and subject
as main topics for conversation.
Interpersonal teacher and student behaviour in positive relationships
Teachers' talk shows that teachers experience students with whom they have a positive relationship
to be mostly supporting and collaborating in class. Teachers describe students as being highly
engaged during the lesson. They share their thoughts on a subject and volunteer on questions.
Sometimes these students even take control of their own learning.
Interactions in positive relationships
Sequences of behaviour between teacher and student are so called interactions. Complementarity
in interactions describe the most probable reaction an action invites. On the communion dimension,
a complementary reaction consists of a similar response in terms of friendliness or hostility; on the
agency dimension, a complementary reaction consists of an opposite response, thus dominant
behavior evokes submissive reactions and vice versa.
Complementarity on the communion dimension is a friendly interaction such as a teacher

showing supportive behavior and a student reacting in a collaborating manner while a hostile
interaction such as the teacher showing confronting behavior and a student reacting in an equally
confronting manner. Complementarity, teacher shows behavior high on agency such as directing,
supporting, confronting and imposing followed by submissive student behavior. Teacher behavior
low on agency such as understanding, acquiescing, hesitating and objecting followed by student
behavior high on agency.
Thus, teacher–student relationships require effort from the teacher, especially when there is a
lack of connection on a personal level with a student. Teachers need to investigate the effectiveness
of conscious strategies in which non complementary teacher behavior is used to improve
relationships with students within classrooms. It has been found out that the positive effects of
teacher programs focused on teacher–student relationships are very important (e.g., Alvarez, 2007;
Roorda, Koomen, Thijs, & Oort, 2013). Reflecting on their positive and problematic relationship may
increase teachers' awareness of their idiosyncratic presuppositions and biases in the emerging of
teacher–student relationships. This awareness may help teachers to maintain a professional stance;
not to react to student behavior based on biases, and making an effort to connect with all students .
Finally, positive relationships with individual students is an important source of enjoyment and
motivation of teachers and problematic ones as causing stress and negative emotions
(Friedman, 2006 ; Hargreaves, 2000 ; Yoon, 2002).
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LESSON 4.4 POSITIVE PEER RELATIONS
The interactions among peers in the classroom are a normal and essential part of the learning
process that influence the lifelong learning habits of students. The potential effects of peer
relationships are reciprocal: some students are more receptive than others. On one extreme, for
example, is the student who values and seeks peer input on every decision. On the other side is
the social isolate who avoids interaction in and out of the classroom. This entry can influence
learners, including developmental differences, motivational and learning considerations, and the
function of the classroom contexts.
Most people would agree that few things impacted their school lives as much as their
relationships with their peers—friends, acquaintances, or otherwise. Peer relationships play
an important role in children’s school lives, and relationships with peers become even more
influential as children enter adolescence.
Positive peer relationships often distinguishes between friendship and peer acceptance.
High-quality friendships involve not only companionship, but also caring, validation, and support. In
addition to playing together, good friends feel comfortable opening up to each other and are
motivated to resolve conflicts that arise.
Peer acceptance, sometimes referred to as popularity, focuses on how much students like or
like to play with their classmates which has been found to affect students’ sense of belonging in
school and their academic achievement.
Learning Motivation and Relationships

The age of the student is one consideration in weighing the importance and application of
motivation to learn. Human relationships have varying degrees of importance in motivational and
learning theories. Most approaches tend to agree, however, that students who surround
themselves with peers and influences who value learning and the educational process will also
value their own learning and strive to enhance their education.
Abraham H. Maslow viewed the need for love and belongingness as a step toward achievement
in his hierarchy of motivation model, which he described in 1954. In this view, the deprivation of
more basic needs hinders progress along the path to achievement. In Maslow's model, people
must have love and belongingness issues satisfied in order to address needs of achievement. For
example, a student with deprived relationship concerns will be less able to participate in classroom
learning opportunities. The ability to learn is built on a foundation of comfortable relationships
with others, including peers and family, and classroom learning is all about learning with and in the
presence of others.
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"Expectancy by value" theories define motivation as the product of the amount of success on a
task that an individual expects to earn times the amount of value the individual places on the task.
Thus, a task that the individual values and expects to be successful at will be motivating compared
to a task with lower expected success or value. Whereas past experience can predict the
expectancy aspect of this model such as the student has done well on prior essay exams wherein
the value placed on the task is more mediated by outside factors, such as peers and family giving
respect to the student's opinions. Related motivational theories include the incentive or rewarding
aspects of motivation, which may also stem from relationships with others.
Behaviorism provides one way to explain the association

between motivation to learn and peer interactions. In basic
behaviorist theories, relationships between people affect learning
only as much as people reinforce each other (or not) in the
academic arena. For example, if the peer group encourages
education and learning, then the individual student within that
group will value learning, because the individual is reinforced, or
rewarded, for behaviour that indicates that learning is valued.
Students in peer groups that do not value education lack the
stimulation and reinforcement needed to encourage personal learning. These peer groups
presumably stimulate and reinforce other values.
Albert Bandura's social learning theory speaks precisely to the human interactions involved in
learning. Observational, or "vicarious" learning is based upon learning by watching then
"modeling" or acting similarly to others. If the student views and works with people who
appreciate learning by engaging in learning activities, then the student too will engage in learning
and might work harder at learning. Peers with positive attitudes and behaviours toward education
will allow and teach each other to set goals that include opportunities to learn and achieve. If peer
models do not convey positive attitudes toward learning, then the students observing these
models will not prioritize learning in their own lives. They will learn to prioritize other goals.
In 1978 Lev Vygotsky also presented ideas on the facilitation of learning through experiences
mediated by other people. In his explanations, the learner cannot reach full potential without the
aid of others. The processes of guiding the learner to higher stages of cognitive functioning rely on
interactive human relationships. Mentors–for example, teachers or more capable peers–can raise
the student's competence through the zone of proximal development (ZPD). ZPD is defined as the
gap between what a student can do alone and what the student can achieve with assistance. In this
view assistance is transitional, a "scaffold" that is removed when it is no longer needed and the
student has internalized another's support.
In sum, varied theories agree that the values and attitudes of the peer group are essential
elements in motivation and learning. Students who surround themselves with academically focused,
goal-oriented peers will be more likely to appreciate, internalize, and exhibit these features
themselves.
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Classroom Dynamics
The educational process can be structured to boost the learning of individuals for younger
students by providing a whole-class environment that enriches learning opportunities with teachers
who model positive learning values which will set the new learner on a path toward academic
achievement. Encouraging students to interact with peers, adults, and family members who have
strong learning desires can support the students' development as learners.
Although peer influences may not yet be as powerful as they will become in student achievement
motivation, the effects of young students' interactions cannot be disregarded. As the learner
matures, the importance of how peers view the learner's actions and decisions may well supercede the
opinions of others, possibly even the views of the learners themselves.
The academic environment needs to be structured in a fashion that allows for student interaction but
sets boundaries that afford pro-social behaviour. Students who are concentrating on unresolved issues
in their social life, whether these issues result from social isolation or from social or home crisis, will
be less able to profit from classroom opportunities. Recognition of the strategic effort required to
maintain classroom social and academic order can help both the learner and the teacher decide how to
approach problems.
Within the classroom, time and organization can be established to focus students on their
learning. Pairing and grouping students by their devotion to academics for example, may benefit all
involved. Those who value learning can share their enthusiasm and act as mentors for those who
have other priorities. Students who motivate themselves in non-academic directions can view and
appreciate the choices of peer learners.
These dynamics must include consideration of the types of classroom curricula. The well-known
and intended analytic curriculum taught to pre service educators and recorded in the lesson plans
and assignments may easily disregard the underlying informal curriculum of social and human
interaction. As Mary McCaslin and Tom L. Good noted in 1996, "Learning is socially situated"; the
achievement of the student is a small part of who the student is and what she does. The
responsibilities of education include helping students recognize their own place as social
contributors and maximizing the resources available to them through interpersonal relationships.
For example, cooperative learning and help-seeking behaviours are essential resources for students
in the classroom that facilitate both student achievement and social competence.
Some students and educators view help-seeking as a sign of dependence or weakness, but
research supports the contention that help-seeking is a sign of social competence that increases
students' chances of academic success. Negative attitudes toward help-seeking may discourage low-
achieving students from approaching peers and teachers and may further isolate them. This is
especially detrimenta0-l to older students.
Students are not isolated in the pursuit of knowledge. They are social beings who need to
interact and establish social contacts. Social learning is as much a part of any classroom curriculum
as the printed guidelines. At a minimum, the influence of peers and a student's relationships with
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them can be understood as a function of student age, motivation, learning, and classroom
opportunities.
Development)
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:
Lucas, M. R. &Corpuz, B. (2014). Facilitating Learning: A

Metacognitive process
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Let’s Check
I. Present a case scenario involving the learning theories that affect positive peer relations in the
teaching-learning environment.
1. Maslow’s Heirarchy of Needs
2. Skinner’s Theory of Behaviorism
3. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
4. Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Development)
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Let’s Analyze
I. After knowing the emotional responses and group of emotions that can be felt by your students
as it applies to their learning experience, let us now think of ways how to apply these concepts in
your future teaching practice.
Answer the following reflective questions:
Statement 1
The neglect of emotions is alarming given that ‘‘emotion is the foundation of learning’’ (Zull 2006, p.
7).
Statement 2
Emotions stimulate learners’ attention and trigger the learning process. They affect what is learned
and what is retained. (Tyng et al, 2017).
Statement 3
Numerous studies across a range of disciplines including neuroscience, education, and psychology
have revealed that emotions play an important role in learning (Seli et al. 2016; Um et al. 2012).
Read the 3 statement above and paraphrase them into a single sentence.
1. Who would be a good choice of a person to share your feelings with? State your reason.
2. If you noticed that your students are afraid of sharing their feelings with you as a teacher,
what do you think can help them express freely their feeling to you?
3. What do you think is a good outlet for reducing student’s stress and coping with tough
academic requirement or situation?
Development)
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In a Nutshell
I. Write a short synthesis about the various emotional factors that affect
students’ learning. Maximum of 500 words only.
Q & A LIST
Now that you have gone through the lessons, you may list down your concerns.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Big Picture
5. create an instructional plan that reflects learner- centered teaching principles and
approach in an inclusive learning environment.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO5. Create an instructional plan that reflects

learner-centered teaching principles and approach in an inclusive
enviroment
Metalanguage
1. Inclusive education - means different and diverse students learning side by side in the
same classroom.
2. Mainstreaming - means that a school is putting children with special needs into classrooms with
their peers who have no disabilities.
3. Indigenous - originating in and characteristic of a particular region or country
4. Capacitating - to make legally competent
5. UDL – (universal design for learning) designed to engage all learners in the instructional process
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Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the seventh to ninth
LESSON 5.1 LEARNING STYLES
This questionnaire is designed to find out your preferred learning styles(s) as an adult.
Over the years, you have probably developed learning habits that help you benefit more from
some experiences than from others. You may be unaware of this, and this questionnaire will
help you pinpoint your learning preferences and share them with the other Community
Facilitators.
This questionnaire will probably take you about 10 minutes to complete. The
accuracy of your results depends on how honest you are. There are no rights or wrong
answers. If you agree more than you disagree with a statement, place a tick (u ) in the box at
the left of the question. If you disagree more than you agree, leave the box blank. If you find
yourself wondering which situation to think of when answering a question, just think about
how you are when you are working with people. Go with your first gut reaction instead of
over-thinking your response.
As we move further with our lesson, let us have an activity for you to be able to
identify what kind of learning styles you may have by using the Kolb’s Learning Style.
Kolb’s Learning Style Questionnaire 1 Agree Disagree
1. I have strong beliefs about what is right and

wrong, good and bad.
2. I often act without considering the possible
consequences.
3. I tend to solve problems using a step-by-step
approach.
4. I believe that formal procedures and policies
restrict people.
5. I have a reputation for saying what I think, simply
and directly
6. I often find that actions based on feelings are as
sound as those based on careful thought and
analysis.
7. I like the sort of work where I have time for
thorough preparation and implementation.
8. I regularly question people about their basic
assumptions
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9. What matters most is whether something works in

practice.
10. I actively seek out new experiences.
11. When I hear about a new idea or approach, I

immediately start working out how to apply it in
practice.
12. I am keen on self discipline such as watching my
diet, taking regular exercise, sticking to a fixed
routine, etc.
13. I take pride in doing a thorough job.
14. I get on best with logical, analytical people and

less well with spontaneous, ‘irrational’ people
Agree Disagree
Kolb’s Learning Style Questionnaire 2
15. I take care over how I interpret data and avoid

jumping to conclusions.
16. I like to reach a decision carefully after weighing
up many alternatives.
17. I am attracted more to novel, unusual ideas than
to practical ones.
18. I do not like disorganized things and prefer to fit
things into a coherent pattern.
19. I accept and stick to laid down procedures and
policies so long as I regard them as an efficient
way of getting the job done.
20. I like to relate my actions to a general principle,
standard or belief.
21. In discussions, I like to get straight to the point.
22. I tend to have distant, rather than formal

relationships with people at work.
23. I thrive on the challenge of tackling something
new and different.
24. I enjoy fun-loving, spontaneous people.
25. I pay careful attention to detail before coming to a

conclusion.
26. I find it difficult to produce ideas on impulse.
27. I believe in coming to the point immediately.
28. I am careful not to jump to conclusions too

quickly.
29. I prefer to have as many sources of information as
possible – the more information to think over, the
better.
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30. Flippant, superficial people who do not take things

seriously enough usually irritate me.
31. I listen to other people’s points of view before
putting my own view forward.
32. I tend to be open about how I am feeling.
33. In discussions, I enjoy watching the plotting and

scheming of the other participants.
34. I prefer to respond to events in a spontaneous,
flexible way rather than plan things out in
advance.
35. I tend to be attracted to techniques such as flow
charts, contingency plans, etc.
36. It worries me if I have to rush work to meet a tight
deadline.
37. I tend to judge people’s ideas on their practical

merits.
38. Quiet, thoughtful people tend to make me feel

uneasy.
39. I often get irritated by people who want to rush

things
40. It is more important to enjoy the present moment

than to think about the past or future.
41. I think that decisions based on a careful analysis of

all the information are better than those based on
intuition.
42. I tend to be a perfectionist.
43.In discussions, I usually produce lots of

spontaneous ideas
44. In meetings, I put forward practical, realistic ideas
45. More often than not, rules are there to be broken.
46. I prefer to stand back from a situation and

consider all the perspectives.
47. I can often see inconsistencies and weaknesses in

other people’s arguments.
48. On balance I talk more than I listen.
49. I can often see better, more practical ways to get
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things done.
50. I think written reports should be short and to the

point.
51. I believe that rational, logical thinking should win

the day.
52 I tend to discuss specific things with people rather

than engaging in social discussions.
53. I like people who approach things realistically

rather than theoretically
54. In discussions, I get impatient with irrelevant

issues and digressions.
55. If I have a report to write, I tend to produce lots of

drafts before settling on the final version.
56. I am keen to try things out to see if they work in

practice
57. I am keen to reach answers via a logical approach.
58. I enjoy being the one that talks a lot.
59. In discussions, I often find I am a realist, keeping

people to the point and avoiding wild
speculations.
60. I like to ponder many alternatives before making

up my mind.
61. In discussions with people I often find I am the

most dispassionate and objective.
62. In discussions I am more likely to adopt a ‘low

profile’ than to take the lead and do most of the
talking.
63. I like to be able to relate current actions to the

longer-term bigger picture.
64. When things go wrong, I am happy to shrug it off

and ‘put it down to experience’.
65. I tend to reject wild, spontaneous ideas as being

impractical.
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66. It is best to think carefully before taking action.
67. On balance, I do the listening rather than the

talking.
68. I tend to be tough on people who find it difficult to

adopt a logical approach.
69. Most times I believe the end justifies the means.
70. I do not mind hurting people’s feelings so long as

the job gets done.
71. I find the formality of having specific objectives

and plans stifling.
72. I am usually one of the people who puts life into a

party.
73. I do whatever is practical to get the job done.
74. I quickly get bored with methodical, detailed work.
75. I am keen on exploring the basic assumptions,

principles and theories underpinning things and
events.
76. I am always interested to find out what people

think.
77. I like meetings to be run on methodical lines,

sticking to laid down agenda.
78. I steer clear of subjective (biased) or ambiguous

(unclear) topics.
79. I enjoy the drama and excitement of a crisis

situation.
80. People often find me insensitive to their feelings.
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Scoring
You score one point for each item you ticked. There are no points for items you crossed. Go
back over your responses and simply circle the question number in the table below for each
question you ticked. Then add up the number of circled responses in the Totals row.
Totals:
QUESTION NUMBER
Question Number
2 7 1 5
4 13 3 9
6 15 8 11
10 16 12 19
17 25 14 21
23 28 18 27
24 29 20 35
32 31 22 37
34 33 26 44
38 36 30 49
40 39 42 50
43 41 47 53
45 46 51 54
48 52 57 56
58 55 61 59
64 60 63 65
71 62 68 69
72 66 75 70
74 67 77 73
79 76 78 80
TOTALS
Activist Reflector Theorist Pragmatist
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Your preferred learning styles
Now circle your total scores for each learning style on the table below to determine the
strength of your preference.
Activist Reflector Theorist Pragmatist
20 20 20 20 Very Strong
19 19 19 19
18 18 18 18
17 17 17
15 16
14
13
12 17 15 16 Strong
Preference
11 16 14 15
15
10 14 13 14 Moderate
9 13 12 13 Preference
8 12 11 12
7
6 11 10 11 Low
5 10 9 10 Preference
4 9 8 9
3 8 7 8 Very Low
2 7 6 7 Preference
1 6 5 6
0 5 4 5
4 3 4
3 2 3
2 1 2
1 0 1
0 0
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Name:
Record your results here:
I have a very strong preference for _____________________________
I have a strong preference for _________________________________
I have a moderate preference

for_______________________________
I have a low preference for ___________________________________
I have a very low preference for _______________________________
Now you may refer your learning style interpretation below.
ACTIVISTS want practical tasks and very little theory. They learn best from activities where:
• New experiences are emphasized;

• The focus is on the present and on doing such activities as games, problem solving,
simulations;
• There is a lot of action and excitement;
• They can lead and be in the limelight;
• Ideas are generated without any concern about practical constraints;
• They have to respond to a challenge and take risks;
• The central focus is on team problem-solving.
THEORISTS want handouts, something to take away and study. They learn best from activities
where:
• The learning forms a part of a conceptual whole, such as a model for a theory;
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• There is time to explore the interrelationship among the elements;

• They can explore the theory and methodology underlying the subject under investigation;
• They are intellectually stretched;
• There is a clear and obvious purpose to the activities;
• There is a reliance on rationality and logic;
• They can analyze situations and then generalize their findings;
• They are asked to understand complex situations.
REFLECTORS want lots of breaks to go off and read and discuss. They learn best from activities. Their
preference lies where:
• There are opportunities to observe and consider;

• There is a strong element of passive involvement such as listening to a speaker or watching a
video;
• There is time to think before having to act or contribute; There is opportunity for research
and problems can be probed in some depth;
• They can review what was happening;
• They are asked to produce reports that carefully analyze a situation or issue;
• There is interaction with others without any risks of strong feelings coming to the fore;
• They can finalize a view without being put under pressure.
PRAGMATISTS want shortcuts and tips. They learn best from activities where:
• There is a clear link back to some job-related problem;

• Material is directed towards techniques that make their work easier;
• They are able to practice what they have learned;
• They can relate to a successful role model;
• There are many opportunities to implement what has been learned;
• The relevance is obvious and the learning is easily transferred to their jobs;
• What is done is practical such as drawing up action plans or trialing techniques or
procedures.
DIVERGERS (Concrete experience/Reflective observer) take experiences and think deeply about
them.
• They diverge from a single experience to multiple possibilities.

• When they learn they will ask ‘why', and will start from detail to logically work up to the
big picture.
• They like working with others but like things to remain calm – they will be
distressed by conflicts in the group.
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• They like to receive constructive feedback.
CONVERGERS (Abstract conceptualization/Active experimenter) think about things and then tryout
their ideas to see if they work in practice.
• When they learn they will ask 'how', and will want to learn by understanding how things
work in practice.
• They like facts and will seek to make things efficient by making small and careful changes.
• They prefer to work alone or independently.
ACCOMMODATORS (Concrete experience/Active experimenter) have the most hands-on approach,

with a strong preference for doing rather than thinking.
• When they learn they will ask ‘what if?' and 'why not?' to support their action-first
approach.
• They do not like routine and will take creative risks to see what happens.
• They learn better by themselves than with others.
ASSIMILATORS (Abstract conceptualize/Reflective observer) have the most cognitive approach,

preferring to think than to act.
• When they learn they will ask 'What is there I can know?' and like organized and structured
understanding.
• Lectures are their preference, with demonstrations where possible, and will respect the
knowledge of experts.
• People with this style will have a strong control need.
• They learn best with lectures that start from high-level concepts and work down to the
detail.
Let’s Find Out
Inclusive Learning Environment
An inclusive learning environment is a school or classroom where students of every ability level
receive teaching in the same place. This means that particularly able students learn alongside those
who have special educational needs, such as dyslexia, dyspraxia and attention deficit disorder.
Related topics on this lesson area are as follows, to be considered in the Inclusive Learning
Environment.
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Learning Styles
Learning styles refer to the preferential way in which the students absorb process,
comprehend and retain information. For example, when learning to build a bicycle, some
students understand the process by reading and following the manual of instructions first,
while some students, readily and immediately get hold of the bicycle parts and proceed to put
them together. Cognitive, emotional, environment and prior experience factors relate to one’s
learning style. (What Teachers Teach, n.d.)
Five Models of Learning Styles
VARK Model of Learning Style
According to Neil Fleming, there are four modalities of learning
• Visual – for the use of maps, images and graphics organizers to access and
understand new information.
• Auditory – for listening and speaking situations, such as lectures
discussions, to understand new information.
• Reading /Writing – for reading and writing to learn new information.
• Kinesthetic – for tactile representation of information. Students learn through hands-
on activities or figuring out
2. Seven Learning Styles according to Ferriman (2013)
1. Visual – for using pictures, images diagrams, colors, mind maps to understand
material, to organize information and 1with others.
2. Aural – (Auditory-musical) for using sound, rhythm, music, recording, clever rhymes
to learn new information.
3. Verbal (Linguistics) – for using words, both in speech and in writing to assist in their
learning.
4. Physical (Kinesthetic) – for using hands, body and sense of touch, to learn about the
world.
5. Logical(Mathematical ) – for logic, reasoning and system to understand concepts.
6. Solitary- to work alone and use self-study and analysis.
7. Social (Interpersonal) – to learn in groups, and as much as possible, with other people.
Things using the hands
3. Kolb’s Basic Learning Styles
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Kolb’s (1979) proposed four basic learning styles based on his four stages of learning cycle
through:
a. concrete experience – putting learned material into practice.

b. reflective observation – analyzes objectively the outcome.
c. abstract conceptualization and generalization – reviewing
a. conceptual understanding.
d. active experimentation – experimenting to find solutions to a problem.
The process is cyclic and depends on the person’s goals. This led to Kolb’s concept of the
following learning styles (creating an enhanced learning, 2001).
a. Converger – the person relies mainly on abstract conceptualization andactive

experimentation
b. Diverger – the person is best at reflective and concrete experience.
c. Assimilator – the person predominantly uses abstract conceptualization and reflection.
d. Accommodator – the person uses concrete experience and active experimentation.
1. Honey and Mumford Learning Styles
Honey and Munford (1986 cited in McGill &Beaty, 1995) identified four learning styles
based on the Kolb’s works. They are:
a. Activist – enjoys the experience itself

b. Reflector – spends a great deal of time and effort reflecting.
c. Theorist – good at making connections and abstracting ideas from experience.
d. Pragmatist- enjoys the planning stage.
2. Li-Fangand Sernberg (Woolfolk, 2013)

Organized previous work on learning styles into three traditions or groups.
a. Cognitive- centered styles – assess the way people process information

b. Personality - centered styles – assess more stable personality traits as either being
extrovert or introvert.
c. Activity – centered styles – assesses a combination of cognition and personality traits.
LESSON 5.2 LEARNERS WITH DIVERSE ABILITIES AND BACKGROUND
Take time to read the Education for All (EFA) Goals 2, 3 and 6 in Appendix C.
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Students with Disabilities
The growth of special education in the Philippines has been given a relatively good support
all these years both by the government, non-government organizations and stakeholders in
response to the needs and challenges of the times. The level of awareness of both the
government and the private sector in providing equal opportunities to children with special
needs has considerably increased.
One positive development in special education is the implementation of Republic Act 7277,
otherwise known as the Magna Carta for Disabled Persons, an Act providing for the
rehabilitation, self-development and self-reliance of disabled persons and their integration
into the mainstream of society. In support of this legislation, the Department of Education has
directed all school divisions in the country to establish Special Education Centers to help
provide effective delivery of special education services nationwide
Students who are gifted and also have learning disabilities are those who possess an
outstanding gift or talent and are capable of high performance, but who also have a learning
disability that makes some aspect of academic achievement difficult. Some of these students
are identified and their needs are met. This happens only rarely, however, unless a school
specifically decides to identify and then serve these students. The majority of students who
are gifted with learning disabilities "fall through the cracks" in the system.
Gifted and Talented Students
There are at least three subgroups of children whose identity are both Gifted and Learning
Disabled
.
1. Those with subtle learning disabilities that are formally identified as gifted.
Children have been formally recognized as gifted owing to their high levels of achievement
and/or high IQ scores. However, as they grow older and the work given to them at school
becomes more complex and challenging, discrepancies between their level of intelligence and
their academic performance begin to become evident.
Example: Children may read or speak brilliantly, while struggling to spell or hand-
writes at an age-appropriate level. They may perform incredibly well on tests, yet
seem to struggle a great deal when it comes to organizing large projects or completing
homework assignments properly and on time.
Many of these children are continually being told that they need to “try harder”, even though
they are actually trying to the best of their ability; inevitably, frustration, resentment, and
apathy often develop as a result.
2. “Average” achievers whose normal level of achievement hides their

learning disabilities.
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Children in group two often go unnoticed for either their giftedness or their learning
disabilities: As their giftedness masks their disabilities and vice versa, they run a very real
risk of never getting neither the help they need, nor the recognition they deserve.
Example: They are struggling valiantly to remain at grade level, using their advanced intellect
to compensate for the difficulties in their learning disabilities. The path to hell is truly paved
with good intentions.
In order to identify these children, educators will often need to remain vigilant for
exceptional talents that emerge only in specific situations, or when encouraged by a
particularly attentive teacher (usually one who uses a creative approach to learning.
3. Children who have an identified learning disability and who are also gifted.
Children who are bright, often struggle profoundly at school, hence being recognized as
learning disabled.
Example: These children are in very real danger of missing out on their gifts entirely
because all the attention is being placed on what is “wrong” with them, rather than trying to
uncover their talents. As to the result. If talents are identified at all, they are often used
merely as a tool to mitigate the child's weakness.
Elements of a Program for a Student who is Gifted and Talented
Regardless of how services are delivered, there are some common elements which
characterize an individualized program appropriate for a student who is gifted and talented:
• It is different in pace, scope, and complexity, in keeping with the nature and extent of
the exceptionality.
• It provides opportunities for students to interact socially and academically with both
age peers and peers of similar abilities (intellectual peers).
• It incorporates adaptations and/or extensions to content, process, product, pacing and
learning environment.
• It goes beyond the walls of a school and into the larger community.
Supplemental services for gifted and talented students could include (but not be limited to)
some of the following elements:
• independent guided study

• specialist teachers
• flexible groupings which provide opportunities for learning with intellectual peers
• mentorships consultative services to assist teachers in expanding experiences in the
regular classroom
• accelerating/telescoping/compacting some or all of1student's program11
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• opportunities to take enriched courses such as modified courses with eight

designations (such as World Geography 3282 which indicates World Geography with
outcomes added or extended upwards), Advanced Placement, International
Baccalaureate, or honors’ courses
It is important to recognize the individual characteristics of schools and their communities in

designing services for students who are gifted and talented. For example, students who are
gifted and talented may benefit from the use of information technology which will
increasingly facilitate access to information sources and program and instructional
opportunities not readily physically available in all communities.
Students from Indigeneous Background
Different cultural norms affect students’ perception of time (e.g., punctuality), group work,
and importance of education, authority, or competition. Likewise, nonverbal messages
expressed through facial expressions, eye contact, voice tone, touch, gestures, and personal
space can have different meanings in different cultures. Because we acquire our culture’s
nonverbal and verbal language simultaneously, it is very difficult to manipulate our own
nonverbal behaviors.
Cultural differences between the uses of nonverbal signals can easily lead to confusion and
problems over intentions and reactions. If someone displays what we feel to be inappropriate
nonverbal behavior, we dismiss them as rude or disrespectful. Instead, we need to understand
they might be acting in accordance with their cultural norms. For example, the Japanese tend
to be straight-faced when happy and smile to mask unpleasant feelings such as anger or
sadness. Because the left hand is considered unclean in Islamic cultures, it is offensive to use
it to offer something to someone. Arabians prefer to stand extremely close to the speaker.
Southeast Asians use two fingers, instead of one, to point.
One of the most important elements of Indigenous teaching and learning revolves around
"learning how to learn." Learning how to learn is a key element in every approach to
education. Therefore, the cultivation of the human capacities listening, observing,
experiencing with all one's senses, developing intuitive understanding, and respecting time-
tested traditions of learning naturally formed the basis for skills used in every process of
Indigenous learning and teaching .
• Tribal teachers begin teaching by building on the commonplace.
• Remember that learning is a natural instinct and that success in learning something
new is tied to human feelings of self-worth.
• Indigenous teaching focuses as much on learning with the heart as on learning with
the mind.
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• Indigenous teaching facilitates learning how to see how one really is rather than an
image manufactured through one's or other's egos.
• Indigenous teaching is always associated with organic development. Indigenous

teaching is planted like a seed, then nurtured and cultivated through the relationship of
teacher and student until it bears fruit.
• The nature and quality of' the relationship and perseverance through time determine
the outcome of a teaching process. Apprenticeship, and learning through ritual stages
of learning readiness, are predicated on the metaphor of' planting seeds and nurturing
the growing seedlings through time.
• Teaching is a communicative art. Indigenous teaching is based on the nature and

quality of communicating at all levels of being.
• Teaching and learning is a matter of serving and being served. Service is the basis of
the relationship between student and teacher.
• Indigenous teaching involves making students think comprehensively and facilitating

their awareness of the higher levels of content and its relationship to other areas of
knowledge.
• Indigenous practices such as creative dreaming, art, ritual, and ceremony help the
student externalize inner thoughts and qualities for examination.
• Indigenous teaching revolves around some form of work. Indigenous teachers

recognize that work invites concentration and facilitates a quietness of the mind.
• Tribal teachers understand that all teaching is relative, and each path of knowledge
has its own requirements that need to be addressed.
• Learning about the nature of self-deception is a key aspect of Indigenous preparation

for learning.
• Tribal teachers realize that striving for real knowledge requires a cultivated sense of
humility. The human tendencies toward pride, arrogance, and ego-inflation have to be
understood and avoided in the search for one's true face, heart, and vocation.
• Knowledge and action are considered parts of the same whole.
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• A concept of "each person's work," akin to the Hindu concept of "karma," is honored
in the processes of Indigenous education.
Source: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED375993.pdf
https://www7.nau.edu/itep/main/SGardn/Basic/basic_indigenous
LESSON 5.3 FAIR AND SAFE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
What is inclusive education?
Inclusion entails the act of making a general education classroom all-encompassing to all
types of learners. Unlike the common misconception, inclusion embraces not only those in special
education but also the general education population, those with diverse learning needs, at risk for
school failure, and those with a variety of other different learning needs. Specifically, inclusion:
provides a framework for all students to improve holistically;
involves practical educational opportunities that can occur in various environments and in
many different ways; and
creates meaningful opportunities to cater to the needs of diverse learners concerning their
cultural background, gender, unique learning styles, and personal differences.
Two practices that effectively support an inclusive education
Response to Intervention/Multi-Tiered System of Support(RTI)
• RTI is designed to provide an early support and intervention for all learners.
• It is typically grounded on a three-tier framework with increasing support or interventions

for students who are not making satisfactory academic or behavioral progress. It begins with
universal screening, an assessment in the core curriculum, or behavioral areas that identify
students who may need additional support.
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• It is based on effective teacher instruction using research-validated strategies and

curriculum in the general education classroom. Students’ progress is monitored on specific
skills using a curriculum-based assessment. Thus, the result will be beneficial to the teachers
to guide them in the instruction
Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
UDL was developed by the researchers of the Center for Applied Special Technology
developed UDL. Its goal focuses on ways to eliminate barriers in learning and meeting the needs of
the students. It aims to enable learners to learn and demonstrate their knowledge through multiple
learning preferences (auditory, visual, kinesthetic, tactile, etc.).
UDL is designed to engage all learners in the instructional process. It is a brain-based

instructional framework based on the concept that every learner learns differently. Through UDL,
the instructional process, materials, and assessments are utilized to reinforce learning for all
students, including those with disabilities and exceptionally gifted.
It has three main principles of multiple Means of Representation, Multiple Means of Action
and Expression, and Multiple Means of Engagement.
3 Principles of Universal Design in Learning
Multiple Means of Multiple Means of Multiple Means of

Representation Action and Engagement
Expression
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make sure every provide options for provide options for

child can perceive it physical action recruiting interest
ensure every child provide offer options to

understands the opportunities for sustaining efforts
way it is presented expression and and persistence
fluency
provide options for provide options for
comprehension provide options for self-regulation
expression for
executive functions
Figure 1 shows how UDL works in a teaching-learning process
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Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/sQu2msJfaGfkmuis6
What is a quality classroom mean?
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A quality classroom is characterized by a supportive, kind, positive, and fair environment.

The teachers’ treatment and relationship with their students are vital in creating this environment.
When students feel relaxed, they can concentrate on learning with confidence, and ease about
making mistakes. Conversely, a classroom environment that is permeated with anxiety, negativity,
hostility, lack of control, rowdiness, and distractions is not conducive to learning.
LESSON 5.4 LEARNER’S PARTICIPATION
What does learner’s participation mean?
Learners’ participation is an essential aspect of the learning process. When learners are
engaged in the class, they learn to express their views, opinions, and ideas that are understandable
to others. When learners ask questions, they learn how to acquire information to enhance their
understanding of a lesson. Kuh (2001) defined student engagement as the participation in
educationally effective practices both inside and outside the classroom, which leads to a range of
measurable outcomes.
Learner voice and participation
Creating a learner-centered that values respect and diversity involves promoting participation
and gaining learners’ input about their learning process and school life as a whole. Every learner has
a right to express his/her views, needs, and entitlement to influence the services that affect him/her
(Lewis and Porter, 2004). Feedbacks from learners do not only change the creation of the school’s
developmental plan but also allows them to be partnered with the whole educational experience.
Four underpinning values of learners’ voice that enable school for improvement through
enhancing social justice (Robinson & Taylor, 2007)
a conception of communication as dialogue

the requirement for participation and democratic inclusivity
the recognition that power relations are unequal and problematic
the possibility of change and transformation
Tetler et al. (2010) posited that for learners to be engaged in the learning and eventually
develop autonomy, they must be involved in the teaching, planning, and evaluation processes.
Similarly, in grasping the students’ desire to learn and transforming it into sustainable practice, the
school has to be creative, persistent, and emphatic. Miller et al. (2005) stated that learners’
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preference is a critical variable to their academic performance. Disregarding their voices may result
in disappointment, discouragement, and reluctance to perform. Hence, the school’s services,
resource allocation, and educational advocacy are vital in education.
Capacitating learner’s ability
If teachers are to attend to the learning challenges of the students successfully, it is insufficient
to just focus on the teaching practices alone. Teachers also need to have a broader understanding of
how learning occurs and conjectures that influence the educational attainment of students. To
empower learners and enhance learning outcomes, teachers need to monitor their learning and
respond to them accordingly.
Nuthall (2007, p. 84) noted that learners’ experiences are shaped continuously by three
worlds that take place in the classroom:
The public world that the teacher sees and manages – structured by the learning activities
that the teacher designs
The semiprivate world of on-going student relationships, where students establish and
maintain their social role and status
The private world of the child’s mind, where children’s knowledge and beliefs change and
grow
Teachers need to consider the power of learners’ relationships, social conditions, knowledge,
and cultural diversity. According to Swann et al. (2012), teachers need to understand both external
forces (i.e., organization and relationship of learning, curriculum, assessment) and internal forces,
such as intellectual, affective, and social) as they impact the learning drive of learners. Hence,
teachers need to understand these factors to empower and reinforce learners’ abilities. In practice,
this includes expanding the opportunities to learn and establishing a creative consensus on
transformative pedagogy, curriculum, assessment, and relationships.
Specific factors that impact the achievements of the learners according to Hattie (2009)
a. quality and quantity of instruction

b. disposition
c. class environment
d. level of challenge
e. peer tutoring
f. parental involvement
g. cognitive ability
h. home
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Personalized learning
Personalized learning is an educational approach that revolves around the optimization of

each learner’s needs and learning styles. It sets high expectations for progress, participation, and
success for all learners equally, including those who identified as having Special Educational Needs
(UNESCO, 2009).
In terms of learning and achievement, researches show that one of the most effective ways
of enhancing attainment is by facilitating learners to become reflective and independent (Hattie,
2009). The teachers scaffold appropriate skills, engages students in inquiry activities and
collaborative techniques to create relevance and excitement to learn.
Differentiation and individualization include the teachers in providing instruction and

accommodating the learning needs of a group of learners or individual learners, respectively. In
personalization, learners are actively involved in the planning and designing of their education As
agents of learning. They also connect their learning to their passions, interests, and explore different
ways to learn in flexible learning spaces.
Gateways to personalizing teaching and learning Hargreaves (2004):
learning to learn and the new technologies

curriculum and advice/guidance
workforce development and mentoring/coaching
organization and design of the school and leadership from teachers and leaders of all
levels
LESSON 5.5 MISBEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT
Today, the issue of misbehavior in the school continues to surface as one of the
most challenging problems in education. Misconduct creates tensions for both the teacher and
students as it disrupts the flow of lessons. It changes the classroom dynamic as the attention shifts
from the academic tasks to the problem caused by disruptive behavior. Hence, for learning to
happen, classroom management, appropriate discipline must be implemented. Productive
classroom environments support students’ behavior, engagement, and achievement.
Kern and Clemens (2007) identified the factors to effective teaching and positively functioning
classroom:
• Use of direct, simple, transparent policies, rules and expectations which are consistently and
must be firmly applied
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• Establish routines, cues, signals to prompt upcoming events, including content duration, and
consequences for actions
• Use verbal and non-verbal praise occasionally or when needed. Commendation should be
descriptive and specific. The teacher should avoid overpraising students.
• Students’ task should be well-monitored. All students are required to contribute to the
assigned task given, especially during group activities.
• Practice inclusivity in the classroom. Students are given equal opportunities to participate in
the classroom task, use available materials, and learn safely and fairly.
Some strategies to reinforce students’ engagement:
• Having everyone to respond to the teachers’ queries rather than just focusing on one correct
response from those who are always active
• Seating arrangements: changing rows periodically (as necessary) may help to break the
monotonous atmosphere in the classroom
• Instructions and guidelines may be preceded by prompting the pupils’ attention.

Subsequently, present the dos and don’ts in a calm yet firm and compelling voice. Also, give
time for students to comply and absorb them.
• Deliver the instructions in a precise, specific, and direct and well-paced manner. Follow
praises when necessary upon compliance.
Effective specific classroom-wide interventions include:
• Teacher performance feedback: Performance feedback enables teachers to reflect, thereby

changing their ways to meet students’ needs.
• Class-wide incentives: Interventions and incentives may work better when given as a whole
class rather than on specific learners only. This will reduce class competition and promotion
the cooperation of the learners.
• Noise management: Reduction of noise levels can direct students’ focus to the lesson and
the classes in adjacent rooms.
• Managing transitions: Establishing clear, specific rules as a group rather than individually
may better assist in regulating behavior and changes. • Fudge et al. (2008) claimed the use
of a color-coded system with matching signals to show applicable rules at the given time
could serve as a guide.
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• Enhancing engagement: Make variations on how the teachers solicit an answer from the
students to encourage full participation
• Relationship building: Patterson (2009) explained that when a teacher is involved in learners’
small talk outside of the class may prevent them from misbehaving in the class, especially
those attention seekers.
Behavioral Problem Solving
Coloroso (1994) suggested a six-step process for behavioral problem-solving. The goal is to
utilize this process with students until they learn how to implement the process on their own. The
six steps are as follows:
1. Define the problem
2. Evaluate the possible solutions against a set of criteria
3. Select an option
4. Plan the implementation
5. Review the problem
Four basic ‘power’ strategies that teachers can use to enhance student relationships and
classroom control (Alderman and Green, 2011).
• Coercive power - involves the teacher’s prudent use of authority to attain behavior
modification. It comprises classroom points systems, modes of correction, and supportive
interactions intended to modify behavior.
• Manipulative social power – encompasses the teacher’s using subtle tactics such as giving
options for task completion, presenting behavior choices, self-monitoring, introducing
engaging activities to motivate, and increasing the probability of success in academic
activities.
• Expertness social power - includes providing academic supports that assist students in
overcoming challenges that they cannot find a solution on their own. The teacher must
listen actively and then identify the potential resources or sources that will best assist the
learners.
• Likeability social power – encompasses the teacher’s use of their characteristics such as
passion, interest, humor, and friendliness to encourage positive behavior in pupils.
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Development)
For a brief overview of UDL, click this link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pGLTJw0GSxk
Rethinking learning environments: the community as a classroom:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=98F2AxZwGAE
Reimagining Classrooms: Teachers as Learners and Students as Leaders | Kayla Delzer |TEDxFargo. To
watch Click this link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w6vVXmwYvgs
What can we do with disruptive children? | Debbie Breeze TEDxNantwichClick this link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lXSJKIRpmHs
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Let’s Check
I. After you have reached an answer from the above activity, please answer the questions below:
1. Do you observe a distinct characteristic of your learning style?
2. What personal beliefs, experiences and principles guided you in coming up with your answer?
3. What is your current understanding about learning styles?
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Let’s Analyze
I. The learning styles proposed by different authors or learning styles experts. To name
some, VARK, Seven learning styles, Kolb’s Learning Styles, Honey and Mumford, and
Sternberg. Identify the similarities or differences among these learning styles.
Learning styles Similarities Differences

experts
1. Vark & Kolb’s
2. Honey & Mumford

and Sternberg
3. Seven learning
styles & VARK
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In a Nutshell
I. Question: What should be your frame of mind in terms of teaching methodologies, if students
are diagnosed as having special needs?
1. Social and behavioral disability
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. Giftedness & Talented
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. Learners with Difficult circumstances and Indigenous Group.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
II. Think of words/phrases that you can associate with “inclusive education.” Afterward, create a
definition based on the words/phrases provided.
My definition:
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III. Directions: Using the matrix below, discuss the following factors that influence and promote
learners’ participation. Subsequently, provide a concrete example for each. Generally, explain why
these factors are crucial to the learners’ engagement in the teacher-learning process.
Class Personalized
Factors Communication Feedbacks
environment learning
Discussion
Example
General explanation:
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Q & A LIST
Now that you have gone through the lessons, you may list down your concerns
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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KEYWORD INDEX
Contextual learning Intrinsic motivation Achievement emotions
Self-regulation Extrinsic motivation Epistemic emotions
Feedback ARCS Model Topic emotions
Formative assessment Attributional beliefs Social emotions
Summative
assessment Self- efficacy Metacognition
Spaced retrieval Stimuli Semantic
Brain lateralization Emotional intelligence
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EDUC 103 Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching (SIM-SDL)

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EDUC 103 Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching (SIM-SDL)

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College of Teacher Education

Ground Floor, GET Building

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

SIM/ SDL Author: Chrestine B. Torrejos

Name of the Teacher: Mercy Joy R. Mendez

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR

ULO4 Explain how emotions facilitate the learning experience of students.

Course Outline: EDUC 103 – FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED

Course Coordinator: Mercy Joy R. Mendez

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

Since this course is included in the licensure

examination for teachers, you will be required to take

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

However, if the late submission of assessment paper

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator

grade. The program coordinator shall communicate

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

For students who have not created their student email,

Details BPE: BPE@umindanao.edu.ph

Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS

1. apply principles of learner –centered teaching in planning instructional

Big Picture in Focus: ULO 1. Apply principles of learner –centered

1. Contextual Learning - is reality-based, outside-of-the-classroom experience, within a

3. Feedback - information about reactions to a product, a person's performance of a task,

LESSON 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO LEARNER- CENTERED TEACHING

Five Key Changes in Learner Centered Teaching Practices

• Current research evidence from educational psychology calls for a

• From a constructivist perspective, knowledge cannot simply be

• Learner-centered teaching also regards content as more of competency-based learning

Role of the Teacher

Constructivism theory brings the role of the teacher as that of a facilitator of

• As generally observed, less knowledgeable and experienced learners

• Teachers no longer function as exclusive content expert or authoritarian classroom

• Greater involvement with students by the teacher is central to student motivation.

Responsibility for Learning

• Adults are known to be capable of self-directed learning and that

• Learning skills of autonomous self-regulating learners can be learned and must be

• Learning is cooperative, collaborative, and community-oriented.

Evaluation Purpose and Process

• The literature on self-directed learning also underscores the

• They can review a performance and identify what needs

Four Principles of Student-centered Approach

Learning is Students engage in different ways and in different places.

Learning is Students move ahead when they have demonstrated mastery of

Top 20 Principles for PreK–12 Teaching and Learning

The American Psychological Association (APA) published in 2015 its top 20

“Psychological science has much to contribute to enhancing teaching and learning in

LESSON 1.2 LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING APPROACHES

• talking to each other in small and large groups

Instructional Learning Instructional Learning

Balance of Dominant Dominant More choices Mostly reliant

Function of Imposed a Same content Differentiated Flexible

timeline of learning learning highly flexible

Role of Knowledge Facilitator Designer of Collaborator/co-

Responsibil Students are Learning is co- Learning co- Students design

Cooperative Learning Approach (CLA)

Five Factors for an Effective Cooperative Learning Approach

Individual and group accountability.