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Unit :02 Literature Review and Theoretical framework

Research Problem
Research problem is a situation that needs a solution and is a description of an issue currently existing which
needs to be addressed.It provides the context for the research study and generates questions which the research aims to
answer.Sekaran and Bougie defines research problem as “any situation where a gap exists between the actual and the
desired ideal state.”The main function of formulating a research problem is to decide what we want to find out about.A
research problem thus identifies our destination,it should tell us what we intend to research.If the problem is stated
vaguely or if the wrong problem is defined then the rest of the research is completely useless.
Steps in Problem Formulation
The steps of problem formulation are;
Step 1:Select the broad problem area for our study:
The selection of the broad problem area and framing the research idea can emerge from our own unsystematic or
systematic observation and need to solve a practical problem.Unsystematic observation includes casual observation of
organizational or other social phenomena while systematic observation includes carefully planned personal observation,
published research reports, and our own previous or ongoing research.
Step 2:Perform exploratory Research
By performing exploratory research we may gain ideas or insights into the particular problem at hand.This preliminary
step of analysis may be accomplished through a situation analysis and informal investigation into the problem.The
situation analysis has vital role to obtain background knowledge of various conditions affecting the organization.The
informal investigation consists of talking about the problem with the concerned people within and outside the
organization.
Step 3:Identify and raise specific research issues and sub-issues
Identification of specific issues or problems for investigation would require the collection of some preliminary
information.The sources of such information could be our own observation of the situation, interviews ,library search and
published data.These preliminary searches would help us to define the problem more specifically.
Step 4:Translate the research issues into broad and specific objectives
Sometimes we may hand research problems, by translating the research issues into broad and specific objectives ,but we
have to make sure that these objectives can be attained in time available, and with financial and human resources and
technical expertise available.
We should not state the problem in terms of symptoms. If this happens, the study results would be superficial.
Characteristics of well formulated problem
Research problems are generally stated as questions, concerning the nature of the relationship between two or more
variables.Developing a problem statement includes some combination of the interested tasks like generation of an issue,
exploration of an issue and from that exploration determining worthwhile research questions.The characteristics of
problem statement are;
1)It should raise a question about a relationship between variables.
2)The relationship between the variables should be stated and explained clearly.
3)The problem statement should suggest a method of researching the question.
Examples:
a)To what extent do age, education, length of service, level of earning and place of residence of employees influence their
organizational commitment?
b)Do long work hours, lack of development opportunities and discrimination account for the lack of upward mobility of
women in civil service?
Research Questions
A research question is defined as a statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied.It indicates the purpose
and motive of the research investigation.The objectives of a research can thus be mirrored by the research questions.These
questions directly link to all of the components of the research investigation.It is said that “a question well –stated is a
question half answered”.Research questions keep us from getting lost or off-track when looking for information.We try to
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find the answers to these questions when we do our research.Research questions help the researcher to focus the study
and give the researcher guidance on how to conduct it.
Research questions that are too general or too diffuse createdifficulties both in conducting the study and in clearly
connecting what we do to our purposes and existing knowledge.Precisely framed research questions,on the other hand,
can point the research to specific areas of theory that we can use as modules in developing an understanding of the
reality.Research questions are basically classified into three types;
Descriptive: When a study is designed primarily to describe what is going on or what exists.
Relational: When a study is designed to look at the relationship between two or more variables.
Causal: When a study is designed to determine whether one or more variables causes or effects one or more outcome
variables.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested.In elementary stage, a hypothesis may
be any hunch, guess, imaginative idea which becomes the basis for action or investigation. According to Fred Kerlinger
and Howard B. Lee “A hypothesis is a conjectured statement that implies or states a relationship between two or more
variables.”SimilarlyJ.W. Creswell defines “A hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship
between independent and dependent variables.” A hypothesis is thus a statement about the relationship between two or
more variables which needs to be investigated for its truth.
Functions of a hypothesis:
The functions of hypothesis are;
a)It provides a study of focus.
b)It tells the specific aspect of research problem to investigate.
c)It tells us what data to collect and what not to collect.
d)It enhances objectivity in a study.
e)It may enable us to add to formulation of theory.
Sources of Hypothesis
There are different sources which help in building a hypothesis.The sources are
a)General culture: In social studies a hypothesis may be formulated with the help of general pattern of culture.The culture
has a great influence upon the thinking process of people and hypothesis may be formed to test one or more of these ideas.
b)Theory: A theory gives us the basic idea of what has been found to be correct.The knowledge of theory leads us to form
further generalization from it.These generalization form parts of a hypothesis.
c)Analogies: A similarity between two phenomenon is observed at a circumstance. A hypothesis is then formed to test
whether two phenomenon are similar in other circumstances too.
d)Personal Experiences: Sometimes, the facts are there, but only a right individual see it in right perspective and
formulated a hypothesis.
Hypothesis Formulation:
There are two grounds on which a hypothesis may be justified,they are logical and empirical .Logical justification is
developed from arguments based on concepts and theories relating directly to the research problem.Empirical justification
is based on reference to other research found in the literature.Hence, in order to formulate a useful hypothesis, we need to
have good knowledge of the background to the subject and the nature of the problem or issue which is being addressed.A
hypothesis statement is derived directly from the statement of the problem.Hypothesis can be stated rather easily once the
research problem is known.The hypothesis is thus more operational than the problem statement.
Relation between research problem and hypothesis:
The problem asks about the relation between several facts or observations but the hypothesis suggests that the relationship
exists.Hypothesis should be stated in a very specific terms so that the means of investigating the hypothesis are included
in the statement.A problem is formulated in the form of question and serves the basis or origin from which a hypothesis is
derived.A hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem. A problem cannot be tested directly, whereas a hypothesis can
be stated and verified.Hence a problem cannot be scientifically solved unless it is reduced to hypothesis form.
Eg.Research problemWhat is the relationship between gender discrimination in Nepal before and after education?
Research hypothesisThere is a significant difference in gender discrimination in Nepal before and after education.
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Types of Hypothesis:
The types of hypothesis are as following;
a)Descriptive and Relational Hypotheses
Descriptive hypotheses are in the form of propositions that only state the existence, size ,form or distribution of some
variable.These contain only one variable.Hence the relationship between variable cannot be stated and explored.These do
not fulfill the criteria of research hypothesis.
Eg.i)Tribhuvan University (case) is experiencing budget difficulties (variable).
ii)The Hetauda-Narayangadh sector of the East-West Highway (case) has a higher than average accident rates (variable)
A rational hypotheses describes the relationship between two or more variables with respect to some case.These are of
two types,they are
1)correlational hypotheses
When a statement describes the relationship between two variables, it is called a correlational hypothesis.A correlational
hypothesis states that the variables occur together in some specified manner without stating that one causes the other.
Eg.With education people’s political participation will increase.
2)Explanatory hypotheses
In an explanatory hypothesis, the implications of one variable on the other are stated.Such implication can be
unidirectional or bidirectional
Eg.i)The increase in age would lead to decrease in organizational commitment. (Unidirectional)
ii)The productivity of skilled workers will increase if the workers are given added pay for production in access of the
standard. (bidirectional)
b)Directional and non-directional Hypotheses:
The directional hypothesis indicates the particular direction of the expected relationship between two variables.In stating
the relationship between the two variables, the term such as “positive”, “negative”, “more than”, “less than” etc. are used.
Eg.Younger workers are less motivated than older workers.
The non directional hypotheses are formulated when there are no clue available about the positive or negative relationship
between two variables.
Eg.There is no relationship between educated and uneducated employees in their occupational commitments.
c)Null and Alternative hypotheses
A null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis that is tested for possible rejection under the assumption that it is true.Null
hypothesis indicates a definitive, exact relationship between two variables.
Eg.No significant difference will exist between productivity of skilled workers on an incentives pal and productivity of
skilled workers on a regular wage plan.
An alternative hypothesis is complementary to null hypothesis.
Eg.Null Hypothesis:There is no difference between male and female statistically in their productivity.
Alternative hypothesis:There is difference between male and female statistically in their productivity.
Criteria of GoodHypothesis Statement:
Important features of good hypothesis statement are as follows;
i)Specific:The hypothesis should be specific it should not be too vague or general.
ii)Conceptually clear:The definitions and terms used in hypothesis should be commonly accepted terms not our own
creations and all terms and definitions should be clearly stated.
iii)Related to available technique:As a hypothesis has to be tested and verified, it should be so formed that it is easily
tested or verified by an available technique.
iv)Related to body of theory:It is desirable that hypothesis selected must be in continuation with theory already evolved.
v)Capable of Empirical Test:The hypothesis should be such that it can be put to empirical test. It should not be moral
judgment, empirical test is necessary to achieve the objectivity.
vi) Simple: The hypothesis should be simple and to the point.
Utility of Hypothesis:
The hypothesis helps the investigator in the following ways;
-It gives points to enquire
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-It helps in deciding direction in which to proceed.

-It helps in selection of pertinent facts.
-It helps in drawing specific conclusion.
Literature Review
After topic selection,the next step of researcher is to develop concepts and ideas about the selected topic by
reviewing all the relevant materials.In fact,review of literature begins with a search for a suitable topic and continues
throughout the duration of the research work.According to P.Haywood and E.C. Wragg: “A literature review is the
process of locating, obtaining, reading, and evaluating the research literature in the area of our interest”.Review of
literature is thus an essential part of all research studies.It is a way to discover what other research in the area of our
problem has uncovered.A critical review of the literature helps us to develop a thorough understanding and insight into
previous research works that relates to our study.It is also a way to avoid investigating problems that have already been
definitely answered.
Purpose and need of Literature Review
In any research, the previous studies provide the foundation to the present study and provide us with a handy
guide to a particular topic.In other words, there has to be continuity in research.This continuity in research is ensured by
linking the present study with the past research studies.The primary purpose of literature review are:
i)to learn how others have defined and measured key concepts
ii)to identify data sources that other researchers have used
iii)to identify potential relationships between concepts
iv)to identify researchable hypotheses
The purpose of literature review is thus to find out what research studies have been conducted in our chosen field
of study and what remains to be done.It keeps us up to date on current empirical or theoretical controversies in a particular
research area.Hence a literature survey helps us to avoid needless duplication of effort.Tobe a good literature review
following guidelines are needed;
i)It demonstrates that we know the field.
ii)It justifies the reason for research or it helps to identify gap which our research could fill.
iii)It allows us to establish our theoretical framework and methodological focus.
Steps in the Literature review process
Working with Literature

Locating Obtaining Reading Evaluating

Encyclopaedias Libraries Efficient & selective Reading Content analysis

Computer Catalouges Online Sources Keeping track of references Criteria of review

Journel indexes CD-ROM sources Annotating your Reference Critical Review

International Bibliographies Other sources Developing a structure Meta-analysis

Theoritical Framework
A theoretical framework is the basis or foundation upon which the study is established.It is within the framework of this
theory that the entire study proceeds.Since the general process of research is to develop theories about problems and
questions, it is important that the theoretical framework be carefully developed and presented.A theoretical model may be
presented in graphic form,which reflects the variables or characteristics selected for inclusion in the investigation.
According to Sekaran and Bougie(2013) “describe theoretical framework as the foundation on which the entire thesis is
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based,it is a logically developed,described and elaborated network of associations among variables that have identified
through such processes as interviews, observations and literature survey.These variables are deemed relevant to the
problem situation”.
The preliminary survey of literature and information provides a solid foundation for developing a theoretical
framework.The theoretical framework describes the relationships among the variables,elaborates the theory underlying
these relations and describes the nature and direction of the relationship.A good theoretical framework provides the
logical base for developing testable hypotheses.The components that should be incorporated in any theoretical framework
are:
a)The variables considered relevant to study should be clearly identified.
b)The discussions should state how two or more variables are related to each other.
c)If the nature and direction of the relation exists then identify whether it is positive or negative.
d)There should be clear explanation of why we expect these relationships to exist.
e)A systematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be given so that the reader can visualize the theorized
relationships.
Example of Theoretical framework:
Suppose we have selected “employee absenteeism” as the dependent variable for our study, the independent variables
having effects on absenteeism could be age, gender, marital status, seniority and place of residence of employee.
Explanation
The greater the age of employees, the higher is likely to be the rate of absenteeism among them because the older
people have greater chances of sickness than the younger ones.Female employee tend to have higher rate of absenteeism
due to their family preoccupations.Of the female employees too, married ones demonstrate higher rate of absenteeism
than unmarried males and females.Due to their home ties and social links,the employees coming from rural areas may
have higher absences as compared to their urban counterparts.The senior employees, who usually have served the
organization longer, are generally more committed to the organization than their younger counterparts.This is not only
because seniority carries with it some status and prestige but also because as one moves up in the organizational ladder,
there are more job-related responsibilities.Hence seniority of the employees would seem to have a negative correlation
with absenteeism.
Diagram of theoretical framework
Age

Gender

Marital Status Employee Absenteeism

(Dependent variable)
Seniority

Place of Residence
(Independent variables)

Research and Theory:

Research is closely related to theory building.Research and theory are inseparable supplementary components of scientific
investigation. A theory provides a conceptual framework for research and research , in turn, contributes to the
development of theory. A theory has many components, they are;
a)Theory: A theory is a statement concerning the relationship between or among concepts.It consists of a set of
interrelated concepts and propositions that specify how variables relate to the phenomenon to be explained.The purpose of
theory is to define, establish ,and explain relationships between concepts or constructs.The linking of two concepts is
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based on our perception, or the way we view the parts of the environment selected for observation.This perception of us
shapes how we formulate theory and interpret phenomena of interest.Theory construction thus serves an interesting role
between the researcher on the one hand and knowledge production on the other hand.Hence, the nature and quality of
knowledge are formally dependent on theory construction.
Example of theory formulation

Concept A Concept B

Job satisfaction leads to Higher productivity

Higher participation results in Higher job satisfaction
Higher income leads to Greater demand for goods
The following are the criteria which need to be met by theory;
-Definition of terms, concepts, or variable
-Domain (where the theory applies)
-A set of relationships of concepts
-Specific prediction
Classification of theory
Explanatory theory: It attempts to explain certain behaviour and performance.
Predictive theory: It characterizes conditions that are likely to lead to new situations and opportunities by way of
predicting outcomes.
Normative theory: It provides guidance for practice prescribing the right action in particular circumstances.
Grounded theory: It is generated from data that the researcher has collected.
b)Concept:A concept is a symbol representing an object.It is a property of an object or a certain phenomenon. In other
words, it is a generalized idea about an object that has been given a name. Concept like “democracy” , “leadership”,
“organizational justice” , “social mobility” etc represents some meaning under one general name.It is evident that each is
a word which represents an idea.Objects which can be seen, touched and felt are concrete concepts and those which
cannot be observed and felt are abstract concepts.
c)Construct: The abstract concepts are often called constructs. A construct is an image or idea specifically invented for a
given research.We can build constructs by combining the similar concepts. Constructs are thus complex and imply
condition of an organism whose existence can only be deduced from observable phenomenon, rather than by direct
observation.
d)Proposition: A proposition is a statement about concepts that may be judged as true or false if it refers to observable
phenomena.A proposition is thus concerned with the relationships among concepts or constructs.It explains the logical
linkage among these concepts or constructs.Since propositions are associations between abstract constructs they cannot be
tested directly but they are tested indirectly by examining the relationship between corresponding measures (variables) of
those constructs. Example of proposition is “An increase in student intelligence causes an increase in their academic
achievement.” This declarative statement does not have to be true, but must be empirically testable using data, so that we
can judge whether it is true or false. The empirical formulation of propositions, stated as relationships between variables,
is called hypothesis. Propositions are more abstract but hypotheses are more concrete and operational statements and are
built from specific variables.
e)Operational definition:Concepts such as age, gender, academic qualification etc are relatively concrete properties but
constructs such as temperature must specify whether we plan to measure in Celsius, Fahrenheit or kelvin scale. A
construct such as income should be defined in terms of whether we are interested in monthly or annual income, before tax
or after tax income and personal or family income.There are many other types of concepts which are difficult to define
and measure, such as loyalty, responsiveness, job satisfaction, commitment, brand image etc.Therefore these abstract
concepts or constructs need to converted into specific variables.This process of conversion is called operationalizing the
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concept.Therefore we must first define what we mean by the concept and then we develop indicators for the concept as it
has been defined.The operational definition specifies what must be done to measure the concept under investigation.Thus
using operational definitions allows us to measure precisely the states of the two variables in question and then to
determine whether the expected relationship exists between them.
f)Variables: A variable is an object, event, idea, feeling or any other type of category we are trying to measure. For eg., if
the weight of 50 objects were measured ,then weight would be variable. Hence, variables need to be identified to measure
the concepts or constructs. Variables that are superfluous and that are not directly related to the problem may mislead the
research work.Therefore, the variables should capture something about the concept.
g)Hypotheses and models: A hypothesis is a specific statement about a relationship that is subjected to direct empirical
test and a model is a specific implementation of a more general theoretical perspective. Modeltries to represent a
phenomenon and used to forecast a course of action.Models may be of different types;
Descriptive model: Descriptive models are frequently used for representing complex systems, for visualizing variables
and relationships in such systems.
Predictive model: It allows forecast of future events (e.g. a regression model)
Normative model:Normative models are used to guide our activities along commonly accepted norms or practices.
Where do Theory Come from?
A theory may be developed with deductive and inductive reasoning.The exercise of developing hypotheses from
theory is called deductive logic.Deductive reasoning is the logical process of deriving a conclusion based on a known
general premise or something known to be true and conversely, constructing theory or general principles from specific
observations is termed as inductive logic.
Theory and research are closely interlinked through these two logical methods.Theory provides a conceptual
model for research and research in turn contributes to the development of theory. Research initiates and tests an existing
theory.It reformulates, clarifies and refocuses a theory.
Reasoning Deduction vs Induction
Deduction is the research approach used to test a theory.It involves the development of a theory with a rigorous
testing.The stages involved in such research are;
i)deducing a hypothesis from the theory
ii)expressing the hypothesis in operational terms
iii)testing the operational hypothesis
iv)examining the specific outcomes of the enquiry
v)modifying the theory in the light of finding, if necessary.
Deduction is the process of drawing conclusions about a phenomenon based on theoretical or logical reasons and initial
set of premises.As an eg.If a certain bank enforces a strict code of ethics for its employees(Premise I) and ram Lal is an
employee at that bank (premise II), then Ram Lal can be trusted to follow ethical practices (conclusion).In deduction the
conclusions must be true if the initial premises and reasons are correct.This research approach is also called a top-down
approach.
The other approach to conducting research is induction.In this approach, the researcher tries to understand the
nature of the problem, gather the required quantitative and qualitative data ,and analyze them to draw
conclusions.Induction is thus the process of drawing conclusions based on facts or observed evidence. Hence developing
an understanding about the problem and making proper analysis of its different dimensions are strengths of inductive
research.The result of this analysis would be the formulation of a theory. For eg.If a firm spent a lot of money on a
promotional campaign (observation I), but the sales did not increase (observation II) then possibly the promotion
campaign was poorly executed (conclusion).However there may be rival explanations for poor sales such as economic
recession or the emergence of a competing product or brand or perhaps a supply chain problem.This research approach is
also called a bottom-up approach.This is more open-ended and exploratory but deductive reasoning is narrower in nature
and is concerned with testing and confirming hypothesis.Itmeans,through deductive argument,we infer the particular from
general while through inductive argument we infer general truths from particular.
Steps in the process of Deduction and Induction
Deductive
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Theory Hypothesis Observation Confirmation

Inductive

Theory Tentative Hypothesis Pattern Observation