Structure and functions of living organisms

LEVEL OF ORGANISATION

2.1 describe the levels of organisation in organisms: in organelles, cells, tissues, organs and systems.

Organelle- Cell structure that is specialised to carry out a particular function or job
Cell- Basic structural and functional unit of a living organism
Tissue- Group of cells with similar structures, working together to perform a shared function
Organ- Structure made up of a group of tissues, working together to perform specific functions
Organ system- Group of organs with related functions, working together to perform body functions

CELL STRUCTURE

2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes
and vacuole, 2.3 describe the functions of the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, mitochondria, chloroplasts,
ribosomes and vacuole

2.4 know the similarities and differences in the structure of plant and animal cells

Animal Plant
No regular Have a regular
shape shape

No Have
chloroplasts chloroplasts

Have Have a
temporary permanent
vacuole vacuole.

No cell walls Have a cell

wall
Similarities- Both have a nucleus, a cytoplasm, cell membrane, ribosomes and mitochondria.

2.5B explain the importance of cell differentiation in the development of specialised cells

All specialised cells and organs constructed from them have developed as a result of cell differentiation.
Undifferentiated cells receive signals which stimulates the expression of genes for cell to undergo change in
metabolism and shape, enabling them to carry out specialised functions - forming a specialised cell. Therefore, this
allows organism to develop cells necessary to grow and develop as specialised cells can undertake specific functions.
For example, stem cells can differentiate into nerve cells to carry electrical impulses, hence allowing muscle
movement.

2.6B understand the advantages and disadvantages of using stem cells in medicine

A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell of an organism that is capable of dividing to produce many more cells of the same type
(undifferentiated stem cells).

ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

Medical benefits in Ethical issues surrounding the

therapeutic cloning to heal use of embryonic stem cells
diseases and chronic involving the destruction of
illnesses human embryos

Potential in discovering Uncertainties regarding long-

treatments and cures for term effects
diseases such as Parkinson's
disease and cancer

Ability to test potential drugs Rejection by patient's body as

and medicine without the use certain stem cells are obtained
of animals or human from embryos instead of their
simulation own cells

Reduced risk of rejection as Difficulty in controlling

patient's own cells can be differentiation of pre-specialised
used cells into desired cell

BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

2.7 identify the chemical elements present in carbohydrates, proteins and lipids (fats and oils)
2.8 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large molecules made up from smaller basic units: starch and
glycogen from simple sugars, protein from amino acids, and lipid from fatty acids and glycerol

Carbohydrates can be classed into different groups (monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides) depending
on their complexity. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that consists of a single monomer unit e.g. glucose or
fructose. Glucose molecules contain lots of energy which can be released in respiration by breaking the bonds between
the carbon atoms. A disaccharide is made when two monosaccharides join together. Maltose is formed from two
glucose molecules. Sucrose is formed from one glucose and one fructose molecule. A polysaccharide is formed when
lots of monomer units join together in long chains to form a polymer. Starch, glycogen or cellulose are all formed
when lots of glucose molecules join together. Polysaccharides are insoluble and therefore useful as storage molecules.

Proteins are polymers formed from long chains of monomers called amino acids joined together. Amino acids contain
carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Just 20 different standard amino acids make up all the proteins found in
the human body (although many more amino acids occur in nature). Amino acids can be arranged in any order,
resulting in hundreds of thousands of different proteins. Examples of proteins include enzymes, haemoglobin,
ligaments and keratin. In the human body, proteins that we ingest are broken down into the constituent amino acids.
Enzymes in the stomach and small intestine break down the protein. These amino acids can then be used in the
synthesis of new proteins.

Lipids (fats and oils) are made up of triglycerides. Their basic unit is one glycerol molecule chemically bonded to three
fatty acid chains. Lipids contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Unlike carbohydrates and proteins, they don't
form polymers (they don't form a long chain of repeating sub-units). Lipids are divided into fats (solids at room
temperature) and oils (liquids at room temperature). In the human body lipids are broken down by enzymes called
lipases in the small intestine.

2.9 practical: investigate food samples for the presence of glucose, starch, protein and fat

Glucose- Add Benedict's solution to the sample solution in a test tube. Heat in a boiling water bath for 5 minutes. Take
the test tube out of the water bath and observe the colour. A positive test will show a colour change from blue to
orange / brick red.

Starch- Add drops of iodine solution to the food sample. A positive test will show a colour change from orange-brown
to blue-black

Protein- Add drops of Biuret solution to the food sample. A positive test will show a colour change from blue to
violet / purple

Fat- Mix the food sample with 4cm3 of ethanol and shake. Allow time for the sample to dissolve in the ethanol. Strain
the ethanol solution into another test tube. Add the ethanol solution to an equal volume of cold distilled water (4cm3).
A positive test will show a cloudy emulsion forming

2.10 understand the role of enzymes as biological catalysts in metabolic reactions

Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts to speed up the rate of a chemical reaction without being changed
or used up in the reaction. They are biological because they are made in living cells. Enzymes are necessary to all
living organisms as they maintain reaction speeds of all metabolic reactions at a rate that can sustain life

2.11 understand how temperature changes can affect enzyme function, including changes to the shape of active site

As the temperature increases towards optimum, the rate of enzyme activity increases. This is because as temperature
increases, enzymes and substrates will gain kinetic energy, vibrating and moving faster. This allows more frequent
successful enzyme-substrate collisions to occur, increasing the rate in which substrates are broken down, hence
increasing enzyme activity. However, as temperatures exceed optimum, enzymes will denature. This is because high
temperatures causes bonds to vibrate more, increasing chance of bonds within enzyme breaking. When bonds in
enzymes break, shape and structure of active site will change, diminishing the ability of substrate to bind to active site
of enzyme. Therefore, enzymes denature and metabolic reactions cannot take place

2.12 practical: investigate how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in temperature
 Test tube of Starch solution is placed in Water bath of set temperature for several minutes (0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 °C).
Solution of Amylase enzyme is added into test tube of Starch solution. Immediately after Amylase is added into test
tube, pipette is used to add droplets of mixture into wells. Immediately after mixture is added into wells, a few drops of
Iodine solution is added. Process is repeated in increments of fixed time (seconds) until Iodine turns orange, indicating
that Starch has completely broken down into Glucose. Time taken for Starch to be completely broken down is
compared to that of each respective temperature (time taken for Iodine solution to turn orange with each respective
temperature). As temperature increases towards optimum (37°C), the rate of amylase activity increases as shown with
the decrease in time taken for Iodine solution to turn orange (as temperature increases towards optimum). This is
because as temperature increases, Amylase and Starch will gain kinetic energy, vibrating and moving faster. This
allows more frequent successful enzyme-substrate collisions to occur, increasing the rate in which Starch is broken
down into Glucose (which causes Iodine solution to turn orange quicker as Starch is not present), hence increasing
enzyme activity). However, as temperature exceeds optimum, Amylase will denature as shown with the increase in
time taken for Iodine solution to turn orange (as temperature increases away from optimum). This is because high
temperatures causes bonds to vibrate more, increasing chance for bonds within Amylase enzyme to break. When bonds
in enzyme break, shape and structure of active site will change, diminishing the ability of Starch (substrate) to bind to
active site of Amylase. Therefore, Amylase denatures and Starch cannot be broken down into Glucose (which causes
Iodine solution to turn orange slower as Starch is present), hence decreasing enzyme activity

2.13 understand how enzyme function can be affected by changes in pH altering the active site

As the pH increases towards optimum, the rate of enzyme activity increases. This is because as pH increases, the shape
and structure of the active site, and the charge of substrate molecule will both be optimal to allow the substrate to bind
to the active site of enzyme. This allows more frequent successful enzyme-substrate collisions to occur, increasing the
rate in which substrates are broken down, hence increasing enzyme activity. However, as pH exceeds optimum,
enzymes will denature. This is because the increase/decrease from optimum pH causes the shape and structure of
active site to change, additionally changing the charge fo substrates, therefore diminishing the ability of substrate to
bind to active site of enzymes. Therefore, enzymes denature and metabolic reactions cannot take place

2.14B practical: investigate how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in pH

Test tube of Starch solution is placed in Water bath of set temperature (30 - 40°C as optimum temperature of Amylase
is approximately 37°C). Solution of Amylase enzyme is added into test tube of Starch solution. Immediately after,
buffer solution of set pH is added which will maintain reaction mixture at set pH. Pipette is used to add droplets of
mixture into wells on tile. A few drops of Iodine solution is added. Process is repeated in increments of fixed time
(seconds) until Iodine turns orange, indicating that Starch has completely broken down into Glucose. Time taken for
Starch to be completely broken down is compared to that of each respective pH (time taken for Iodine solution to turn
orange with each respective pH of buffer solution). As pH increases towards optimum (pH 6.7 - 7.0), the rate of
amylase activity increases as shown with the decrease in time taken for Iodine solution to turn orange (as pH increases
towards optimum). This is because as pH increases, the shape and structure of the active site, and the charge of
substrate molecule will both be optimal to allow Starch to bind to the active site of Amylase. This allows more
frequent successful enzyme-substrate collisions to occur, increasing the rate in which Starch is broken down into
Glucose (which causes Iodine solution to turn orange quicker as Starch is not present), hence increasing enzyme
activity. However, as pH exceeds optimum, Amylase will denature as shown with the increase in time taken for Iodine
solution to turn orange (as pH increases away from optimum). This is because the increase/decrease from optimum pH
causes the shape and structure of active site to change, additionally changing the charge for substrates, therefore
diminishing the ability of Starch to bind to active site of Amylase. Therefore, Amylase denatures and Starch cannot be
broken down into Glucose (which causes Iodine solution to turn orange slower as Starch is present), hence decreasing
enzyme activity

2.15 understand the processes of diffusion, osmosis and active transport by which substances move into and out of cells

Diffusion- Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of its higher concentration to a region of its lower
concentration. Molecules move down a concentration gradient, as a result of their random movement.
 Osmosis- Water can move in and out of cells by osmosis. Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a
region of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower water potential (concentrated solution), through a
partially permeable membrane

Active transport- the movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region
of higher concentration using energy from respiration. Energy is needed because particles are being moved against a
concentration gradient, in the opposite direction from which they would naturally move (by diffusion). Active
transport across the cell membrane involves protein carrier molecules embedded in the cell membrane

2.16 understand how factors affect the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells, including the effects of surface
area to volume ratio, distance, temperature and concentration gradient

SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO- As the surface area to volume ratio (SA:V) increases, the rate of movement
of substances into and out of cells will increase. This is because there is a larger surface area in which substances can
move through, hence increasing the rate of movement of substance

TEMPERATURE- As temperature increases, the rate of movement of substances into and out of cells will increase.
This is because particles gain more kinetic energy and so will move faster, hence increasing the rate of movement of
substance

CONCENTRATION GRADIENT- As concentration gradient increases, the rate of movement of substances into and
out of cells will increase. This is because a stronger concentration gradient is present, hence increasing the rate of
movement of substance

DISTANCE- The smaller the distance molecules have to travel the faster transport will occur. This is why blood
capillaries and alveoli have walls which are only one cell thick, ensure the rate of diffusion across them is as fast as
possible

2.17 practical: investigate diffusion and osmosis using living and non-living systems

DIFFUSION IN LIVING SYSTEMS- For diffusion in gas exchange to be efficient, high concentration gradient needs
to be maintained between Alveoli and blood capillaries. As a result of gas exchange, Oxygen diffuses from the Alveoli
into the bloodstream where it is transported and consumed by cells via cellular respiration, producing Carbon Dioxide
as a waste product that diffuses out into the Alveoli to be exhaled. Hence, during inhalation, Oxygen enters the Alveoli
which results in a high concentration of Oxygen relative to the bloodstream, causing Oxygen to continuously diffuse
out from the Alveoli into blood capillaries down the concentration gradient. Correspondingly, there is a high
concentration of Carbon Dioxide (produced as a waste product in cellular respiration) in the bloodstream relative to the
Alveoli, therefore continuously diffusing out into the Alveoli down the concentration gradient to be exhaled out of the
lungs. A high concentration gradient is maintained between Alveoli and bloodstream to allow continuous gas exchange
(diffusion of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide) to occur.

DIFFUSION IN NON-LIVING ORGANISMS- When dye of Potassium Permanganate is added into Water, molecules
of Potassium Permanganate will diffuse from regions with high concentration of Potassium Permanganate molecules
to regions with low concentration of molecules. Hence overtime, the colour of solvent will be weaker compared to
initial dye as molecules of Potassium Permanganate will be less concentrated and diffused throughout the Solvent until
equilibrium (hence the colour of Water is constant).

OSMOSIS IN LIVING ORGANISMS- For plants to absorb Water from the soil (using their root hair cells) via
osmosis, high water potential gradient needs to be maintained between soil and root hair cells. As Water is collected in
the soil (from rain or watering by farmers), this results in a higher concentration of Water molecules outside in the soil
relative to the inside of root hair cells. As a result, Water in the soil will move through the partially permeable
membrane into the root hair cells via osmosis to be transported to the Xylem for use. Root hair cells have large surface
area to volume ratio and thin cell walls for efficient absorption of Water via osmosis.

OSMOSIS IN NON-LIVING ORGANISMS- For plants to absorb Water from the soil (using their root hair cells) via
osmosis, high water potential gradient needs to be maintained between soil and root hair cells. As Water is collected in
the soil (from rain or watering by farmers), this results in a higher concentration of Water molecules outside in the soil
relative to the inside of root hair cells. As a result, Water in the soil will move through the partially permeable
 membrane into the root hair cells via osmosis to be transported to the Xylem for use. Root hair cells have large surface
area to volume ratio and thin cell walls for efficient absorption of Water via osmosis

NUTRITION- PLANTS

2.18 understand the process of photosynthesis and its importance in the conversion of light energy to chemical energy

A chemical process used by plants to make glucose and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water, using light energy.
Light energy from the sun is absorbed by Chlorophyll to produce Glucose which is stored as Starch for growth, and
Oxygen as a waste product. Glucose produced in Photosynthesis is passed down the food chain from one organism to
another, hence why Plants are called Producers (bottom of the food chain). While Photosynthesis only occurs under the
presence of sunlight, aerobic respiration occurs at all times of day and uses Glucose produced from Photosynthesis to
produce energy (used for cell growth) and Carbon Dioxide (waste product or used for Photosynthesis)

2.19 know the word equation and the balanced chemical symbol equation for photosynthesis

2.20 understand how varying carbon dioxide concentration, light intensity and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis

CARBON DIOXIDE- As the concentration of Carbon Dioxide increases, the rate of Photosynthesis will increase. As
Carbon Dioxide is a reactant in Photosynthesis, the increase in Carbon Dioxide concentration will allow more
Photosynthesis to occur, hence increasing the rate of Photosynthesis. However, as concentration of Carbon Dioxide
increases beyond a certain point, rate of Photosynthesis with plateau as another factor will be the limiting factor

TEMPERATURE- As temperature increases towards optimum, the rate of Photosynthesis will increase. This is
because the increase in temperature towards optimum will allow optimum enzyme activity for Photosynthesis-related
enzymes, hence increasing the rate of photosynthesis. However, as temperature increases above optimum, enzymes
involved in Photosynthesis will denature, therefore causing the rate of Photosynthesis to decrease

LIGHT INTENSITY- As light intensity increases, the rate of Photosynthesis will increase. As Photosynthesis can only
occur under the presence of light, the increase in light intensity will therefore allow more Photosynthesis to occur,
increasing the rate of Photosynthesis. However, as light intensity increases beyond a certain point, the rate of
Photosynthesis will plateau as another factor is the limiting factor

2.21 describe the structure of the leaf and explain how it is adapted for photosynthesis

The structure of the leaf- Wax cuticle- protective layer on the top of the leaf, prevents water from evaporating. . Upper
epidermis- thin and transparent to allow light to enter palisade mesophyll layer underneath it. Palisade mesophyll-
column shaped cells tightly packed with chloroplasts to absorb more light, maximising photosynthesis. Spongy
mesophyll- contains internal air spaces that increases the surface area to volume ratio for the diffusion of gases (mainly
carbon dioxide). Lower epidermis- contains guard cells and stomata. Guard cell- absorbs and loses water to open and
close the stomata to allow carbon dioxide to diffuse in, oxygen to diffuse out. Stomata- where gas exchange takes
place; opens during the day, closes during the night, evaporation of water also takes place from here, in most plans,
found in much greater concentration on the underside of the leaf to reduce water loss. Vascular bundle- contains xylem
and phloem to transport substances to and from the leaf. Xylem- transports water into the leaf for mesophyll cells to
use in photosynthesis and for transpiration from stomata. Phloem- transport sucrose and amino acids around the plant.

Adaptation- Large surface area- increases the surface area for the diffusion of carbon dioxide and absorption of light
for photosynthesis. Thin- allows carbon dioxide to diffuse to palisade mesophyll cells quickly. Chlorophyll- absorbs
light energy so that photosynthesis can take place. Network of veins- allows the transport of water to the cells of the
leaf and carbohydrates from the leaf for photosynthesis (water for photosynthesis, carbohydrates as a product of
photosynthesis). Stomata- Allows carbon dioxide to diffuse into the leaf and oxygen to diffuse out. Epidermis is thin
and transparent- allows more light to reach the palisade cells. Thin cuticle made of wax- to protect the leaf without
blocking sunlight. Palisade cell layer at top of leaf- , maximises the absorption of light as it will hit chloroplasts in the
 cells directly. Spongy layer- air spaces allow carbon dioxide to diffuse through the leaf, increasing the surface area.
Vascular Bundles- thick cell walls of the tissue in the bundles help to support the stem and leaf.

2.22 understand that plants require mineral ions for growth, and that magnesium ions are needed for chlorophyll and nitrate
ions are needed for amino acids

MINERAL ION USES DEFICIENCY

SYMPTOMS
1. Nitrate Makes amino acids, Limited plant
proteins and growth and older
chlorophyll leaves of the plant
turn into yellow
colour
2. Phosphate Makes DNA and a Poor root growth
part of the cell and younger leaves
membrane turn into purple
colour.
3. Potassium Needed for enzymes Leaves of the plant
relation to turn yellow with
respiration and dead spots.
needed for
photosynthesis.
4. Magnesium A part of Leaves turn yellow
chlorophyll

2.23 practical: investigate photosynthesis, showing the evolution of oxygen from a water plant, the production of starch and the
requirements of light, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll

Investigating the evolution of oxygen from a water plant- Take a bundle of shoots of a water plant. Submerge them in
a beaker of water underneath an upturned funnel. Fill a boiling tube with water and place it over the end of the funnel.
As oxygen is produced, the bubbles of gas will collect in the boiling tube and displace the water. Show that the gas
collected is oxygen by relighting a glowing splint.

Investigating the production of starch- remove a leaf from the plant. Place the leaf in boiling water for 30 seconds –
this kills it, stopping any further chemical reactions. Place the leaf in boiling ethanol– this removes the chlorophyll,
making the leaf paler in colour. Then dip the leaf in water– this softens it. Spread the leaf onto a white tile and add
iodine to test for the presence of starch. If starch is present the iodine will change from yellow-brown to blue-black. If
starch is absent the iodine will remain yellow-brown.

Investigating the requirement of light for photosynthesis- De-starch the plant by placing it in a dark cupboard for 24
hours. This ensures that any starch already present in the leaves will be used up and will not affect the results of the
experiment. Following de-starching, partially cover a leaf of the plant with aluminium foil and place the plant in
sunlight for a day. Drop the leaf in boiling water. This kills the tissue and breaks down the cell walls. Transfer the leaf
into hot ethanol in a boiling tube for 5-10 minutes. This removes the chlorophyll so colour changes from iodine can be
seen more clearly. Dip the leaf in boiling water. This is done to soften the leaf tissue after being in ethanol. Spread the
leaf out on a white tile and cover it with iodine solution. In a green leaf, the entire leaf will turn blue-black as
photosynthesis is occurring in all areas of the leaf The area of the leaf that was covered with aluminium foil will
remain orange-brown as it did not receive any sunlight and could not photosynthesise, while the area exposed to
sunlight will turn blue-black This proves that light is necessary for photosynthesis and the production of starch.

Investigating the requirement of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis- De-starch a plant. Expose one leaf to sodium
hydroxide, which will absorb carbon dioxide from the surrounding air. Expose another leaf to water (control
experiment), which will not absorb carbon dioxide from the surrounding air. Place the plant in bright light for several
hours. Drop the leaf in boiling water. Transfer the leaf into hot ethanol in a boiling tube for 5-10 minutes. Dip the leaf
in boiling water. Spread the leaf out on a white tile and cover it with iodine solution. The leaf from the containing
potassium hydroxide will remain orange-brown as it could not photosynthesise due to lack of carbon dioxide. The leaf
from the not containing potassium hydroxide should turn blue-black as it had all necessary requirements for
photosynthesis
 Investigating the requirement of chlorophyll for photosynthesis- De-starch a plant with variegated leaves. Variegated
leaves are not completely green. Drop the variegated leaf in boiling water. This kills the tissue and breaks down the
cell walls. Transfer the leaf into hot ethanol in a boiling tube for 5-10 minutes. This removes the chlorophyll so colour
changes from iodine can be seen more clearly. Dip the leaf in boiling water. This is done to soften the leaf tissue after
being in ethanol. Make a drawing of the leaf to show the pattern of the variegated leaf. Spread the leaf out on a white
tile and cover it with iodine solution. The white areas of the leaf contain no chlorophyll and when the leaf is tested
only the areas that contain chlorophyll stain blue-black. The areas that had no chlorophyll remain orange-brown as no
photosynthesis is occurring here and so no starch is stored.

NUTRITION- HUMANS

2.24 understand that a balanced diet should include appropriate proportions of carbohydrate, protein, lipid, vitamins, minerals,
water and dietary fibre

Diet in which all components needed to maintain health are present in appropriate proportions. Humans need to eat a
balanced diet to ensure the body is provided with components to maintain good health. The necessary key food groups
are: Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Dietary Fibre, Vitamins, Minerals (mineral ions) and Water.

2.25 identify the sources and describe the functions of carbohydrate, protein, lipid (fats and oils), vitamins A, C and D, the
mineral ions calcium and iron, water and dietary fibre as components of the diet

2.26 understand how energy requirements vary with activity levels, age and pregnancy

2.27 describe the structure and function of the human alimentary canal, including the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine (duodenum and ileum), large intestine (colon and rectum) and pancreas
2.28 understand how food is moved through the gut by peristalsis

Peristalsis occurs as a result of the rhythmic contraction and

relaxation of two muscles controlled unconsciously by the
nervous system. Circular muscle changes the radius of the
Oesophagus, while the Longitudinal muscle changes length of
Oesophagus. Contraction of Circular muscle behind the food
bolus constricts the gut to prevent bolus from being pushed back
towards the Mouth. Contraction of Longitudinal muscle where
food bolus is located moves it along the gut. As a result, wave-
like muscle contractions occur which pushes the food bolus from
Mouth to Anus.

2.29 understand the role of digestive enzymes, including the digestion of starch to glucose by amylase and maltase, the
digestion of proteins to amino acids by proteases and the digestion of lipids to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases

Enzyme Substrate End-products Where produced Where it acts

Salivary amylase Starch Maltose Salivary glands mouth

Pepsin Protein Peptides Wall of the stomach stomach

Lipase Lipids (fats and oils) Fatty acids + glycerol Pancreas Small intestine

Pancreatic amylase Starch Maltose Pancreas Duodenum

Maltase Maltose Glucose Small intestine Small intestine

Trypsin Proteins Peptides Pancreas Small intestine

Peptidase Peptides Amino acids Wall of small intestine Small intestine

2.30 understand that bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder
 BILE: Alkaline substance produced in the Liver and stored in the Gall Bladder. Bile emulsifies large Lipid molecules
into droplets with larger surface area to volume ratio to increase the rate of digestion

2.31 understand the role of bile in neutralising stomach acid and emulsifying lipids

1. NEUTRALISING STOMACH ACID- Enzymes in Small intestine function optimally in Alkaline conditions
(optimum pH of 8-14). However, churning of food in Stomach by Hydrochloric acid creates Acidic environment.
Therefore, Bile will neutralise Hydrochloric acid to maintain Alkaline conditions, allowing optimum enzyme activity
and increasing the rate of metabolic reactions

2. EMULSIFYING LIPIDS- As the breakdown and digestion of Lipid molecules require a long period of time, Bile is
used to emulsify large Lipid molecules into small droplets. Lipid droplets will have a larger surface area to volume
ratio, allowing faster breakdown by Lipase into Fatty acids and Glycerol, hence increasing the rate of lipid digestion

2.32 understand how the small intestine is adapted for absorption, including the structure of a villus

The small intestine is adapted for absorption as it is very long and has a highly folded surface with millions of villi
(tiny, finger-like projections). These adaptations massively increase the surface area of the small intestine, allowing
absorption to take place faster and more efficiently.

THIN CELL WALL Thin cell wall (one cell thick) to minimise distance of diffusion of digested soluble
molecules, therefore increasing the rate of absorption

LARGE SURFACE Folded to increase surface area to volume ratio for diffusion of digested soluble
AREA TO VOLUME molecules, therefore increasing the rate fo absorption
RATIO

DENSE CAPILLARY Dense capillary network nearby to provide rich blood supply, creating a strong
NETWORK concentration gradient for the diffusion of digested soluble molecules, therefore
increasing the rate of absorption

LACTEAL Lacteal absorbs and transports Fatty acids and Glycerol from Intestine to Lymphatic
system

2.33B practical: investigate the energy content in a food sample

Use the measuring cylinder to measure out 25cm3 of water and pour it into the boiling tube. Record the starting
temperature of the water using the thermometer. Weigh the initial mass of the food sample. Set fire to the sample of
food using the bunsen burner and hold the sample 2cm from the boiling tube until it has completely burned. Record the
final temperature of the water. (Once cooled) weigh the mass of any remaining food and record. Repeat the process
with different food samples. A larger increase in water temperature indicates a larger amount of energy contained by
the sample.

Energy transferred (J) =(mass of water (g) x 4.2 x temperature increase (°C)) ÷ (mass of food (g))

RESPIRATION

2.34 understand how the process of respiration produces ATP in living organisms

ATP (ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE): High energy molecule that functions as an immediate source of power for
cell processes. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) contains three covalently bonded Phosphate groups that store potential
energy between their bonds. This potential energy is released and used by the cell when the end Phosphate is removed
from ATP, forming Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) and Phosphate (P). Cell respiration can regenerate ATP from the
resulting ADP + P by using energy in organic compounds (involves oxidation). This is a continuous cycle, allowing
molecules to be recycled to provide a constant source of immediate energy in the cell to facilitate metabolic pathway.

2.35 know that ATP provides energy for cells

 ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the energy-carrying molecule used in cells because it can release energy very quickly.
Energy is released from ATP when the end phosphate is removed. Once ATP has released energy, it becomes ADP
(adenosine diphosphate), which is a low energy molecule. ADP can be recharged back into ATP by adding a
phosphate. This requires energy. These molecules can be recycled so that a constant stream of energy rich ATP is
available for all metabolic pathways in the cell. Almost all cellular processes need ATP to give a reaction its required
energy. ATP can transfer energy and phosphorylate (add a phosphate) to other molecules in cellular processes such as
DNA replication, active transport, synthetic pathways and muscle contraction.

2.36 describe the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

AEROBIC RESPIRATION: Breakdown of Glucose in the ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION: Breakdown of Glucose in

presence of Oxygen to produce Carbon Dioxide and
Water to release energy; occurs in the Mitochondria of the
cell
the absence of Oxygen to produce Lactic acid (and small
amounts of energy) in humans, and Carbon dioxide and
Ethanol (and small amounts of energy) in yeast and
plants; occurs during exercise and causes cramps in
humans (due to build-up of Lactic acid)

2.37 know the word equation and the balanced chemical symbol equation for aerobic respiration in living organisms

2.38 know the word equation for anaerobic respiration in plants and in animals

2.39 practical: investigate the evolution of carbon dioxide and heat from respiring seeds or other suitable living organisms

INVESTIGATING THE EVOLUTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE- One end of a capillary tube is attached to a flask of
Sodium Hydroxide to allow the inflow of air (inlet pipe). This flask is connected by a capillary tube to a flask of
Hydrogen Carbonate (indicator A). This flask is connected by a capillary tube to a flask of respiring organism (e.g
worms). This Flask is connected by a capillary tube to a flask of Hydrogen Carbonate (indicator B). Lastly, one end of
a capillary tube is attached to this flask to allow the outflow of Air (outlet pipe). As air enters the first capillary tube,
Sodium Hydroxide will absorb and remove Carbon Dioxide, therefore causing Hydrogen Carbonate indicator to turn
red (indicator A). As air (deficient of Carbon Dioxide but abundant in Oxygen) enters the flask of respiring organisms,
organisms will respire aerobically to produce Carbon Dioxide as waste product, therefore causing Hydrogen Carbonate
indicator to turn Yellow (indicator B). This hence shows the production of Carbon Dioxide by living organisms,
showing the evolution of Carbon Dioxide.

INVESTIGATING HEAT FRO RESPIRING-Two thermo flasks are set up - one with germinating seeds and another
with boiled seeds. Thermometer wrapped in cotton wool is added into each thermo flask; cotton wool prevents the loss
 of heat. Thermometer is used to measure and record the initial temperature in both thermo flasks. After a fixed number
of days, thermometer is used to measure and record the final temperature in both thermo flasks. As germinating seeds
are alive, they will respire aerobically to produce energy in the form of heat, therefore causing temperature of thermo
flask to increase after the fixed period of time. As boiled seeds are dead, they will not respire and therefore will not
produce heat energy, causing temperature of thermo flask to remain constant after the fixed period of time. Hence, this
shows that living organisms respire to release energy in the form heat, therefore showing the evolution of heat

GAS EXCHANGE- PLANTS

2.40B understand the role of diffusion in gas exchange

For diffusion in gas exchange to be efficient, high concentration gradient needs to be maintained between Alveoli and
blood capillaries. As a result of gas exchange, Oxygen diffuses from the Alveoli into the bloodstream where it is
transported and consumed by cells via cellular respiration, producing Carbon Dioxide as a waste product that diffuses
out into the Alveoli to be exhaled. Hence, during inhalation, Oxygen enters the Alveoli which results in a high
concentration of Oxygen relative to the bloodstream, causing Oxygen to continuously diffuse out from the Alveoli into
blood capillaries down the concentration gradient. Correspondingly, there is a high concentration of Carbon Dioxide
(produced as a waste product in cellular respiration) in the bloodstream relative to the Alveoli, therefore continuously
diffusing out into the Alveoli down the concentration gradient to be exhaled out of the lungs. A high concentration
gradient is maintained between Alveoli and bloodstream to allow continuous gas exchange (diffusion of Oxygen and
Carbon Dioxide) to occur

2.41B understand gas exchange (of carbon dioxide and oxygen) in relation to respiration and photosynthesis

AEROBIC RESPIRATION: Breakdown of Glucose in the presence of Oxygen to produce Carbon Dioxide and Water
to release energy; occurs in the Mitochondria of the cell. As a result of gas exchange, Oxygen diffuses from the
Alveoli into the bloodstream where it is transported and consumed by cells via cellular respiration, producing Carbon
Dioxide as a waste product that diffuses out into the Alveoli to be exhaled from Lungs.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS: Production of Carbon compounds (Glucose) in cells by using light energy from the Sun. As a
result of gas exchange, Carbon Dioxide diffuses through the Stomata into plant cells where it is transported and
consumed by Chloroplasts via photosynthesis, producing Oxygen as a waste product that diffuses out through the
Stomata into the Atmosphere

2.42B understand how the structure of the leaf is adapted for gas exchange

STOMATA Opens to allow the diffusion of Carbon dioxide into the leaf for Photosynthesis, and the diffusion of
waste products of Oxygen and Water vapour out of the leaf - gas exchange

GUARDCELLS Controls the opening and closing of Stomata depending on the time of day to enable gas exchange -
AROUND STOMATA e.g, Guard cells become turgid during daytime to open Stomata and allow diffusion of Carbon
Dioxide into the leaf for Photosynthesis (due to presence of sunlight)

THIN Minimises the diffusion length of Carbon Dioxide into the leaf (for Photosynthesis), and Oxygen
and Water (waste product of Photosynthesis) out of the leaf, therefore increasing the rate of gas
exchange

FLATTENED SHAPE Larger surface area to volume ratio increases the rate of absorption of sunlight and Carbon Dioxide
for use in Photosynthesis, therefore increasing rate of gas exchange

INTERNAL AIR Larger internal surface area to volume ratio for absorption of Carbon Dioxide into the leaf (for
SPACES IN SPONGY Photosynthesis), therefore increasing the rate of gas exchange
MESOPHYL

2.43B describe the role of stomata in gas exchange

DURING THE DAY DURING THE NIGHT

 Stomata During the Day Stomata During the Night

During the daytime, high light intensity will stimulate
Guard cells to absorb Water via osmosis. Guard cells
become turgid, causing thick inner walls to split open.
Stomata opens. Net exchange of gases occur (Carbon
Dioxide will diffuse in, and Oxygen and Water vapour
will diffuse out)
During the night, low light intensity will stimulate
Guard cells to lose Water via osmosis. Guard cells
become flaccid, causing thick inner walls to split close.
Stomata closes. Net exchange of gases does not occur

2.44B understand how respiration continues during the day and night, but that the net exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen
depends on the intensity of light

DAYTIME-As Respiration occurs at all times of day, respiring cells of plants will take in Oxygen to respire and
produce waste products of Carbon Dioxide and Water vapour that will be released from the plant. However, as
Photosynthesis occurs during the daytime under the presence of light, photosynthesising cells (chloroplasts) will take
in Carbon Dioxide to photosynthesise and produce waste products of Oxygen and Water vapour that will be released
through the Stomata. Hence, as Oxygen is both taken in and released by the plant (by respiration and photosynthesis),
and Carbon Dioxide is both released and taken in by the plant (by respiration and photosynthesis), the net exchange of
gases is balanced during the daytime.

NIGHT-TIME- As Respiration occurs at all times of day, respiring cells of plants will take in Oxygen to respire and
product waste products of Carbon Dioxide and Water vapour that will be released from the plant. However, as
Photosynthesis does not occur during the night-time due to the absence of light, photosynthesis will not occur. Hence,
as Oxygen is taken in for respiration but not produced (by photosynthesis), the net exchange of Oxygen will have an
increase input. Additionally, as Carbon Dioxide is produced by respiration but not taken in (by photosynthesis), the net
exchange of Carbon Dioxide will have an increased output

2.45B practical: investigate the effect of light on net gas exchange from a leaf, using hydrogen-carbonate indicator

Place pondweed in a beaker of Hydrogen Carbonate indicator. Place light source at a set distance to adjust light
intensity (the smaller the distance between the light source and plant, the higher the light intensity). Allow plant to
adapt to adjusted environment for a few minutes. Observe and record the colour of indicator. Change light intensity
and repeat process. When light source is placed close to the plant, high light intensity will allow Photosynthesis to
occur due to the presence of light, therefore increasing the rate of Photosynthesis involving the absorption of Carbon
Dioxide (produced as a waste product of Respiration). Given that the rate of Photosynthesis is greater than the rate of
Respiration, the concentration of Carbon Dioxide in solution will decrease, causing the indicator to turn Purple. When
light source is placed distant to the plant, low light intensity will prevent Photosynthesis to occur due to the absence of
light, therefore decreasing the rate of Photosynthesis involving the absorption of Carbon Dioxide (produced as a waste
product of Respiration). As the rate of Respiration will therefore be greater than the rate of Photosynthesis, the
concentration of Carbon Dioxide in solution will increase, causing the indicator to turn Yellow

GAS EXCHANGE- HUMANS

2.46 describe the structure of the thorax, including the ribs, intercostal muscles, diaphragm, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles,
alveoli and pleural membranes
2.47 understand the role of the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm in ventilation

Inhalation-External intercostal muscles contract, pulling rib cage upwards and outwards. Internal intercostal muscles
relax and are pulled back to their elongated state. Diaphragm contracts and flattens, pushing abdomen walls outwards.
As a result, thoracic volume increases, causing pressure to decrease. Decrease in pressure causes air to be drawn into
lungs.

Exhalation-External intercostal muscles relax and are pulled back to their elongated state. Internal intercostal muscles
contract, pulling rib cage downwards and inwards. Diaphragm relaxes and forms dome shape. As a result, thoracic
volume decreases, causing pressure to increase. Increase in pressure causes air to be forced out of lungs

2.48 explain how alveoli are adapted for gas exchange by diffusion between air in the lungs and blood in capillaries

Large surface area - many alveoli are present in the lungs with a shape that further increases surface area. Thin walls -
alveolar walls are one cell thick providing gases with a short diffusion distance. Moist walls - gases dissolve in the
moisture helping them to pass across the gas exchange surface. Permeable walls - allow gases to pass through.
Extensive blood supply - ensuring oxygen rich blood is taken away from the lungs and carbon dioxide rich blood is
taken to the lungs. A large diffusion gradient - breathing ensures that the oxygen concentration in the alveoli is higher
than in the capillaries so oxygen moves from the alveoli to the blood. Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.

2.49 understand the biological consequences of smoking in relation to the lungs and the circulatory system, including coronary
heart disease

EFFECT ON AIR PASSAGES: Tar in cigarettes destroy the Cilia (which carries away dust and microbes trapped in
Mucus), therefore causing the buildup of Mucus and increasing risk of Bronchitis. Tar in cigarettes contain
carcinogens that increases risk of Lung Cancer

EFFECT ON ALVEOLI: Tar in cigarettes break down Alveoli walls and causes them to merge together, decreasing
the surface area to volume ratio for gas exchange. Insufficient gas exchange will increase the risk of Emphysema -
shortness of breath due to insufficient Oxygen transport in blood

EFFECT ON CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: Nicotine in cigarettes causes blood vessels to narrow, placing strain on
circulatory system and results in the increase in blood pressure. Narrowing of blood vessels also causes the build-up of
Fat globules, increasing risk of Coronary Heart Disease (CHD). CHD involves the blockage of Coronary Artery by Fat
globules (forming plaques), causing insufficient Oxygen transport in blood leading to increased anaerobic respiration
(due to lack of Oxygen). Increase in anaerobic respiration causes build-up of Lactic acid which creates acidic
environment for enzymes to denature, hence causing strokes. Carbon Monoxide from cigarette smoking will bind
irreversibly to Haemoglobin, reducing capacity of Oxygen transport by Red blood cells and hence increases the risk of
Emphysema – shortness of breath due to insufficient Oxygen transport in blood
2.50 practical: investigate breathing in humans, including the release of carbon dioxide and the effect of exercise

Investigating release of carbon dioxide during exercise-Measure a fixed volume of Limewater into a boiling tube. Use
a straw and blow into the solution of Limewater. Limewater turns cloudy when Carbon Dioxide is present. Hence, as
respiration produces Carbon Dioxide as a waste product, blowing into a solution of Limewater will form a cloudy
solution, therefore showing the production of Carbon Dioxide via respiration

Investigating effect of exercise on breathing- Stationary breathing rate of participants is recorded. Specific exercise
will be performed by participants at the same intensity for a fixed period of time. Breathing rate after exercise is
recorded. Results are compared. During exercise, more energy is needed via respiration to allow muscle contractions to
occur to facilitate movement. Hence, the rate of breathing will increase to allow more Oxygen transport in blood to
respiring cells for movement to occur. If energy demand exceeds Oxygen intake, energy may be produced via aerobic
respiration, producing Lactic acid as a waste product. After exercise, breathing rate continues to increase as extra
Oxygen is needed to break down the Lactic acid produced - Oxygen debt

TRANSPORT

2.51 understand why simple, unicellular organisms can rely on diffusion for movement of substances in and out of the cell

As Unicellular organisms are composed of a single cell, they have a larger surface area in relation to their volume, and
hence have a large surface area to volume ratio. With a large surface area to volume ratio, Unicellular organisms
therefore have efficient rate of diffusion, allowing cell to rely solely on diffusion to transport necessary substances in
and out of the cell. Thin Cell Walls - Thin cell walls (one cell thick) to minimise distance of diffusion, increasing the
rate of diffusion. Large Surface Area to Volume Ratio - Unicellular organisms are commonly long, thin, flat or folded
to increase surface area to volume ratio, increasing the rate of diffusion. Moist- Unicellular organisms have moist
membranes to allow substances to diffuse easily.

2.52 understand the need for a transport system in multicellular organisms

As Multicellular organisms are composed of more than one cell, they have a small surface area in relation to their
volume, and hence have a small surface area to volume ratio. With a small surface area to volume ratio, Multicellular
organisms therefore have inefficient rate of diffusion, preventing cell to rely on diffusion to transport necessary
substances in and out of the cell (rate of metabolism will exceed rate of exchange of vital materials and wastes).
Hence, Multicellular organisms rely on transport systems to provide a constant supply of necessary substances through
a medium to their cells via an exchange surface. TUBES OR VESSELS- Tubes or vessels to carry necessary
substances from one part of organism to another in a structured process. CLOSE CONTACT WITH CELLS-
Transport system will have close contact with cells via exchange surface for efficient exchange of necessary
substances. PUMPS- Transport system may have pumps to ensure a constant supply of necessary substances to cells -
the heart acts as a pump to ensure the constant circulation of blood by which materials are transported by in the human
circulatory system

TRANSPORT-PLANTS

2.53 describe the role of phloem in transporting sucrose and amino acids between the leaves and other parts of the plant

Phloem consists of living cells arranged end to end. Unlike xylem, phloem vessels contain cytoplasm, and this goes
through holes from one cell to the next. Phloem transports sucrose and amino acids up and down the plant. This is
called translocation. In general, this happens between where these substances are made (the sources) and where they
are used or stored (the sinks). This means, for example, that sucrose is transported: from sources in the root to sinks in
the leaves in spring time and from sources in the leaves to sinks in the root in the summer. Applied chemicals, such as
pesticides, also move through the plant by translocation.

2.54 describe the role of xylem in transporting water and mineral ions from the roots to other parts of the plant

The xylem is a tissue which transports water and minerals from the roots up the plant stem and into the leaves. Xylem
consists of dead cells. The cells that make up the xylem are adapted to their function: They lose their end walls so the
xylem forms a continuous, hollow tube. They become strengthened by a substance called lignin. Lignin gives strength
 and support to the plant. We call lignified cells wood. Transport in the xylem is a physical process. It does not require
energy.

2.55B understand how water is absorbed by root hair cells

In the soil, there is high concentration of Water molecules outside the soil, and low concentration of Water molecules
inside the root hair cell. As a result, strong osmotic potential is established, enabling Water molecules to diffuse
through the partially permeable membrane of root hair cells down the osmotic potential into the root hair cell. Root
hair cells are adapted for the absorption of Water molecules via osmosis by having large surface area to volume ratio,
therefore increasing the rate of Water absorption. Water molecules in root hair cell is then transported to Xylem for
transpiration

2.56B understand that transpiration is the evaporation of water from the surface of a plant

Cohesion: Force of attraction between Water molecules which allow Water to stick together. Adhesion: Force of
attraction between Water molecules and other polar molecules - e.g Cellulose in plant cell wall. Water is transported
throughout the plant via Xylem. Water is heated into Water vapour by sunlight in Spongy Mesophyll, transpiring out
of Stomata which are pores on the underside of leaves. Loss of Water via transpiration creates negative pressure,
causing transpiration pull of Water molecules up the Xylem to form a continuous transpiration stream. As a result,
more Water is absorbed by the roots of the plant via osmosis. Constant uptake and transport of Mineral ions in plant
(e.g Nitrates as a source of Amino acid to build Protein). Maintaining turgidity of cells for plant growth. Provide Water
to Photosynthesising cells in for Photosynthesis. Evaporative cooling of plant leaves to maintain optimum temperature
for optimum enzyme activity

2.57B understand how the rate of transpiration is affected by changes in humidity, wind speed, temperature and light intensity

TEMPERATURE- As temperature increases, the rate of transpiration will increase. This is because the increase in
temperature will cause Water molecules to gain kinetic energy, increasing the rate in which they vaporise and transpire
out of the Stomata.

HUMIDITY- Humidity is the amount of Water vapour present in the air. As ambient humidity increases, the rate of
transpiration will decrease. This is because when ambient humidity surrounding plant is greater than humidity in
Spongy Mesophyll, there is greater concentration of Water vapour outside the plant than inside. As a result, this
prevents the transpiration of Water vapour out of the Stomata.

WIND- As wind exposure increases, the rate of transpiration will increase. This is because the increase in wind
exposure removes Water vapours surrounding the plant, reducing the proximal humidity as there will be a greater
concentration of Water vapour inside the Spongy Mesophyll than surrounding the plant. As a result, a strong
concentration gradient will be created, increasing the rate of transpiration

LIGHT INTENSITY- As light intensity increases, the rate of transpiration will increase. This is because the increase in
light intensity will stimulate more Stomata to open in order to facilitate photosynthetic gas exchange. As a result, the
rate of transpiration will increase

2.58B practical: investigate the role of environmental factors in determining the rate of transpiration from a leafy shoot

Cut shoot underwater to prevent air from entering Xylem and place through hole fo stopper provided with photometer.
Fill potometer with Water and fit the stopper holding the leafy shoot to apparatus. Use vaseline to seal apparatus to
ensure equipment is airtight. Trap air bubble in capillary tube by:Dip end of capillary tube into beaker of Water. Close
tap of reservoir and remove beaker of Water to allow plant to transpire for a few minutes. Re-immerse capillary tube
into beaker of Water. Measure and record the starting distance of air bubble. Change environmental factor being
investigated. Allow shoot to adapt to new environment for a fixed period of time. Measure and record the final
distance of air bubble to calculate the total volume of Water absorbed by plant. Change intensity of environmental
factor and repeat process.

The greater the distance moved by air bubble during the fixed period of time, the larger the volume of Water absorbed
by the plant, and hence an increase in transpiration rate. Temperature : Heaters or submerging shoot in heated Water
baths. Humidity : Encasing plant in plastic bag with variable levels of vapour. Wind : Placing fan at variable distance
from plant. Light Intensity : Placing lamp at variable distance from plant
TRANSPORT- HUMANS

2.59 describe the composition of the blood: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma

Component Function(s)

Plasma Transporting carbon dioxide, digested food, urea, hormones and heat

Red blood cells Transporting oxygen

White blood cells Ingesting pathogens and producing antibodies

Platelets Involved in blood clotting

2.60 understand the role of plasma in the transport of carbon dioxide, digested food, urea, hormones and heat energy

PLASMA: Straw-coloured liquid mainly consisting of Water that dissolves materials and functions as transport
medium for Human circulatory system

CARBON Plasma transports waste Carbon Dioxide produced via aerobic respiration to the lungs for
DIOXIDE exhalation
DIGESTE Plasma transports digested food to respiring cells for assimilation in the form of simple
D FOOD sugars (e.g glucose) and Amino acids
UREA Plasma transports waste substances for removal out of the body - Plasma transports Urea
from liver to the kidney for excretion
HORMO Plasma transports Hormones produced by Endocrine glands to target organs to stimulate
NES change
HEAT As Plasma is mainly composed of Water which possesses high specific heat capacity, this
ENERGY allows Plasma to maintain a constant body temperature optimum for enzyme activity for
metabolic reactions to occur (optimum body temperature is 37°C)

2.61 understand how adaptations of red blood cells make them suitable for the transport of oxygen, including shape, the
absence of a nucleus and the presence of haemoglobin

HAEMOGLOBIN Red blood cells contain Haemoglobin that combines with Oxygen to form
Oxyhemoglobin to transport Oxygen to respiring cells
NO NUCLEUS Red blood cells do not have a Nucleus to allow more space for Haemoglobin
to transport Oxygen to respiring cells
SMALL AND Red blood cells are small and flexible to squeeze through narrow capillaries
FLEXIBLE and blood vessels for efficient transport
THIN CELL Red blood cells have thin cell membrane (one cell thick) to minimise
MEMBRANE distance of diffusion of Oxygen molecules, allowing efficient diffusion and
transport of Oxygen to respiring cells
BICONCAVE Red blood cells have flattened disc shape to increase surface area to volume
ratio for diffusion of Oxygen, allowing efficient diffusion and transport of
Oxygen to respiring cells

2.62 understand how the immune system responds to disease using white blood cells, illustrated by phagocytes ingesting
pathogens and lymphocytes releasing antibodies specific to the pathogen

PHAGOCYTES: White blood cell that engulfs and secretes digestive enzymes onto pathogens to remove them from
the body

SENSITIVE Phagocytes have sensitive cell surface membrane

CELL SURFACE that detects and locates pathogens via chemical
MEMBRANE produced
DIGESTIVE Phagocytes have digestive enzymes in cytoplasm
ENZYMES IN to digestion and remove pathogen from body once
CYTOPLASM engulfed
 IRREGULAR Phagocytes have irregularly shaped Nucleus to
SHAPED squeeze through narrow gaps in capillary walls,
NUCLEUS allowing them to digest and remove pathogen
quickly
LYMPHOCYTES: White blood cell that produces antibodies to deactivate antigens on the surface of pathogens,
additionally producing memory cells that remain in immune system for quick response to same antigens. LARGE
NUCLEUS Lymphocytes- have large Nucleus containing multiple copies of DNA to produce antibodies in large
amounts, preventing spread of diseases and infections.

Response of Lymphocytes- When Pathogen is detected, Lymphocyte will split into two cells. One cell will produce
Antibodies that will deactivate Antigens of Pathogens. Other cell will be memory cell that remains in immune system
so if same Pathogen is detected, same Antibodies can be produced in larger quantities quickly.

Response of phagocytes-Phagocytes has sensitive cell surface membrane detects and locates Pathogen via chemicals
produced. Once Pathogen is encountered, they will engulf and release digestive enzymes to digest and Pathogen.
Pathogen is removed from the body.

2.63B understand how vaccination results in the manufacture of memory cells, which enable future antibody production to the
pathogen to occur sooner, faster and in greater quantity

Vaccine contains weakened form of pathogen / bacteria / virus that is introduced into the body via injection. Vaccine
containing antigens (foreign substance) will trigger primary immune response. Phagocytes with sensitive cell surface
membrane will detect Pathogens to engulf and digest them via release of digestive enzymes. Lymphocytes will split
into two cells - antibodies that deactivate Pathogen and memory cells that remain in immune system. Hence, when
exposed to actual Pathogen, these memory cells can therefore trigger a more potent secondary immune response by
dividing to produce antibodies in larger quantities more quickly. As a result, spread of disease and infections are
prevented

2.64B understand how platelets are involved in blood clotting, which prevents blood loss and the entry of micro-organisms

When Skin is wounded, clotting factors are released by damaged cells and platelets. Clotting factors cause platelets to
become sticky and adhere to damaged region to form a solid 'plug', also stimulating local vasoconstriction to reduce
blood flow through damaged region. Additionally, clotting factors trigger conversion of inactive Prothrombin to
activated enzyme Thrombin which catalyses the conversion of soluble Fibrinogen into insoluble fibrous form called
Fibrin. Fibrin forms mesh around wound and traps blood cells to form temporary clot, forming a scab to protect and
allow wound to heal. Clotting prevents the excessive blood loss from body. Clotting prevents the entry of harmful
Pathogens into bloodstream via wound.

2.65 describe the structure of the heart and how it functions

Arteries- blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart.

Atrium- the upper chamber which collect blood returning from the body or from the lungs.

Pulmonary artery- the artery which carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the valves.

Pulmonary vein- the vein that carries oxygenated blood to the heart from the lungs.

Vein- A blood vessel with valves that transports blood to the heart.

Ventricle- the lower chamber of the heart that receives blood from the atrium and pumps it into arteries.

Septum- separates the right-hand and left-hand side of the heart.

Tricuspid valve – located between the right atrium and right ventricle and opens due to a build-up of pressure in the
right atrium. Prevent the back flow of blood from ventricle to atrium

Bicuspid valve- located between the left atrium and the left ventricle an opens due to a build-up pressure in the left
atrium.

Semilunar valves- stops the back flow of blood in the heart.

 Aorta- the main artery which carries blood away from the heart.

Vena cava- the main vein which carries blood towards the heart.

PROCESS: Deoxygenated blood from respiring cells are carried by the Vena Cava to the Right Atrium. Right Atrium
will contract to increase pressure, pushing blood into Right Ventricle through Atrioventricular Valve. Atrioventricular
Valve closes to prevent backflow of blood from Ventricle to Atrium. Right Ventricle will contract to increase pressure,
causing blood to be carried out via Pulmonary Artery to be Oxygenated at the Lungs through the Semilunar Valve.
Semilunar Valve closes to prevent backflow of blood from Artery to Ventricle. Pulmonary Vein carries Oxygenated
blood from Lungs to the Left Atrium. Left Atrium will contract to increase pressure, pushing blood into Left Ventricle
through Atrioventricular Valve. Atrioventricular Valve closes to prevent backflow of blood from Ventricle to Atrium.
Left Ventricle will contract to increase pressure, causing Oxygenated blood to be carried out via Aorta to respiring
cells around the body

2.66 explain how the heart rate changes during exercise and under the influence of adrenaline

HEART RATE DURING EXERCISE-During exercise, more energy is needed via respiration to allow muscle
contractions to occur to facilitate movement. Hence, heart rate will increase to allow more Oxygen transport in blood
to respiring cells for movement to occur. If energy demand exceeds Oxygen intake, energy may be produced via
anaerobic respiration, producing Lactic acid as a waste product. After exercise, heart rate continues to increase as extra
Oxygen is needed to break down the Lactic acid produced - Oxygen debt

EFFECT OF ADRENALINE DURING HEART RATE-During times of fear or stress, Adrenaline is produced by
Adrenal glands and secreted into the bloodstream. As a result, Liver cells convert Glycogen into Glucose to increase
blood glucose levels. Additionally, breathing and heart rate increases to increase blood flow. Hence, the increase in
breathing and heart rate allows more Glucose and Oxygen to be transported in the bloodstream to respiring cells for
'fight or flight' response to occur

2.67 understand how factors may increase the risk of developing coronary heart disease

CORONARY HEART DISEASE: Blockage of Coronary Artery by Fat globules (forming plaques), causing
insufficient Oxygen transport in blood leading to increased anaerobic respiration (due to lack of Oxygen). Increase in
anaerobic respiration causes build-up of Lactic acid which creates acidic environment for enzymes to denature, hence
causing strokes

FACTORS THAT RISK OF DEVELOPING CORONARY HEART DISEASE

POOR DIET- Diets rich in Saturated Fats, Salts and Alcohol increases the presence of Cholesterol in diet, increasing
the risk of Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

STRESS - Stress stimulates the secretion of Hormones that increases blood pressure, therefore increasing the risk of
the buildup of Fatty plaques to cause Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

SMOKING- Nicotine in cigarettes causes vasoconstriction - the narrowing of blood vessels, increasing the risk of the
buildup of Fatty plaques to cause Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

OBESITY - Carrying extra weight puts a strain on the heart. Increased weight can lead to diabetes which further
damages your blood vessels

2.68 understand how the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries relate to their function

ARTERIES
s
 Transports Oxygenated blood away from
the Heart (excluding Pulmonary Artery)
 Thick muscular walls to withstand high
pressure
 Narrow lumen to maintain high pressure to
pump blood around the body
 VEINS
s
 Transports Deoxygenated blood towards
the Heart (excluding the Pulmonary Vein)
 Thin walls to allow Skeletal muscle to
exert pressure on Vein
 Wide lumen to transport large volume of
blood
 Valves to prevent the backflow of blood
under low pressure

CAPILLARIES
s
 Facilitates material exchange between cells
- e.g., gas exchange
 Thin walls (one cell thick) that are porous
and permeable for efficient material exchange via
diffusion
 Narrow lumen to fit between cells for
extensive branching, which increases surface area
to volume ratio for efficient material exchange via
diffusion

2.69 understand the general structure of the circulation system, including the blood vessels to and from the heart and lungs,
liver and kidneys

The circulatory system consists of a closed network of blood vessels

connected to the heart: Oxygenated blood is carried away from the heart and
towards organs in arteries; These narrow to arterioles and then capillaries as
they pass through the organ; In the organs, respiring cells use up the oxygen
from the blood; The capillaries widen to venules and finally veins as they
move away from the organs; Veins carry deoxygenated blood back towards
the heart. A different network of lymphatic vessels collect all the excess tissue
fluid that leaks out of the capillaries and delivers it back to the circulatory
system.

Pulmonary vein takes oxygenated blood from the lungs to the

left atrium (pumps it into the left ventricle). Oxygenated blood
then travels through the aorta from the left atrium of the heart
into the brain, around the body including the gut, liver and
kidneys. Aorta changes to the hepatic artery when transporting
blood to the liver. Renal artery when transporting blood to the kidneys. Hepatic portal vein takes the blood from the
gut to the liver. Going back to the heart, renal vein takes the deoxygenated blood from the kidney. Hepatic vein takes
 the deoxygenated blood from the liver, changes to the vena cava, vena cava takes deoxygenated blood from the brain.
Deoxygenated blood from the vena cava is then taken to the right atrium, later taken to the right ventricle. Pulmonary
artery takes the deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle into the lungs to be oxygenated

EXCRETION IN PLANTS

2.70 understand the origin of carbon dioxide and oxygen as waste products of metabolism and their loss from the stomata of a
leaf

During photosynthesis, plants use light energy (from the sun) to combine carbon dioxide and water. This produces
glucose and oxygen. The plant can use glucose (in respiration) but cannot use oxygen, therefore, oxygen is a waste
product. During respiration, plants use oxygen and produce carbon dioxide (this time, the oxygen is useful and carbon
dioxide is a waste product. Gases diffuse in and out of a leaf via the stomata when they are open (during
daytime/light/when photosynthesis is occurring).

EXCRETION IN HUMANS

2.71 know the excretory products of the lungs, kidneys and skin (organs of excretion)

Organ Mainly excretes Explanation

lungs carbon dioxide the lung will excrete carbon dioxide as
a waste product of aerobic respiration
during exhalation
kidneys excess water, salts, the kidney will excrete excess water,
urea salts and urea by ultralfiltration
skin excess water and salts the skin will excrete excess water and
salts through sweat glands on skin by
producing sweat
2.72B understand how the kidney carries out its roles of excretion and osmoregulation

ROLES OF EXCRETION - Renal Artery transports Oxygenated blood to the Glomerulus within Bowman's Capsule
under high pressure. High hydrostatic pressure is due to the wider afferent arteriole transporting blood to the
Bowman's Capsule, and narrow efferent arteriole transporting blood out of Capsule. Blood is therefore filtered at high
pressure to produce Glomerular Filtrate composed of Water, Glucose, Salts and Urea. However, as Proteins and Red
blood cells are too large to be filtered through base membrane - material between Glomerulus and Bowman's Capsule,
they will remain in blood. Glomerular Filtrate enters the Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT), where all Glucose is
reabsorbed into surrounding capillaries - selective reabsorption. Remaining filtrate flows through the Collecting Duct,
where Water is reabsorbed into the blood depending on levels of ADH secreted by Pituitary gland (ADH is produced
by Hypothalamus and stored in Pituitary gland for secretion). Remaining filtrate composed of excess Water, Salts and
Urea will form Urine, which is transported via the Ureter to the Bladder to be stored for Excretion.

ROLES IN OSMOREGULATION - The hypothalamus in the brain detects the level of water in the blood. If the
concentration of water is too low, the pituitary gland in the brain secretes Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH). This travels
through the bloodstream to the kidney where it acts on the cells of the collecting duct to make them more permeable to
water. More water is reabsorbed from the tubule into the blood and less urine is made. The hypothalamus then senses
that the blood is at the correct concentration and the pituitary stops secreting ADH.

2.73B describe the structure of the urinary system, including the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra

STRUCTU EXPLANATION
RE

RENAL Carries Oxygenated blood to the Kidney for

ARTERY Ultrafiltration

KIDNEY Pair of bean-shaped organs that carry out filtration to

remove waste products from body via excretion

URETER Tube that transports Urine from Kidney to Bladder for

 storage prior to excretion

BLADDER Organ that stores Urine produced by Kidney for

excretion

URETHRA Tube that connects Bladder to the exterior for removal

of Urine from body via excretion

RENAL Carries Deoxygenated blood away from Kidney

VEIN
2.74B describe the structure of a nephron, including the Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus, convoluted tubules, loop of Henle
and collecting duct

STRUCTURE EXPLANATION

BOWMAN’S Cup-shaped sac that collects Glomerular Filtrate for entry into
CAPSULE tubules for filtration

GLOMERULU Tuft of blood capillaries that filters blood under high pressure
S to produce Glomerular Filtrate composed of Water, Glucose,
Salts and Urea

CONVOLUTE Portion of Nephron that includes the Proximal Convoluted

D TUBULES Tubule (PCT) and Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) to carry
out selective reabsorption of Glucose into blood capillaries

LOOP OF U-shaped portion of Nephron that filters out salts to maintain

HENLE Water concentration in body

COLLECTING Long narrow tube that reabsorbs Water to maintain Water

DUCT balance in body depending on levels of ADH produced

2.75B describe ultrafiltration in the Bowman’s capsule and the composition of the glomerular filtrate

ULTRAFILTRATION: Process involving the filtration of blood flowing through Glomerulus within the Bowman's
Capsule to produce Glomerular Filtrate composed of Water, Salts, Glucose and Urea

PROCESS – Renal Artery transports Oxygenated blood to the Glomerulus within the Bowman's Capsule under high
pressure. High hydrostatic pressure is due to the wider afferent arteriole transporting blood to the Bowman's Capsule,
and narrow efferent arteriole transporting blood out of Capsule. Blood is therefore filtered at high pressure to produce
Glomerular Filtrate composed of Water, Glucose, Salts and Urea. However, as Proteins and Red blood cells are too
large to be filtered through base membrane - material between Glomerulus and Bowman's Capsule, they will remain in
blood.

2.76B understand how water is reabsorbed into the blood from the collecting duct

As the filtrate drips through the Loop of Henle necessary salts are reabsorbed back into the blood by diffusion. As salts
are reabsorbed back into the blood, water follows by osmosis. Water is also reabsorbed from the collecting duct in
different amounts depending on how much water the body needs at that time

2.77B understand why selective reabsorption of glucose occurs at the proximal convoluted tubule

Renal Artery transports Oxygenated blood to the Glomerulus within Bowman's Capsule under high pressure for
ultrafiltration, producing Glomerular Filtrate composed of Water, Glucose, Salts and Urea. Glomerular Filtrate enters
the Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT), where all Glucose is reabsorbed into surrounding capillaries via selective
reabsorption. Nephron is adapted by having large quantities of Mitochondria to provide energy in the form of ATP for
the active transport of Glucose molecules across membrane. Nephron is adapted by having thin membranes to
minimise distance of active transport, allowing efficient rate of reabsorption

2.78B describe the role of ADH in regulating the water content of the blood
 ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH): Hormone produced by Hypothalamus and stored/secreted by Pituitary gland to
control water content of blood via reabsorption of Water at Collecting Duct

LOW LEVELS OF WATER HIGH LEVELS OF WATER

Hypothalamus detects low levels of Water in body,
stimulating Pituitary gland to secrete more ADH.
Increase in ADH causes membrane of Collecting Duct to
become more permeable with the increase in pores,
therefore increasing the reabsorption of Water into blood
capillaries via Osmosis. As more Water is reabsorbed,
Water levels in the body is regulated and returned to
normal. As a result, volume of Urine will decrease and
become more concentrated
2.79B understand that urine contains water, urea and ions
Hypothalamus detects high levels of water in body,
stimulating Pituitary gland to secrete less ADH. Decrease
in ADH causes membrane of Collecting Duct to become
less permeable with the decrease in pores, therefore
preventing the reabsorption of Water into blood
capillaries. As less Water is reabsorbed, Water levels in
the body is regulated and returned to normal. As a result,
volume of urine will increase and become less
concentrated (more diluted)

URINE: Waste material produced by Kidney, composed of excess Water, Salts, and Urea

URINE CONTAINS:

WATER - Water that is not reabsorbed at Collecting Duct due to low levels of ADH forms excess Water in Urine

SALTS - Salt that is not reabsorbed at Loop of Henle due to balanced Water concentrations in body forms excess Salt
in Urine

UREA - Urea is toxic and so will be removed from the body in Urine

RESPONSE AND CO-ORDINATION

2.80 understand how organisms are able to respond to changes in their environment

All living organisms need to respond to changes in environment for survival. Nervous system coordinated by the Brain
allows body to respond to changes in environment. Organisms additionally have reflexes for fast involuntary actions
that protect body from damage.

2.81 understand that homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment, and that body water content
and body temperature are both examples of homeostasis

homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment. e.g. body water content and body temperature.

Thermoregulation - Keeping the body at optimum

Osmoregulation- Control of water levels in body temperature (37°C) e.g. When hot you sweat
body so sweat is evaporated to cool you down. When
cold your hairs stick out for an extra layer of
insulation.
2.82 understand that a co-ordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor and an effector
 STIMULI - change in the environment

RECEPTOR - cells that detect change and send nerve impulses to the spinal chord. situated in sense organs (eyes,
nose, skin, etc.)

EFFECTOR - cells that coordinate a response to the stimuli. found only in muscles and glands

CO-ORDINATION AND RESPONSE IN PLANTS

2.83 understand that plants respond to stimuli

Plants need to be able to grow in response to certain stimuli : For example, plants need to be able to grow in response
to light, to ensure their leaves can absorb light for photosynthesis; They also need to be able to grow in response to
gravity, to ensure that shoots grow upwards and roots grow downwards. The directional growth responses made by
plants in response to light and gravity are known as tropisms. A response to light is a phototropism and a response to
gravity is a geotropism (or gravitropism).

2.84 describe the geotropic and phototropic responses of roots and stems

GEOTROPIC RESPONSE: Growth in response to direction of gravity

PHOTOTROPIC RESPONSE: Growth in response to direction of light

AUXINS: Plant hormone produced in the tip of stem and roots which controls the direction of growth. Auxin changes
the elasticity of cells to alter the growth of cells, therefore changing the direction of growth (increase in elasticity will
allow cell to absorb more Water, causing size of cell to increase and bend towards specific direction). Factors
including light and gravity can alter the distribution of Auxin within stem and root, causing different responses.

GEOTROPIC RESPONSE OF PLANTS:

STEMS ROOTS

Diagram Showing Positive Geotropism in

Stems Diagram Showing Negative Geotropism in Roots

During growth, Auxin produced at the tip will
accumulate on the underside of the Stem due
to gravity. As Auxins promote the growth of
Stem cells, cells on the underside of the Stem
will continue to grow larger and elongate
(increase in elasticity allows cell to absorb
more Water to grow larger in size), whilst
cells on the upperside will grow at a slower
rate. As a result, Stem will grow upwards
against the direction of gravity - Negative
Geotropism
PHOTOTROPIC RESPONSE OF PLANTS:
During growth, Auxin produced at the tip will
accumulate on the underside of the Root due to
gravity. As Auxins inhibit the growth of Root cells,
cells on the underside of the Root will not grow,
whilst cells on the upperside will continue to grow
larger and elongate (increase in elasticity allows
cell to absorb more Water to grow larger in size).
As a result, Root will grow downwards towards the
direction of gravity - Positive Geotropism

STEMS ROOTS
 During growth, Auxin produced at tip will be
redistributed by light receptors to the shaded side of
the Stem. As Auxins promote growth of Stem cells,
cells on the shaded side will grow larger and
elongate (increase in elasticity allows cell to absorb
more Water to grow larger in size), whilst cells on
the unshaded side exposed to light will grow at a
slower rate. As a result, Stem will grow towards the
direction of light - Positive Phototropism, allowing
Plant to maximise the absorption of light for
Photosynthesis
During growth, Auxin produced at tip will be
redistributed by light receptors to the shaded side of
the Root. As Auxins inhibit growth of Root cells,
cells on the shaded side will not grow, whilst cells
on the unshaded sight exposed to light will grow
larger and elongate (increase in elasticity allows cell
to absorb more Water to grow larger in size). As a
result, Root will grow against the direction of light -
Negative Phototropism

2.85 understand the role of auxin in the phototropic response of stems

Plants produce plant growth regulators (similar to hormones in animals) called auxins to coordinate and control
directional growth responses such as phototropisms and geotropism/ Auxin is mostly made in the tips of growing
shoots and then diffuses down to the region where cell division occurs (just below the tip). This is an important point -
only the region behind the tip of a shoot is able to contribute to growth by cell division and cell elongation. Auxin
stimulates the cells in this region to elongate (get larger); the more auxin there is, the faster they will elongate and
grow. If light shines all around the tip, auxin is distributed evenly throughout and the cells in the shoot grow at the
same rate - this is what normally happens with plants growing outside. When light shines on the shoot predominantly
from one side, the auxin produced in the tip concentrates on the shaded side, making the cells on that side elongate and
grow faster than the cells on the sunny side. This unequal growth on either side of the shoot causes the shoot to bend
and grow in the direction of the light

CO-ORDINATION AND RESPONSE IN HUMANS

2.86 describe how nervous and hormonal communication control responses and understand the differences between the two
systems

There are two different control systems in humans that work together to help us respond to stimuli. These are:
The nervous system and The hormonal system (also known as the endocrine system). Changes in our external
environment or in the internal environment of our bodies act as stimuli. The nervous and hormonal
systems coordinate a suitable response to these stimuli. This allows us to make sense of our surroundings, to respond
to the changes that occur in our surroundings and coordinate and regulate body functions

The nervous system - Information is sent through the nervous system as electrical impulses – these are electrical
signals that pass along nerve cells known as neurones. These impulses travel along neurones at very high speeds (up to
100 metres per second). This allows rapid responses to stimuli (e.g. the withdrawal reflex that causes you to move your
hand away extremely quickly when it touches a flame). The nervous system coordinates the activities
of sensory receptors (eg. those in the eye), decision-making centres in the central nervous system (CNS),
and effectors such as muscles and glands. The nervous system is used to control functions that need instant (or very
rapid) responses

The endocrine system - Information is sent through the endocrine (hormonal) system as chemical substances known
as hormones. Hormones are carried by the blood and can therefore circulate around the whole body. Hormones
transmit information from one part of the organism to another and bring about a change (they provide a signal that
triggers a response). They alter the activity of one or more specific target organs. Hormones are used to control
 functions that do not need instant responses . Hormones are produced by endocrine glands. The endocrine glands
that produce hormones in animals are known collectively as the endocrine system; A gland is a group of cells that
produces and releases one or more substances (a process known as secretion)

2.87 understand that the central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord and is linked to sense organs by nerves

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: Nervous system comprising the Brain and Spinal Cord that is linked to a network
of nerve cells that carry impulses around the body.

PROCESS - Central Nervous System (CNS) determines the response for a stimulus detected by the receptor. Stimuli is
detected by receptors, stimulating Sensory Neurons that send electrical impulses to the Central Nervous System - Brain
and Spinal cord. Central Nervous System relays impulse across the synpase (gaps between Neurones) to Relay
Neurons via synaptic transmission. Relay Neurons relays impulse to Motor Neurons in the Effector, which will quickly
carry out rapid response

2.88 understand that stimulation of receptors in the sense organs sends electrical impulses along nerves into and out of the
central nervous system, resulting in rapid responses

COORDINATED RESPONSE: Process in which a reaction is carried out in response to a change in environment
(stimuli).

PROCESS: Stimuli is detected by receptors, stimulating Sensory Neurons that send electrical impulses to the Central
Nervous System (CNS) - Brain and Spinal cord. Central Nervous System relays impulse across the synpase (gaps
between Neurones) to Relay Neurons via synaptic transmission. Relay Neurons relays impulse to Motor Neurons in
the Effector, which will quickly carry out rapid response

2.89 understand the role of neurotransmitters at synapses

SYNAPSE: Junction that separates Neurons from other cells (other Neurons and Receptor or Effector cells). As
electrical impulses cannot pass across the Synapse, Neurons transmit information across by converting the electrical
signal into a chemical signal called Neurotransmitters

NEUROTRANSMITTERS: Chemical messengers that are released from Neurons to transmit signals across the
Synapse

ROLE OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS: Synaptic transmission. When an electrical impulse reaches the end of an Axon
on pre-synaptic Neuron, this triggers the release of chemical messengers called Neurotransmitters via exocytosis.
Neurotransmitter will diffuse across the Synapse and bind to receptors on the membrane of the post-synaptic Neuron.
As a result, post-synaptic Neuron continues to transmit electrical impulse along Axon of Neuron

2.90 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc illustrated by the withdrawal of a finger from a hot object

REFLEX: Fast involuntary reaction that protects body from damage

When Hand is near a hot object, heat (stimuli) is detected by the Finger (receptor), stimulating Sensory Neurons to
send electrical impulses to the Central Nervous System - Brain and Spinal Cord. Central Nervous System will receive
and interpret message, determining the appropriate reaction of pulling hand away from the hot object. This impulse is
relayed across the Synpase to Relay Neurons via synaptic transmission. Relay Neurons relays impulse to Motor
Neurons in the Bicep. As a result, Bicep will contract to quickly draw hand away from the heat, allowing a rapid
response to prevent harm to the body

2.91 describe the

structure and
function of the
eye as a receptor
 The ciliary muscle - a ring of muscle that contracts and relaxes to change the shape of the lens

The suspensory ligaments - ligaments that connect the ciliary muscle to the lens

The sclera - the strong outer wall of the eyeball that helps to keep the eye in shape and provides a place of attachment
for the muscles that move the eye

The fovea - a region of the retina with the highest density of cones (colour detecting cells) where the eye sees
particularly good detail

The aqueous humour - the watery liquid between the cornea and the lens

The vitreous humour - the jelly-like liquid filling the eyeball

The choroid - a pigmented layer of tissue lining the inside of the sclera that prevents the reflection of light rays inside
the eyeball

The blind spot - the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, where there are no receptor cells

2.92 understand the function of the eye in focusing on near and distant objects, and in responding to changes in light intensity

RESPONSE OF EYE TO DISTANCE OF OBJECT-

Near: - When looking at a near object, incoming light is divergent. In response, Ciliary Muscles will contract, while
Suspensory Ligaments slack. As a result, the Lens become thicker and more curved, refracting light rays more strongly
to converge on the Retina

Distant:- When looking at a distant object, incoming light is parallel. In response, Ciliary Muscles will relax, while
Suspensory Ligaments stretch. As a result, the Lens become thinner and less curved, refracting light rays less strongly
to converge on the Retina

RESPONSE OF EYE TO CHANGES IN LIGHT INTENSITY

Dim light:- When in dark environment, Photoreceptors - Rods and Cones, detect the change in light intensity. As a
result, reflex occurs involving Muscles in the Iris - Radial Muscles contract and Circular Muscles relax to increase the
diameter of the Pupil. As Diameter of Pupil increases, Pupil dilates to allow more light to enter the Eye to be refracted
onto Retina for vision.

Bright light- When in bright environment, Photoreceptors - Rods and Cones, detect the change in light intensity. As a
result, reflex occurs involving Muscles in the Iris - Radial Muscles relax and Circular Muscles contract to decrease the
diameter of the Pupil. As diameter fo Pupil decreases, Pupil contracts to allow less light to enter the Eye to be refracted
onto Retina for vision

2.93 describe the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with reference to sweating, vasoconstriction and vasodilation

When in hot environment, increase in body temperature is detected by Thermoreceptors. As a result, series of changes
occurs in body via thermoregulation. Blood vessels near skin dilate via Vasodilation to increase blood flow to surface
for heat loss. Sweat glands excrete sweat to cool skin via evaporative cooling. Hair Erector Muscles relax to lower
Skin hair, trapping a thin insulating layer of air above the Skin for heat loss.

When in Cold environment, decrease in body temperature is detected by Thermoreceptors. As a result, series of
changes occurs in body via thermoregulation. Blood vessels near skin contract via Vasoconstriction to reduce blood
flow to surface to minimise heat loss. Sweat glands do not excrete sweat to prevent evaporative cooling. Hair Erector
Muscles contract to raise Skin hair, trapping a thick insulating layer of air above the skin to prevent heat loss.
2.94 understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones: adrenaline, insulin, testosterone, progesterone and
oestrogen

Adrenaline is known as the 'fight or flight' hormone as it is produced in situations where the body may be in danger. It
causes a range of different things to happen in the body, all designed to prepare it for movement (i.e. fight or flight).
These include: An increase in heart rate and breathing rate - ensures glucose and oxygen can be delivered to muscle
cells (and carbon dioxide can be taken away from muscles cells) at a faster rate; Diverting blood flow towards muscles
and away from non-essential parts of the body such as the alimentary canal - ensures an increased supply of the
reactants of respiration (glucose and oxygen);Dilation of the blood vessels inside muscles - ensures more blood can
circulate through them (again, supplying more glucose and oxygen); Breaking down of stored glycogen to glucose in
the liver and muscle cells, with glucose released by the liver being transported to active muscle cells - ensures a higher
blood glucose concentration for increased respiration in muscle cells (providing greater energy for movement).

Blood glucose concentration must be kept within a narrow range, so it’s another example of homeostasis (like the
control of core body temperature). Too high a level of glucose in the blood can lead to cells of the body losing water
by osmosis, which can be dangerous. Too low a level of glucose in the blood can lead to the brain receiving
insufficient glucose for respiration, potentially leading to a coma or even death. The pancreas and liver work together
to control blood glucose levels. To carry out this role, the pancreas acts as an endocrine gland (making and secreting
hormones into the bloodstream), although it does also plays a vital (but separate) role in digestion (making and
secreting enzymes into the digestive system). If the blood glucose concentration gets too high: Cells in the pancreas
detect the increased blood glucose levels; The pancreas produces the hormone insulin, secreting it into the blood;
Insulin stimulates muscles and the liver to take up glucose from the bloodstream and store it as glycogen (a polymer of
glucose); This reduces the concentration of glucose in the blood back to normal levels, at which point the pancreas
stops secreting insulin. If the blood glucose concentration gets too low: Cells in the pancreas detect the decreased
blood glucose levels; The pancreas produces the hormone glucagon; Glucagon causes the glycogen stored in the liver
to be converted into glucose and released into the blood; This increases the concentration of glucose in the blood back
to normal levels, at which point the pancreas stops secreting glucagon.

2.95B understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones: ADH, FSH and LH