Power System Switchgear and Protection (EET- 301)

Reference Books Authors

Principle of Power System V.K. Mehta

Power System Protection and Switchgear B. Rabindranath and M. Chandra

Switchgear and Protection Sunil S. Rao

Electrical Power Soni Gupta and Bhatnagar

Electrical Power System C. L. Wadhawa

Protective Relaying in Electric Power M. Titarenko and I. Noskov-

Systems Dukelsky

The Art and Science of Protective Relaying Crussel Mason

Power System Protection and Switchgear Badri Ram

1. Protective Relays Preliminaries

1.1. Introduction
1.1.1. Need of Protection System
1.1.2. Nature and Causes of Faults
1.1.3. Types of Faults

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 1.1.4. Effect of Faults and Faults Statistics
1.2. Function Characteristics of Relays
1.3. Role of Protections
1.4. Types of Protections
1.4.1. Primary Protection
1.4.2. Secondary Protection
1.5. Characteristic of Relays
1.6. Over Current Relays
1.7. Electromagnetic Relays

INTRODUCTION Chapter-1

1.1 Need for Protective Systems

An electrical power system consists of generators, transformer, transmission

and distribution lines, etc. Short circuits and other abnormal conditions often

occur on a power system. The heavy currents associated with short circuits likely

to cause damage to equipments if suitable protective relays and circuit breakers

are not provided for the protection of each section of the power system.

If a fault occurs in an element of a power system, an automatic protective

device is needed to isolate the faulty element as quickly as possible to keep the

healthy section of the system in normal operation. The fault must be cleared

within a fraction of a second. If a short circuit persists on a system, for a longer

period, it may cause damage to some important sections of the system. A heavy

short circuit current may cause a fire. It may spread in the system and damage a

part of it. The system voltage may reduce to a low level and individual

generators in a power station or groups of generators in different power station

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may lose synchronism. Thus, an uncleared heavy short circuits may cause the total

failure of the system.

A protective scheme includes circuit breaker and protective relays to isolate the

faulty section of the system from the healthy sections. A circuit breaker can

disconnect the faulty element of the system when it is called upon to do so by the

protective relay. The function of a protective relay is to detect and locate a fault

and issue a command to the circuit breaker to disconnect the faulty element of

the system. It is a device which senses abnormal conditions on a power system by

constantly monitoring electrical quantities of the system, which differ under

normal and abnormal condition. The basic electrical quantities which are likely to

change during abnormal conditions are current, voltage, phase-angle and

frequency. Protective relays utilize on or more of these quantities to detect

abnormal conditions on a power system.

Protection is needed not only against short circuit but also against any other

abnormal conditions which may arise on a power system. A few examples of other

abnormal conditions are over speed of generators and motors, over-voltage,

under-frequency, loss of excitation, overheating of stator and rotor of an

alternator, etc. Protective relays are also provided to detect such abnormal

conditions and issue alarm signals to alert operators or trip circuit breaker.

A protective relay does not anticipate or prevent the occurrence of a fault,

rather it takes action only after a fault has occurred. However, one exception to

this is the Buchholz relay, a gas actuated relay, which is used for the protection of

some internal faults in power transformers

1.2 Nature and Causes of Faults

Faults are causes either by insulation failure or by conducting path failure. The
failure of insulation results in short circuits which are very harmful as they may
damage some equipments of the power system. Most of the faults on the
transmission and distribution line are caused by over-voltages due to lighting or

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switching surges, or by external conducting object falling on overhead lines.
Overvoltage due to lighting or switching surges cause flashover on the surface of
insulators resulting in short circuits. Sometimes, insulators get punctured or break.
Sometimes, certain foreign particles such as fine cement dust or soot in industrial
areas or salt in coastal areas or any dirt, in general, accumulates on the surface of
string and pin insulators. These reduce their insulation strength and causes
flashovers. Short circuit is also caused by tree branches or other conducting
object falling on the overhead lines.
Birds also may cause faults on overhead lines if their bodies touch on of the
phases and earth wire (or the metallic support structure which is at earth
potential). If the conductors are broken, there is a failure of the conducting path
and the conductor becomes open-circuited. If the broken conductor falls to the
ground, it results in a short circuit. Joint failure on the cable or overhead lines are
also a cause of failure of the conducting path. The opening of one or two of the
three phases makes the system unbalanced. Unbalanced currents flowing in the
rotating machines set up harmonics, thereby, heating the machines in the short
periods of time. Therefore, unbalancing of the lines is not allowed in the normal
operation of a power system. Other causes of faults on overhead lines are direct
lightning strokes, aircraft, snakes, ice and snow loading, abnormal loading, storms,
earthquakes, creepers etc. In the case of cables, transformer, generators and
other equipment, the causes of faults are: failure of the solid insulation due to
aging, heat, moisture or overvoltage, mechanical damage, accidental contact with
earth or earthed screens, flashover due to over-voltages, etc.
Sometimes, circuit breakers may trip due to errors in the switching operation,
testing or maintenance work, wrong connections, defects in protective devices,
etc. Certain faults occur due to the poor quality of system components or
because of a faulty system design. Hence the occurrence of such faults can be
reduced by improving the system design, by using components and materials of
good quality and by better operation and maintenance.

1.3 Types of Faults

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 Two broad classifications of faults are:
(i) Symmetrical faults (ii) Unsymmetrical
faults

1.3.1 Symmetrical Faults ·

A three-phase fault is called a symmetrical type of fault. In a three-phase fault,
all the· three phases are short circuited (Fig 1.1). There may be two situations-all
the three phases may be short circuited to the ground or they may be short-
circuited without involving the ground. A three-phase short circuit is generally
treated as a standard fault to determine the system fault level.

Fig. 1.1
1.3.2 Unsymmetrical Faults
Single phase to ground, two-phase to ground, phase to phase short circuit;
ingle phase open circuit and two-phase open circuit are unsymmetrical types of
faults.

(a) Single Phase to Ground (L-G) Fault

A short circuit between any one of the phase conductors and earth is called a
single phase to ground fault as shown in Fig.1.2. It may be due to the failure of the
insulation between a phase conductor and the earth, or due to phase conductor
breaking and falling to the ground.

Fig. 1.2

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(b) Two-Phase To Ground (2L-G) Fault
A short circuit between any two phases and the earth (Fig. 1.3) is called a double
line to ground fault or two-phase to ground fault.

Fig. 1.3

(c) Phase To Phase (L-L) Faults

A short circuit between two-phase is called a line to line or phase to phase
fault as shown in Fig.1.4.

Fig.1.4

(d) Open Circuited Phases

This type of fault is caused by a break in the conducting path. Such faults
occur when one or more phase conductors break or a cable joint or a joint on the
overhead line fails. Such situations may also arise when circuit breaker or isolators
open but fail to close one or more phases. Due to the opening of one or two
phases, unbalanced currents flow in the system, thereby heating rotating
machines. Protective schemes must be provided to deal with such abnormal
situations.

(e) Winding Faults

All types of faults discussed above also occur on the alternator, motor and
transformer windings. In addition to these types of faults, there is one more type
of fault, namely the short circuiting of turns which occurs on machine windings.

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 1.3.3 Simultaneous Faults
Two or more faults occurring simultaneously on a system are known as
multiple or simultaneous faults. In simultaneous faults, the same or different types
of faults may occur at the same or different points of the system. An example of
two different types of faults occurring at the same point is a single line to ground
fault on one phase and breaking of the conductor of another phase, both
simultaneously present at the same point. The simultaneous presence of an L-G
fault at one point and a second L-G fault on another phase at some other point is
an example of two faults of the same type at two different points. If these two L-
G faults are on the same section of the line, they are treated as a double line to
ground fault. If they occur in different line sections, it is known as a cross-country
earth fault. Cross-country faults are common on systems grounded through high
impedance or Peterson coil but they are on solidly grounded systems.

1.4 Effect of Faults

The most dangerous type of fault is a short circuit as it may have the following
effect on a power system, if it remains uncleared.

(a) Heavy short circuit current may cause damage to equipment or any other
elements of the system due to overheating and high mechanical forces set
up to heavy current.
(b) Arcs associated with short circuit may cause fire hazards. Such fires,
resulting arcing, may destroy the faulty element of the system. There is
also a possibility of the spreading to other parts of the system if the fault
is not-isolated quickly.
(c) There may be reduction in the supply voltage of the healthy feeders,
resulting in the loss of industrial loads.
(d) Short circuits may cause the unbalancing of supply voltages and currents,
thereby heating the rotating machines.

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 (e) There may be a loss of system stability. Individual generators in a power
station may lose synchronism, resulting in a complete shutdown of the
system. Loss of stability of interconnected systems may also result.
Subsystems may maintain supply for their individual zones but load
shedding would have to be resorted in the sub-system which was
receiving power from the other subsystems before the occurrence of the
fault.
(f) The above faults may cause an interruption of supply to consumers,
thereby causing a loss of revenue.

High grade, high speed, reliable protective devices are the essential
requirements of a power system to minimize the effects of faults and other
abnormalities.

1.5 Fault Statistics

For the design and application of a protective scheme, it is very useful to have
an idea of the frequency of occurrence of faults on various elements of a power
system. Usually the power stations are situated far away from the load centers,
resulting in hundreds of kilometers’ length of overhead lines being exposed to
atmospheric conditions. The chances of faults occurring due to storms, falling of
external objects on the lines, flashovers resulting from dirt deposits on insulators,
etc., are greater for overhead lines than for other parts of the power system.
Table 1.1 gives an approximate idea of the fault statistics.

TABLE 1.1 Percentage Distribution Of Faults In Various Elements Of A Power

System

Element % of Total Faults

Overhead lines 50

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 Underground cables 9
Transformers 10
Generators 7
Switchgears 12
CTs, PTs, Relays
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control equipment, etc.

From Table 1.1, it is evident that 50% of the total fault on overhead lines. Hence
it is overhead lines that require more attention while planning and designing
protective schemes for a power system.

Table 1.2 shows the frequency of occurrence of different type (mainly the
different types of short circuits) on overhead lines. From the table it is evident
that the frequency of line to ground faults is more than any other type of fault,
and hence the protection against L-G fault requires greater attention in
planning and design of protective schemes for overhead lines.

TABLE 1.2 Frequency Of Occurrence Of Different Types Of Faults On Overhead

Lines

Types of faults Fault symbol % of total faults

Line to Ground L-G 85
Line to Line L-L 8
Double Line to 2L-G 5
Ground
Three-Phase 3-ϕ 2

In the case of cable 50% of the faults occur in cables and 50% at end junction.
Cable faults are usually of a permanent nature and hence, automatic reclosures
are not recommended for cables.

1.6 Protective Relays Basics

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 A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiate the operation of
the circuit breaker to isolate the defective elements from the rest of the system.
The relay detects the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuit by constantly
measuring the electrical quantity which are different under normal and fault
conditions. The electrical quantity which makes change under fault condition are
voltage, current, frequency and phase angle. Through the change in one or more
of these quantities, the fault signals, their presence type and location to the
protective relays. Having detected the fault and the relay operates to close the trip
circuit of the breaker. This results in the opening of the breaker and disconnection
of faulty circuit.

Fig.1.5
A typical relay circuit is shown in Fig.1.5. This diagram shows one phase of
three phase system for simplicity. The relay circuit connection can be divided into
three parts, viz.
(a) First part is the primary winding of current transformer CT, which is
connected in series with the line to be protected.
(b) Second part consists of secondary winding of CT and the relay operating
coil.

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 (c) Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either AC or DC. It consists
of a source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit breaker and the relay
stationary contacts.
When a short circuit occur at a point on the transmission line, the current flowing
in the line increased to an enormous value. This results in a heavy current flow
through the relay coil, causing the relay to operate by closing its contacts. This in
turn closes the trip circuit of the breaker, making the circuit breaker open and
isolating the faulty section from the rest of the system. In this way, the relay
ensure the safety of circuit equipment from damage and normal working of the
healthy portion of the system.

The basic function/principle of the relay can be understand in block diagram

form also (Fig.1.6). All the relays had three essential fundamental elements, as
illustrated in figure.

Fig.1.6

 Sensing element sometime also called the measuring element respond to

the change in the actuating quantity, the current in the protected system in
case of overcurrent relay.
 Comparing elements have to compare the action of actuating quantity on
the relay with a preselected relay setting.
 Control element on a pickup of the relay accomplishes a sudden change in
the control quantities such as closing of the operative current circuit.

1.7 Fundamental Requirements (Functional Characteristics) Of

Protective Relaying

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 The principal function of protective relaying is to cause the prompt removal
from service of any element of the power system when it starts to operate in any
abnormal manner or interfere with the effective operation of rest of the system. In
order that protective relay system may perform this condition satisfactorily, it
should have the following qualities:

(a) Selectivity
(b) Speed
(c) Sensitivity
(d) Reliability
(e) Simplicity
(f) Economy.

(a) Selectivity: It is the ability of protective system to select correctly that part of
the system in trouble and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the rest
of the system.
It is the basic requirement of the relay in which it should be possible to select
which part of the system is faulty and which is not and should isolate the
faulty part of the system from healthy one. Selectivity achieved in two ways:
(i) Unit system of protection and
(ii) Non unit system of protection.
(i) Unit system of protection means the one in which the protection responds
only to faults within its own zone and does not make note of the condition
elsewhere, e.g., that is the differential protection of transformers and
generators. Here the protection scheme will work only if the fault is in the
transformer or the generator respectively.
(ii) Non unit system protection is one in which the selectivity is obtained by
grading the time or current setting of the relay at different location, all of
which may respond to a given fault.

(b) Speed

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A protective relay must operate at the required speed. It should neither be too
slow which may result in damage to the equipment, nor should it be too fast which
may result in undesired operation during transient faults.
The shorter the time of which a fault is allowed to persist on the system, the
more load can be transferred between given points on the power system without
loss of synchronism. Fig.1.7 shows the curve which represent the power that can
be transmitted as a function of fault clearing time for various types of faults.

It can be seen from the curve that the severest fault is the three-phase fault
and the least severe is L-G fault in terms of transmission of power.

Fig.1.7: Power Transmitted during various faults on a system as function

of rely plus breaker time.

The relay system should disconnect the faulty section as fast as possible for the
following reasons:

(i) Electrical apparatus may be damaged if they are made to carry the fault
current for a long time.
(ii) A failure on the system leads to a great reduction in the system voltage. If
the faulty section is not disconnected quickly, then the low voltage created
by the fault may shut-down consumers’ motors and generators on the
system may become unstable.
(iii)The high speed relay system decreases the possibility of development of
one type of fault into the other more severe type.

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(c) Sensitivity: It is the ability of relay system to operate with low value of actuating
quantity.

Sensitivity of a relay is a function of the volt-ampere input to the coil of the

relay necessary to cause it operation. The smaller the volt-ampere input
required to cause relay operation, the more sensitive is the relay. Thus a 1 VA
relay is more sensitive than a 3 VA relay. It is desirable that the relay system
should be sensitive so that it operate with low value of volt-ampere input.

(d) Reliability: The relay should be reliable is a basic requirement. It must be

operated when it is required. There are various components which go into
operation before a relay operates. Therefore, every components and circuit
which is involved in the operation of the relay plays an important role; for
example, lack of suitable current and voltage transformers may result in a
unreliable operation.
Since the protection relay remains idle most of the time on the power system,
proper maintenance will play a vital role in improving the reliable operation of
the relay. Inherent reliability is a matter of design based on the long
experience. This can be achieved partly (i) simplicity and robustness in
construction (ii) high contact pressure (iii)dust free enclosures (iv) good
contact material (v) good workmanship, and (vi) careful maintenance.
(e) Simplicity: The Relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily
maintained. Reliability is closely related to simplicity. The simpler the
protection scheme, the greater will be its reliability.
(f) Economy: The most important factor in the choice of a particular protection
scheme is the economic aspect. Sometimes it is the economically unjustified
to use an ideal scheme of protection and a compromise method has to be
adopted. As a rule, the protective gear should not cost more than 5% of total
cost. However, when the apparatus to be protected is of utmost importance
(i.e. generator, main transmission line, etc.) economic considerations are often
subordinated to the reliability.

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1.8 Classification of Relays

Protective relays may be classified

I. According to construction and principle of operation

II. According to their applications
III. According to their timing characteristics
IV. Based upon numbers of input

(I) According To Construction And Principle Of Operation

According to construction and principle of operation relay may be classified as:

(i) Electromagnetic Attraction Type

 Attracted Armature Type: In this type of relay, the operation depend upon
movement of an armature under the influence of attractive force due to
magnetic field set up by current flowing through the relay winding.
 Solenoid Type: This type of relay operation depends on the moment on
iron plunger core along the axis of solenoid.
(ii) Electromagnetic Induction Type: In this type of relay, the operation depends
on the movement of a metallic disc or cylinder free to rotate by the
interaction of induced eddy current and the alternating magnetic field
producing them.
(iii) Electro-Dynamic Type: In this type of relay, the moving member consist of a
coil free to rotate in the electromagnetic field.
(iv) Moving Coil Type: This type of relay moving member consists of a coil free
to rotate in the air gap of a permanent magnet.
(v) Thermal relay: In this type of relay, the movement depends upon the action of
heat produced by the current flowing through the elements of the relay.

(II) According to Application Of The Relay May Be Classified As:

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 (i) Overvoltage/Overcurrent/Over Power Relay: The relay operates where the
voltage or current or power rises above the specified value.
(ii) Under Voltage/Undercurrent/Under Power Relay: The relay operates when
the voltage or current or power fall below the specified value.
(iii) Directional or Reverse Current Relay: The relay operates when applied
current assumes a specified phase displacement with respect to the
applied voltage and the relay is compensated for fall in voltage.
(iv) Directional or Reverse Power Relay: This type of relay operates when the
power in the circuit flows in specific direction. A directional power relay is
so designed that it obtained its operating torque by interaction of
magnetic field derived from both voltage and current of the circuit to be
protected.
(v) Differential Relay: The relay operates when some specified phase or
magnitude difference between two or more electrical quantities occurs.
(vi) Distance Relay: In this relay, the operation depends upon the ratio of
voltage to the current flowing in the circuit to be protected.

(III) According To The Time Characteristic, The Relay Can Be

Divided Into The Following Classes:
(i) Instantaneous Relay: In this relay, the complete operation take place after a
very short (negligible) duration for the incidence current or other quantity
resulting in operation.
(ii) Definite Time Lag Relay: In this relay, the time of operation is sensibly
independent of the magnitude of the current or other quantity causing
operation.
(iii) Inverse Time Lag Relay: In these relays the time of operation is
approximately inversely proportional to the magnitude of current or other
quantity causing operation.
(iv) Inverse Definite Minimum Time (I.D.M.T.) Lag Relay: In this relay, the time of
operation is approximately inversely proportional to the smaller value of

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 current or other quantity causing operation and tends to be definite minimum
time as the value increases without limit.

In induction type of relay, the time lag may be achieved by employing a

permanent magnet which is so arrange that the relay rotor cuts the flux between
the poles of these magnets such a magnet is called as ‘drag’ magnet.

(IV) Based Upon Number of Inputs

(i) Single Input Relay (Level Detector): These relays have only one input
signal and are also known as level detector. Such relay continuously
monitor one electrical quantity and compare it with certain constant
reference base quantity. An example of this type of relay is an over
current relay.
(ii) Two Input Relay (Comparator): These relays have two input signals also
known as comparator. Such relay measure one quantity and compare it
with another quantity. The typical examples of such type of relays are
distance relay and differential relay. These comparators are of two
types amplitude comparator and phase comparator.
(iii) Multi-Input Relay/Comparator: Multi input comparator has more than
two input signals and are used for the realization of special
characteristics other than straight line or circles. These comparators are
also of two types i.e. multi input phase comparator and multi input
amplitude comparator.

1.9 Types of Protection

When a fault occurs on any part of electric power system; it must be cleared
quickly in order to avoid damage and/or interference with the rest of the system.
It is a usual practice to divide the protection scheme into two classes’ viz. Primary
protection and backup protection.

(a) Primary Protection: It is the protection scheme which is designed to protect

the component/ part of the power system. Referring to Fig.1.8, each line has

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 an over-current relay that protects the line. If fault occur on any line, it will be
cleared by its relay and circuit breaker. This forms the primary or main
protection and serves as first line of defense. The service record of primary
relying is very high with well over 90% of all operations being correct.
However, sometimes faults are not cleared by primary relay system because of
trouble within the relay wiring system or breaker. Under such conditions,
backup protection does the required job.

Fig. 1.8
(b) Backup Protection: It is the second line of defense in case of failure of
primary protection. It is designed to operate with sufficient time delay so that
primary relaying will be given enough time to function if it is able to do so.
Thus referring to Fig.1.8, relay ‘A’ provides backup protection for each of the
four lines. If a line fault is not cleared by its relay and breaker, the relay ‘A’ on
the group breaker will operate after a time delay and clear the entire group of
lines. It is evident that when backup relaying functions, the larger part is
disconnected than when primary relaying functions correctly. Therefore,
greater emphasis should be placed on the better maintenance of primary
relaying. Time graded schemes such as over current or distance protection
schemes are the examples of those providing inherent backup protection.
The backup protection is further classified as following three types

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(a) Remote Backup Protection: When a backup relay is located at a neighboring
station, they back up the entire primary protective scheme which includes the
relay circuit breaker, potential transformer, current transformer and other
elements as in case of primary protective scheme. It is widely used backup
protection for transmission lines and a cheapest and the simplest form of
backup protection. It will not fail due to the factors causing the failure of
primary protection, this is most desirable form of protection.
(b) Relay Backup Protection: This is a local backup. Backup protection is provided
by placing an additional relay. It trips the same circuit breaker if the primary
relay fails and its operation takes place without delay. This is very costly, so it
is placed where a remote backup is not possible. They should be supplied
from separate current and potential transformer.
(c) Breaker Backup Protection: This is also a local backup protection. This is
necessary for a bus bar system where a number of circuit breakers are
connected to it. A circuit breaker fails to trip, when a protective relay operates
in response to a fault, this fault is treated as bus bar fault. If the proper
breaker does not trip within a specified time then after a time delay, the main
relay closes the contact a backup relay which trips all other circuit breakers on
the bus.

2 Protective Relays
In this chapter we will discuss different types of protective relays.

2.1 Overcurrent Relays

The Operation of all overcurrent relays tends to become asymptotic to a definite

minimum value with increase in the value of current. This is inherent in
electromagnetic relay due to saturation of magnetic circuit, so by varying the
point of saturation different characteristics are obtained.

2.1.1 Classification of Overcurrent Relay

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Depending upon the time of operation, the relays are classified as:

(I) Instantaneous overcurrent relay

(II) Time overcurrent relay
(a) Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
(b) Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay
(i) Inverse Definite Minimum Time Overcurrent (I.D.M.T.) Relay
(ii) Very Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay
(iii) Extremely Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay
(I) Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay: This relay operates without intentional time
delay. It has a special advantage of reducing the time of operation to a
minimum for fault close to the source when the fault current is very high. The
operating time is approximately 10 mS. The construction of instantaneous
relay is usually moving armature, plunger or induction disc (Fig.2.1). This relay
is effective only when the impedance between the relay and source (ZS) is
very small as compared to protective
section impedance (ZL).

Fig.2.1

An important characteristic of an instantaneous relay is drop out ratio.

Dropout ratio is usually less than 1.

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(II) Time Overcurrent Relay: This relay operates with a time delay. The time delay
is adjustable for a given setting, actual time delay depends on the current
flowing through the relay coil. In general, higher current flow will cause a
faster operation of relay. The minimum current at which the relay operates
(pickup current) is also adjustable. Time overcurrent relay can be classified
as:
(a) Definite Time Overcurrent Relay: It operates after a pre calculated time when
current become higher than its pick value. Fig.2.2 shows the definite time
characteristics of overcurrent relay. As shown in Fig.2.2, the operating time is
constant above the pickup value irrespective of magnitude of current.
(b) Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay: It operates when current exceeds its pick up
value. This relay has inverse time characteristics in which fault current
increases with decrement in operating time. When saturation occurs at a very
early stage than time of operation remain same. Fig.2.2 shows the inverse
time current characteristics of inverse time overcurrent relay. They are more
inverse near the pick-up value of actuating quantity and less inverse as it is
increased. They may be classified as:
(i) Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Overcurrent Relay: In I.D.M.T. relay the
operating time is inversely proportional to the fault current near its pickup
value and constant about a pickup value of relay. This relay gives an inverse
time characteristics at lower values of fault currents and definite time
characteristic at its higher value of fault currents.

This type of relay is used for protection of distribution line and provision for
current and time settings.

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 Fig. 2.2: Characteristic of various over current relays.

(ii) Very Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay: In this relay, the saturation of the core
occurs at later stage. It gives more inverse characteristics lies between an
I.D.M.T. characteristics and extremely inverse characteristics as shown in
Fig.2.2.

It can be used where and I.D.M.T. relay failed due to better selectivity.
Calculation of time current characteristics is:

Where n = 1.02 to 2; K = Constant.

(iii) Extremely Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay: In this relay, the saturation
occurs at a still later stage. This characteristic is more inverse than that of
very inverse and I.D.M.T. relay as shown in Fig.2.2. Where I.D.M.T. and vary
inversely relays are fails, the extremely relays are employed. Its time-current
characteristics is described by
2
I t=K
Where, I= operating current and t=operating time.
This relay is very suitable for machine's protection against overheating and
protection of alternator against overloads and internal faults. An extremely inverse
relay is able to distinguish between a fault current and inrush current due to its

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steep time current characteristics. So that this relay is suitable for load restoration
purpose.

2.2 Electromagnetic Relays

Most of the relays in service on the electric power system today are of
electromechanical type. They work on the following two main operating principle.
(Based on the principle of operation), these can be further classified into two
groups:

(i) Electromagnetic attraction type relay

(ii) Electromagnetic induction type relay

2.2.1 Electromagnetic Attraction Type Relay

These relays operate by virtue of an armature attracted to the poles of an

electromagnetic or a plunger being drawn into a solenoid such relays may be
actuated by DC or AC quantities.

Operating Principle: The electromagnetic force exerted on the moving elements is

proportional to square of the flux in air gap. If saturation is neglected, the flux is
proportional to square of operating current, we get

Such relays are normally used for DC operating quantities but they can also be
used for AC operation by providing shading regions on their poles to split air flux
into two out of phase components. These relays are not suitable for continuous
operation on AC in the pickup position because there would be excessive vibration
and noise.

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The important type of electromagnetic attraction type relays are:

(a) Attracted armature type relay

(b) Balance beam type relay
(c) Solenoid type relay

(a) Attraction Armature Type Relay

Attraction armature type relay are simplest type of relays. These relays have a
coil or an electromagnet energized by a coil. The coil is energized to circuit
current or voltage. A plunger or rotating iron vane is subjected to the action of
magnetic field produced by the operating quantity. It is basically a single actuating
quantity relay.

Fig,2.3

Fig.2.3 shows the schematic arrangement of an attraction armature type relay. It

consists of a laminated electromagnet 'M' carrying a coil 'C' and armature 'D' with
spring 'S'. The armature is balanced by a spring. The magnetic coil is tapped at
intervals and tapping points are brought out of a number of terminals and
contacts on a plug section bridge. So number of turns in use and consequently the
setting value at which relay operates may varied. When a short circuit occurs, the

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current through the relay coil increased sufficiently and the relay armature is
attracted toward the electromagnet which closes the trip circuit of circuit breaker.
Electromagnet are usually instantaneous type. A definite time lag can be obtained
by using an oil dash pot or an escapement chamber or a clock work mechanism.
The oil dash pot or air escapement chamber must be widened at one end so that
there should be a free movement over the last part of the stroke to make good
contact. By placing a fuse in parallel with an instantaneous or definite time lag
relay, it can be made as inverse time lag relay.

(b) Balance Beam Type Relay

Fig.2.4 shows the schematic arrangement of balance beam type relay. It
consists of an iron armature fastened to balance beam. Under normal operating
conditions, the current flows through the relay coil is such that the beam is held in
the horizontal position. However, when a fault occurs, the current through the
relay coil become greater than pickup value and the beam is attracted to close the
trip circuit. This causes the opening of circuit breaker to the isolate the faulty
circuit.

Fig.2.4

(c) Solenoid Type Relay

Fig.2.5 shows a schematic arrangement of a solenoid type relay. It consists of a

solenoid and movable iron plungers. Under normal operating conditions, the
current through the relay coil C is such that it hold the plunger by gravity or spring

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in the position shown. However, on the occurrence of fault, the current through
the relay coil becomes more than the pickup value causing the plunger to be
attracted to the solenoid. The upward movement of the plunger closes the trip
circuit, thus opening the circuit breaker and disconnecting the faulty circuit. Such
relay is used for overcurrent protection. This type of relay is usually instantaneous
type but can be made a definite time lag or inverse time lag by using an oil dash
pot, an oil escapement chamber, a clockwork mechanism or by placing a fuse in
parallel with the relay.

Fig.2.5

2.2.2 Electromagnetic Induction Relays

Electromagnetic induction relay operates on the principle of induction motor

and are widely used for protecting relaying purpose involving AC quantities. They
are not used with DC quantities owing to the principle of operation. An induction
relay essentially consists of a pivoted aluminum disc placed in two magnetic fields
of the same frequency but displaced in time and space. The torque is produced in
the disc by interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the current induced in
the disc by the other.

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 (a) (b) (c)

Fig.2.6

To understand the production of torque in an induction relay refer to the elementary

arrangement shown in Fig.2.6. The two AC fluxes ɸA and ɸB differing in phase by an angle θ is
responsible to induced EMF in the disc and causes the circulation of eddy current i1 andi2
respectively. The current lags behind their respective flux by 900.

Referring to Fig.2.6 where the two flux and induced current are shown
separately for clarity,

Let

Assuming that path in which the rotor currents flow has negligible self-inductance,
the rotor currents will be in phase with their voltages.

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Thus, the induction relay is a sine comparative in which the maximum torque is
o o 0 o
developed. When θ =90 or 270 , and zero when θ =0 or 180 .

2.2.2.1 Classification of Induction Relay

The following type of structure are commonly used for obtaining the phase
difference in the fluxes and hence the operating torque in the induction relays

(a) Shaded pole structure

(b) Watt hour meter/ double winding structure
(c) Induction cup structure

(a) Shaded Pole Structure

The relay consists an operating coil which is fed by actuating current. The
general arrangement of shaded pole structure is shown in Fig2.7. It consists
of a pivoted aluminum disc to rotate in the air gap of an electromagnetic.
One half of each pole of a magnet is surrounded by a copper band known
as shading ring. The alternating flux ɸS in the shaded portion of the pole will
owing to the reaction of current induced in the ring, lag behind the flux ɸU
in the unshaded portion by an angle θ, these two AC fluxes differing in
phase will produce the necessary torque to rotate the disc. As proved
earlier, the driving torque T is given by .
Assuming the flux ɸS and ɸU to be proportional to the current I in the
relay coil,

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 This shows that driving torque is proportional to the square of current in
the relay coil. Such torque control is employed where directional feature is
required.

Fig.2.7

(b) Watt Hour Meter Structure

This structure gets its name from the fact that it is used in watt hour meter.
The general arrangement of this type of relay is shown in Fig. 2.8. It consists of a
pivoted aluminum disc arrangement to rotate freely between the poles of two
electromagnet. The upper electromagnet carries two windings; the primary and
secondary. The primary winding carries the relay current i1 while the secondary
winding is connected in series with load of the lower magnet. The primary current
induces EMF in the secondary and so circulates a current i2 in it. The fluxɸ2
induced in the lower magnet by the current in secondary winding of the upper
magnet will lag behind ɸ1by an angle θ. The two fluxesɸ1 andɸ2 differing in phase by
θ will produced a driving torque on the disc proportional to ɸ1ɸ2sinθ.

Fig.2.8

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 An important feature of this type of relay is that its operation can be controlled
by opening or closing the secondary winding circuit. If this circuit is opened no
flux can be set up by the lower magnet. However, greater value of current in the
primary winding may be and consequently not torque will be produced. Therefore,
the relay can be made inoperative by opening the secondary winding circuit.

Closing of contacts carried on arm attached to the spindle which closes the trip
circuit of circuit breaker.

(c) Induction Cup Structure Relay

Fig.2.9 shows the general arrangement of an induction Cup structure. It most

closely resembles to an induction motor except that the rotor iron is stationary
only the rotor conductor position free to rotate. The moving element is a hollow
cylindrical rotor which turns on its axis. The rotating field is produced by two pairs
of coils wound on four poles as shown in Fig.2.9. The rotating field induces
current in the cup to provide the necessary driving torque. If ɸ1 and ɸ2 represents
the fluxes produced by the respective pair of poles. The torque produced is
proportional to ɸ1ɸ2Sinθ, where θ is phase difference between two fluxes. A control
spring and back stop or closing of the contact carried on an arm are attached to
the spindle of the cup to prevent the continuous rotation.

Fig.2.9

Induction Cup structure are more efficient torque producer than either the
shaded pole or watt hour meter structure. Therefore, this type of relay has very

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high speed and may have an operating time less than 0.1 second. The ratio of
reset to pick-up is inherently high in case of induction relays as compared to
electromagnetic (attraction type) relays as their operation does not involve any
change in air gap of the magnetic circuit.

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