Welding Technology Lecture Notes Part 2 - Prof DR Emel TABAN Sept 2021

Kocaeli University
Engineering Faculty
Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering
Welding Technology
2021-2022 Fall
Additional Slides- After the midterm exam
Contents:
SMAW
SAW
GTAW (TIG)
GMAW (MIG-MAG)
FCAW
PAW
• Instructor
– Prof. Dr. Emel TABAN
Welding Technology 2021-2022 1

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Working principle
• In addition to establishing the arc and supplying filler metal for the weld deposit,
the electrode introduces other materials into or around the arc. Depending upon
the type of electrode being used, the covering performs one or more of the
following functions.
• Provides a gas to shield the arc and prevent excessive atmospheric contamination
of the molten filler metal as it travels across the arc.
• Provides scavengers, deoxidizers, and fluxing agents to cleanse the weld and
prevent excessive grain growth in the weld metal.
• Establishes the electrical characteristics of the electrode.
• Provides a slag blanket to protect the hot weld metal
from the air and enhance the mechanical
properties, bead shape, and surface ELECTRODE (CORE)
COVERING
cleanliness of the weld metal.
• Provides a means of adding GAS SHIELDING
alloying elements to change SOLID DEPOSIT MATERIAL DURING TRANSFER

the mechanical properties of SOLID SLAG
LIQUID SLAG
the weld metal. MOLTEN POOL
Weld penetration

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Main features
• This is the most widely used method for general welding applications.
• It is also refereed to as metallic arc, manual metal-arc, or stick-electrode
welding.
• Advantages.
– The SMAW process can be used for
welding most structural and alloy steels.
– This welding process can be used in
all positions--flat, vertical, horizontal, or
overhead--and requires only the
simplest equipment.
– SMAW lends itself very well to field work
• Disadvantages.
– Slag removal, unused electrode stubs, and spatter add to the cost of SMAW.
(Unused electrode stubs and spatter account for about 44 percent of the
consumed electrodes.)
– Another cost is the entrapment of slag in the form of inclusions, which may
have to be removed.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
SMAW Advantages
• Easily
implemented
• Inexpensive
• Flexible
• Not as sensitive to
part fit-up
variances
Underwater welding with SMAW

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Limitations
• Low deposition
rates
• Low productivity
• Requires high level
of manual welder
skills
• Welding fume

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Characteristics of SMAW
• Outgrowth of original welding process
developed in the early 20th century
• Most widely-used process worldwide
• Normally performed manually by skilled
welders
• Equipment and consumable costs are low
• Extremely versatile
• Productivity low
• Defect rates relatively high
• Fume generation rates high
• Generally considered “low tech”
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Quality Issues
• Discontinuities associated
with manual welding
process that utilize flux
for pool shielding
– Slag inclusions
– Lack of fusion
• Other possible effects on
quality are porosity, and
hydrogen cracking
Lack-of-fusion defects
in two-sided SMA weld

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Welding circuit and power sources
Power unit features
ELECTRODE
POWER
• DC/AC output, constant current SOURCE
• Short circuit current is generally low,

• Open circuit Voltage can reach 80V
• They can be of the transformer + WELDING BASE
rectifier type or inverter units METAL
20
Volume [dm3]
1
50 Frequency [H z] 100 k

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Types of covered electrodes
• Cellulosic electrodes
– Electrodes of this type cellulosic material in the form of wood flour or reprocessed low
alloy electrodes have up to 30 percent paper.
– These gases tend to produce a digging arc that provides deep penetration.
– The weld deposit is somewhat rough, and the spatter is at a higher level than other
electrodes.
– It is normally used with direct current with the electrode positive (reverse polarity).
– Typical application is for the pipeline welding
• Rutile and acid electrodes
– Electrodes with this coating have a quiet arc, an easily controlled slag, and a low level
of spatter.
– the penetration will be less than with the cellulose electrode.
– The weld metal properties will be slightly lower than the cellulosic types.
– For the rutile type, the weld deposit will have a smooth surface
– Typical application is for structural components

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Types of covered electrodes
• Basic electrodes
– Coatings contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate or calcium fluoride.

– The lowest possible hydrogen content in the arc atmosphere is one of the
main features.
– These electrode have superior weld metal properties. They provide the
highest ductility of any of the deposits.
– These electrodes have a medium arc with medium or moderate penetration
and require special welding techniques for best results.
– Low hydrogen electrodes must be stored under controlled conditions.
– This type is normally used with direct current with electrode positive
• There are many types of coatings other than those mentioned here, most of
which are usually combinations of these types.
• Not all the types of electrodes are available for every material, both ferrous and
non-ferrous

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Chemical composition of the covering
Iron powder
Cellulose
ELEMENT ELEMENT IN THE DEPOSITION

COVERING DURING
WELDING

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Electrode storage
AIR MOISTURE CONTENT
• Electrodes must be kept dry as moisture
ELECTRODE MOISTURE CONTENT

destroys the desirable characteristics of the
coating and may cause excessive spattering and
lead to the formation of cracks in the welded area.
• Basic electrodes exposed to damp air for more

than two or three hours should be dried by heating
in a suitable oven for two hours at (350°C).
• After they have dried, they should be stored in a

moisture proof container.
• DAYS OF STORAGE
(Elettrodi(BASIC
Basici)ELECTRODES)
• Other electrodes are generally kept unexposed to
air.
• Bending the electrode can cause the coating to

break loose from the core wire. Electrodes should
not be used if the core wire is exposed.
ELECTRODE DRYING OVENS
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Deposition rates – electrodes efficiency
The electrodes containing iron power in the coating have the highest deposition rates.
In the United States, the percentage of iron power in a coating is in the 10 to 50 percent range.
This is based on the amount of iron power in the coating versus the coating weight. This is
shown in the formula:
The European method of specifying iron power

is based on the weight of deposited weld metal
versus the weight of the bare core wire
consumed.
This is shown as follows:

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Welding parameters
Tipical current values
FLAT UPHILL DOWNHILL
300
250
200
Corrente [A]
150 A. current, Voltage, arc lenght are correct

100 B. Low current
50 C. High current
0 D. Arc too short
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 E. Arc too long
Diametro [mm] F. Speed too low
Arroweld Filarc Lincoln G. Speed to high
ETC ESAB

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Electrode Designation according to EN 499 –
low alloyed C-Mn steels

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Electrode Designation according to AWS (A 5.1)
Cellulose-sodium (EXX10)
Cellulose-potassium (EXX11)
Rutile-sodium (EXX12)
Rutile-potassium (EXX13)
Rutile-iron powder (EXXX4)
Low hydrogen-sodium (EXXX5)
Low hydrogen-potassium (EXXX6)
Low hydrogen-potassium-iron
powder (EXXX7).
Low hydrogen-iron powder (EXXX8)
Low hydrogen-high iron
powder (EXX28)
Iron oxide-sodium (EXX20)
Rutile-iron powder (EXXX4)

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
SMAW Electrode Classification Example

(due to AWS)
E7018
• “E” indicates “stick” electrode
• 70 indicates nominal 70 ksi tensile
strength
• 1 indicates use for welding in all positions
• 8 indicates low hydrogen coating
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Features
• The joining of metals is produced by heating with
an arc or arcs between a bare metal electrode or
electrodes and the work.
• The arc is shielded by a blanket of granular
fusible material on the work.
• Filler metal is obtained from the electrode with a
possible a supplementary welding wire.
• The flux close to the arc melts and intermixes with
the molten weld metal, helping to purify and fortify
it .
• The flux forms a glass-like slag that is lighter in
weight than the deposited weld metal and floats
on the surface as a protective cover; therefore the
arc is not visible.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Submerged Arc Welding
Characteristics
• Developed in 1950’s
• Uses bare wire filler metal and granular flux
• Equipment costs moderately high
• Very high deposition rates and travel speeds possible
• Limited to horizontal position
• Generally not used in the field
• Fume generation relatively low

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Advantages
• No arc flash or glare

• Minimal smoke and fumes
• Flux and wire added
separately - extra dimension of
control
• High deposition rates
• Joints can be prepared with
narrow grooves

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Limitations
• Slag removal required
• Flux is subject to contamination
and porosity
• Normally not suitable for thin
material
• Restricted to the flat position for
grooves - flat and horizontal for
fillets
• Flux handling equipment
required

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Advantages, limitations and major use
• Advantages
– high quality of the weld metal.
– extremely high deposition rate and speed.
– smooth, uniform finished weld with no spatter.
– little or no smoke, no arc flash, thus minimal need for
protective clothing.
– normally, no involvement of manipulative skills.
• Limitations:
– Welding positions
– In semiautomatic submerged arc welding, the inability
to see the arc and puddle can be a disadvantage in
reaching the root of a groove weld and properly filling
or sizing.
• The submerged arc process is widely used in heavy steel plate fabrication work
(welding of structural shapes, longitudinal seam of larger diameter pipe,
manufacture of machine components for all types of heavy industry, manufacture
of vessels and tanks for pressure and storage use).
• The high metallurgical properties make it a common process also for pressure
vessels manufacturing (with every king of steel and weldable nickel alloy)
• It is also used for surfacing and buildup work, maintenance, and repair.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Field of applications and use
• Metals weldable and thickness range. Submerged arc welding is used to weld
low- and medium-carbon steels, low-alloy high-strength steels, quenched and
tempered steels, many stainless steels
and some nickel alloys.
• Experimentally, it has been used

to weld certain copper alloys,
nickel alloys, and even uranium.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Equipment

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Welding equipment
• The power source for submerged arc welding must be rated for a 100
percent duty cycle, with size from 300 amperes to 1500 amperes
• Direct current power is used for semiautomatic applications, but
alternating current power is used primarily with the machine or the
automatic method.
• For semiautomatic application, a welding gun and cable assembly are
used to carry the electrode and current and to provide the flux at the
arc.
• For automatic welding, the torch is attached to
• the . the wire feed motor and includes current pickup tips for
transmitting the welding current to the electrode wire. The flux hopper
is normally attached to torch, and may have magnetically operated
valves which can be opened or closed by the control system.
Welding Technology 2021-2022 Prof.Dr. Emel Taban 28

Welding current
– Welding current affects:
– Wire feed rate;
– Depth of penetration;
– Fused flux.
– In submerged arc welding, current may

range in very wide fields of work
– DCEP is mainly in welding, as it gives higher penetration

– DCEN increases wire feed rate, results in lower penetration and (lower
dilution rates); it is mainly used for cladding;
– AC results in intermediate properties, giving neglectable magnetic blow
effects
Welding Technology 2021-2022 29/29

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Welding Voltage
The arc voltage is varied within narrower limits than welding current; it
affects:
– Wideness of each pass
– Amount of flux involved in welding
– High voltages will cause the bead to be wider and flatter. Extremely high
arc voltage should be avoided, since it can cause porosities and cracking.
Higher arc voltage also increases the amount of flux consumed.
– The low arc voltage produces a stiffer arc that improves penetration,
particularly in the bottom of deep grooves. If the voltage is too low, a very
narrow bead will result. With a slag difficult to be removed.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Welding speed
• Travel speed influences both bead width and penetration.
– Faster travel speeds produce narrower beads that have less
penetration. This can be an advantage for sheet metal welding where
small beads and minimum penetration are required. If speeds are too
fast, however, there is a tendency for undercut and porosity, since the
weld freezes quicker.
– If the travel speed is too slow, the electrode stays in the weld puddle
too long. This creates poor bead shape and may cause excessive
spatter and flash through the layer of flux.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Other welding variables
75 mm
• The distance between the current

pickup tip and the arc, called
electrode “stickout,“ has a
considerable effect on the weld.
• If the stickout is increased, it will
Deposition rate [Kg/h]

cause preheating of the electrode
wire: 25 mm
– increase of the deposition rate.
– the penetration into the base
metal decreases.
• Normal values are 25 to 38 mm (in
general 8 times the wire diameter)
Corrente [A]
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Other welding variables
• Depth of the flux layer
– If it is too thin, there will be too much
arcing through the flux or arc flash.
Resulting in porosity.
– If the flux depth is too heavy, the
weld may be narrow and humped.
• Wire diameter
– Smaller diameters will result in
higher deposition rate and
penetration
AS THERE IS NO VISUAL CHECK DURING WELDING,

QUALIFICATION OF WELDING PROCEDURES
BECOMES VERY IMPORTANT

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Welding consumables
SUBMERGED ARC FLUXES
FUSED FLUXES MIXED FLUXES AGGOLMERATED FLUXES
ACID NEUTRAL BASIC
The weld metal properties depend on the flux wire combination

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Fused fluxes
The fabrication process is composed by the following phases
- Melting of the components
- Solidification in vat
- Milling in appropriately sized particles
This results in:
- poor metallurgical effects
- high welding speeds
- possibility of reusing the flux, and neglectable storage problems
Moreover the weld bead is enriched in Si content
USED WITH MEDIUM/HIG Mn WIRES

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Agglomerated fluxes
The fluxed are produced by:
– Milling previous to heating
– Heating in Owens to agglomerate (with specific
substances)
This results in:
– More fitted results for the chemical properties of
the weld metal
– Problems for flux storage and treatment
– Difficulties in recycling the flux
– Chemical properties are strongly dependent on
welding parameters
USED WITH LOW Mn WIRES

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
EN 756:1997 : Wires and wire-flux combination

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
EN 756:1997 : Wires and wire-flux combination
Wire-flux combination EN 756 - S 46 3 AB S2
- S is for Submerged arc welding
- 46 is for the tensile properties
of the weld metal
- 3 is for the fracture toughness
(47J)
- AB is for the composition of
the flux
- S2 is for the wire composition

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
SAW Flux / Filler Metal Compositions
F7A2-EM12K
• F indicates flux
– 70-95 ksi UTS, 58 ksi minimum yield strength, 22% elongation
– A - as welded; P - postweld heat treated
– 2 - minimum impact properties of 20 ft-lbs @ 20°F
• E indicates electrode (EC - composite electrode)
– M - medium manganese per AWS Specifications
– 12 - 0.12% nominal carbon content in electrode
– K - produced from a heat of aluminum killed steel

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
UNI EN 760: Submerged arc welding fluxes
Welding flux EN 760 - S F CS 1 67

AC H10
- S is for Submerged arc welding
- F is the type o flux (F/A/M)
- CS is the composition of the flux
- 1 is for the application and the class
- 6 7 are referred to metallurgical
behavior
- AC is the type of current (AC/DC)
- H 10 is the Hydrogen content
Application and class Digits
1 Welding of low alloyed steels Si Mn metallurgical behaviour

2 Welding of high alloyed steels and nichel alloys C Cr
3 Cladding and hardfacing C Cr

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Flux – wire combination AWS A 5.17
AWS A 5.17 F S X X X - E X XX K - HX
Reference standard
SAW flux
If reported, refers to a re-usable flux
Tensile strength, divided for 10.000 (es. 7 is for 70

KPsi, about 500 Mpa)
Heat treatment to obtain such properties
(A: As welded; P: PWHT)
Fracture toughness (20 ft x lb), to be multiplied by -10
(es. 6 = 20 ft x lb @ -60 °C)
SAW electrode
Optional
Type of wire:
Carbon content, x 100 (Hdm) in ml/100g:
- L: low Mn
- H2: <2 ml/100g
- M: medium Mn If present, high Si wire - H4: 2÷4 ml/100g
- H: High Mn
- H8: 8÷16 ml/100g
- C: Cored
- H16: >16 ml/100g
- G: Without requirements
- CG: cored without requirements
Welding Technology 2021-2022 Prof.Dr. Emel Taban 41
AWS A 5.17

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Flux wire combination: AWS A 5.17
43
Welding Technology 2021-2022
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Flux – wire combination: AWS A 5.17M
44
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Joint preparation: High current welding

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Welding of T-Joints

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Multipass welding
Narrow gap welding

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Application of the process: tube welding

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Application of the process: pressure vessels
Adaptative control

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Narrow gap welding
Narrow Gap - tandem welding unit

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Multiple wire welding
– Two different techniques are

available:
– Tandem
– Twin arc
5 filler (Long. Tubi)
3 filler (Panel – line)

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Cladding

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Characteristics
• Variation on original “carbon-arc” process

• Also referred to as “TIG” and “HeliArc”
• Uses non-consumable tungsten electrode
• Equipment costs are moderate
• High productivity and travel speeds in thin sections
• Process is very clean
• Easily automated and can be integrated with wire feeder
• Sensors can be used reliably for monitor and control
• Fume generation is low

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Advantages
• High quality
• Precise control of arc
and fusion
characteristics
• Intricate geometries
weldable
• Easily mechanized
• Used with or without
filler material GTAW of Stainless Steel Bellows

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Disadvantages
• Less economical than

consumable electrode
processes for sections
thicker than 3/8 inch
• Tungsten inclusions
• High operator skill required
for manual welding
• Sensitive to drafts (loss of
shielding)

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Gas tungsten arc welding definition
The gas tungsten arc welding is an arc welding process which

produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc between a
tungsten (nonconsumable) electrode and the work.
The area of the arc is enveloped in a protective gas shield which
protects the fused zone and electrode from contamination.
Filler metal may or may not be used.
If utilised, the filler rod is added by hand; in the mechanised process,
the filler wire is added by external feed rollers.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Welding abbreviations
1 -The gas tungsten arc welding is identified by the American standards

with the abbreviation:
G.T.A.W.: Gas Tungsten Arc Welding.
2-The gas tungsten arc welding is identified by the European standards
with the abbreviation:
T.I.G.: Tungsten Inert Gas.
There is also a reference number defined by the European Standard EN
ISO 4063 (Welding and allied processes – Nomenclature of processes
and reference numbers) that is: 141

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Advantages of TIG process
Filler metal transfer

Wide field of
without loss of alloy
current regulation
components
Capacity of welding a big Very good metallurgical

range of thicknesses starting characteristics of the
from about 0,15 [mm] welding seams

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Advantages of TIG process
High ad concentrated Stable and easily controllable

energy source welding arc
Deformation reduction
Reduction of grain size increasing Welding seam very smooth
Reduction of and regular
heat affected zone

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Disadvantages of TIG process
Low filler metal deposition rate Difficult managing of

torch and filler metal
Low productivity rate High skill level of welder
Brighter arc than SMAW and

GMAW process
Care should be taken to protect skin with

the proper clothing and protect eyes with the
correct shade lens in the welding hood
61
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Application field of TIG process
1-Thickness range for TIG process
The welding thicknesses range of TIG changes from 0,15 [mm] to 10
[mm]. The TIG process is particularly used for the first pass where
isn’t possible the back gouging and back weld.
For thicknesses greater than 5 [mm], after the first pass with TIG
process, is better utilise more productive processes like SMAW and
GMAW
However, when we want achieve a particular soundness of the
welding seam is possible to weld big thicknesses with multipass
technique.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
2-TIG application examples

The TIG process has substituted the oxyacetylene process in the
circumferential welds of pipes with small thickness and diameter.
In this case, TIG process eliminates the risk of lack of fusion that is a
typical defect that can occur with the oxyacetylene process. This
defect is very dangerous because isn’t easily detectable with non
destructive tests, but only with destructive test like bend or tensile
test.
Moreover the TIG process decreases the risk of grain growth (that
determines a an impact properties reduction of the joint) and welding
deformations.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
3-Automatism of TIG process

1) manual;
2) fully mechanised;
3) automatic;
4) robotized;
Typical automatic application are tubes to tube-
sheets welding and orbital circumferential butt welds
of tubes.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Basic TIG equipment schema
Power supply
Welding torch
Flowmeter Shielding gas supply
Filler metal Regulator
Cooling water input Work lead

Cooling water output

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
TIG equipment
The main components of T.I.G. equipment are:

• power supply and electric circuit;
• shielding gas system with:
- gas cylinder;
- flowmeter and gas saver;
- gas circuit to the torch;
• cable carrier with:
- electric circuit;
- water cooling system when necessary
- gas circuit;
• welding torch

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
TIG equipment
On the power supply there is a regulation panel for

the section and control of welding parameters.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Welding torch components
Torch plug
Torch plug
Teflon seal
Gas lens
Tungsten electrode clamp
Ceramic orifice

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Welding torch
Torch plug
Refractory
orifice
Tungsten electrode

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Welding torch description
The most important elements of a welding torch are:
1) a non consumable electrode of tungsten or tungsten and oxides;
2) gas nozzles;
3) torch plug;
4) gas lens;
5) torch cooling system;
The torch cooling system is constituted by the shielding gas for welding
torches that are connected to current generators till 200 [A]. For greater
power sources the torches are cooled with a water cooling system. A
water cooling system has the consequence:
- of more heavy and bulky torch ;
- some leaks of the water circuit may contaminate the shielding gas.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Effects of Polarity

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Direct current electrode negative (DCEN)
1)More stable arc

Torch
2)Greater penetration
- 3)Greater execution speed
Eelectrode = 30% Etot
+ Ework piece = 70% Etot

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
DCEN characteristics
The tungsten electrode has a great thermo-electronic power that creates
a big electron emission giving a shielding action on the positive ions that
arrive on the electrode. For this reason, the positive ions that, from the
work piece, are directed on the electrode have a low kinetic energy.
On the contrary, the work-piece is subjected to a dense electron
bombardment with high speed.
For this reason, it is increased the seam depth and the localised arc
energy decreases the seam width.
With this type of current 70 [%] of the energy is on the piece and 30 [%]
on the electrode. The electrode consumption is very low also at high
energy.
DCEN isn’t able to eliminate the surface refractory oxide that is
generated on the aluminium and aluminium alloys.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Direct current electrode positive (DCEP)
1)Greater electrode heating

2)Tungsten inclusion risks
Torch
3)Ionic blasting
+ 4) Very low currents
- Ework piece = 30% Etot

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
DCEP characteristics
DCEP produces great electrode heating determining the tip fusion that
assumes a balled shape. The consequence is the transfer of tungsten
particles to the welding pool that generate often unacceptable defects
(tungsten inclusions).
DCEP advantage is the breaking of the oxide refractory film present on
the welding surfaces of aluminium and aluminium alloys.
On aluminium is present Al2O3 that has a melting temperature over
2000 [°C]. For this reason, is necessary a mechanical or chemical
cleaning of the welding bevels. Nevertheless, during welding this oxide
rises again on the welding pool. This film is solid while under the film
there is a liquid metal. Then the welder doesn’t feel the fusion and
creates a melt trough defect.
With DCEP is possible to break the oxide film because the work-piece
is in a negative polarity. Then, there is a positive ion bombardment that
have a mass greater than electrons and provokes a ionic blasting effect.
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
DCEP characteristics
Nevertheless, DCEP is rarely used because isn’t possible utilise high

current levels otherwise there is an excessive electrode heating and
consumption.
The welding seam is wider and gives poor penetration.
The maximum achievable current is about 100 [A] with a tungsten
electrode of 6 [mm] of diameter.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Alternating current (AC)
1) Use of higher currents than

Torch DCEP
2)Lower ionic blasting than DCEP
3) Arc less stable than DCEN
Ework-piece = 50% Etot

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
AC characteristics
AC is used in for the blasting ionic effect necessary in the welding of

aluminium and magnesium alloys. The positive ions, more heavy than
electrons, clean the piece during the half period when the electrod is
connected to the positive polarity destroying the oxide film that doesnt’
permit the base material fusion.
With AC current use the arc re-ignition, during the half period when the
electrode is connected to positive polarity is more difficult: for this
reason, there is a “ rectification effect”.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
AC characteristics
• Comparison of two half periods
with DCEN and DCEP polarity:
Empty voltage – V1<V2
– I1>I2
– t1>t2
V1
Arc voltage • These relations define the
“Rectification effect”;
• in order to have an an easier re-
ignition is possible superimpose
V2 an high voltage and high
t1 frequency current, but with low
amperage. This current creates
I1 an ionised arc atmosphere during
Current the stop of the arc improving the
t2 arc re-ignition.
I2
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Pulsed current
Pulsed current has some advantages in comparison the standard
TIG:
1) Good penetration with less heat input  reduction of hot cracks;
2) Less distortion;
3) Good control of the pool when welding out of position;
4) Ease of welding thin materials;
5) Ease of welding materials of dissimilar thickness levels;
6) depth/width ratio till 2 to 1 in the welding of stainless steels 
reduction of hot cracks;
7) sagging (seam concavity) reduction because high currents and the
short time of the pulsed mode gives the possibility to the weld pool of
rapidly cooling;
8) short heat affected zone;
9) gas inclusions reduction because the pulsed arc shakes the weld
pool and permits the gas discharge.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Pulsed current scheme
% O n tim e
P e a k a m p e ra g e
W e ld in g
A rc A rc
ig n itio n s to p
Current [A]
B a c k g ro u n d a m p e ra g e
T im e [se c ]
Peak Amperage —This value is usually set somewhat higher than it would be set for a non-pulsed GTAW
weld.
Background Amperage —This of course would be set lower than peak amperage.
Pulses Per Second —Is the number of times per second that the weld current achieves peak amperage.
% On Time —Is the pulse peak duration as a percentage of total time. It controls how long the peak
amperage level is maintained before it drops to the background value.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Current choice: EN 26848
Material
DC AC
EN EP
Aluminium (t  2.5 [mm]) 2 2 1
Aluminium (t>2.5 [mm])
and aluminium alloys
2 3 1
Magnesium and
magnesium alloys
3 2 1
1=Best results;
Carbon steels and
low alloyed steels
1 3 3 2=Acceptable results;
Stainless steels 1 3 3 3=Not recommended
Copper 1 3 3
Bronze 1 3 2
Copper-aluminium alloys 2 3 1
Silicon-Bronze 1 3 3
Nickel and nickel alloys 1 3 2
Titanium 1 3 2
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Current intensity: EN 26848

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Electrodes codification (EN 26848)
The non consumable electrodes utilised for G.T.A.W. are composed by pure
tungsten (Wolframium) or tungsten with some added oxides.
The added oxides are: ThO2, ZrO2, LaO2, CeO2.
The added quantity is variable from 0,3% to 4%.
The non consumable electrodes are classified by an European Standard EN
26848 (Tungsten electrodes for inert gas shielded arc welding and for plasma
cutting and welding. Codification).
The electrodes are identified by the standard with the following codification:
EN 26848 W T 10
W is the first letter of the main element (Wolframium); T is the first letter of the
added oxide (in this case thorium); 10 is the average percentage of oxide
content divided 10.
Therefore:EN 26848 W T 10 means an tungsten electrode with 1% of thorium.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
EN 26848: electrodes composition
The added oxides are usually finely dispersed in the tungsten matrix, but there some
electrodes defined “composites” that are constituted by a pure tungsten core covered with
oxides. These electrodes have the disadvantage that they can’t be tapered because in this
case they loss the oxide present on the surface.
All the electrodes, in function of the type of added oxide and of the added quantity have
an identification coloured ring on their extremity (see the following picture). The
“composites” electrodes have a second pink coloured ring.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
EN 26848: electrodes code, composition and colour
Composition
Code Colour
Oxides [%] Impurities [%] Tungsten [%]
WP /  0,20 99,8 Green
WT4 0,35 to 0,55 of ThO2  0,20 remainder Blue
WT10 0,80 to 1,20 of ThO2  0,20 remainder Yellow
WT20 1,70 to 2,20 of ThO2  0,20 remainder Red
WT30 2,80 to 3,20 of ThO2  0,20 remainder Violet
WT40 3,80 to 4,20 of ThO2  0,20 remainder Orange
WZ3 0,15 to 0,50 of ZrO2  0,20 remainder Brown
WZ8 0,70 to 0,90 of ZrO2  0,20 remainder White
WL10 0,90 to 1,20 of LaO2  0,20 remainder Black
WC20 1,80 to 2,20 of CeO
Welding
2 0,20 2021-2022remainder
Technology Grey 86
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Electrodes codification (AWS 5.12)
The non consumable electrodes are also classified by an American Standard
AWS 5.12 as indicated below:
Composition
Code Colour
Oxides [%] Oxides type Tungsten [%]
EWP / / 99,5 min. Green
EWCe-2 1,80 to 2,20 CeO2 97,3 min. Orange
EWLa-1.5 1,30 to 1,70 LaO2 97,8 min. Gold
EWLa-2 1,50 to 2,00 LaO2 97,5 min. Blue
EWTh-1 0,80 to 1,20 ThO2 98,3 min. Yellow
EWTh-2 1,70 to 2,20 ThO2 97,3 min. Red
EWZr-1 0,15 to 0,40 ZrO2 98,3 min. Brown
EWG 1,70 to 2,20 Rare earth 94,5 min. Grey 87
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Electrodes codification (AWS 5.12)

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Electrode currents (AWS 5.12)

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Pure tungsten electrodes (characteristics)
Pure tungsten electrodes are basically unalloyed; they contain a minimum of
99.5 [%] of tungsten. The use of tungsten depends from its very high melting
temperature: 3380 [°C].
These electrodes are known to be the most economical and are considered
good for general purpose welding. The tip will form a clean, balled end which
provides good arc stability on AC. They are used in AC for welding aluminium,
magnesium and their alloys.
Pure tungsten electrodes can be used on DCEN for welding steels, but they
are used with low current density because they can loss some particles from the
tip that can produce tungsten inclusions in the welding seam.
In the past pure tungsten was the best choice for AC GTAW, but today is
recommended the use of tungsten with added oxides instead of pure tungsten
when using an inverter-type power source in order to exploit square wave
technology that provides improved arc starts, more stable arcs, and balance
control.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Thoriated tungsten electrode (characteristics)
This is the most commonly used tungsten material because it was the first to
display a significant improvement over pure tungsten.
The percentage of added thorium oxide is in the field from 0,35 [%] to 4,2 [%]
as foreseen by EN 26848. The most utilised are that with 1 [%] (yellow) and 2
[%] (red) of thorium.
Compared with the pure tungsten they are more expensive, but have a greater
electron emission (low ionisation potential). This characteristic improves arc
stability and arc ignition. They operate with welding currents greater than those
utilised for pure tungsten, are less subject to deterioration and for this reason
have a greater life.
Thoriatied tungsten have an excellent resistance to contamination of tungsten
inclusions in the welding seam.
Generally used for DC electrode negative applications such as carbon steels,
stainless steels, copper alloys, nickel and nickel alloys, titanium. Thoriatied
tungsten electrodes contain thorium, a radioactive material that can pose health
and environmental risks at elevated exposure levels.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Ceriated tungsten electrode (characteristics)
This non-radioactive alternative to Thoriated Tungsten is the best when used
primarily in DC welding at low currents.
It has excellent arc starting capabilities at DCEN low currents and therefore it
has become the standard for many orbital tube and pipe welding equipment
manufacturers.
In addition, it is often used in other DCEN low amperage applications where
thin sheets, small or delicate parts are being welded. The most used
electrodes are those with 2 [%] of cerium (orange).
It would not be good for higher amperage applications, because the oxides
migrate very quickly to the heat at the tip of the electrode. Under these
conditions the oxide content and benefits are then removed. The ceriated
tungsten can be used also with AC even if is not its best application. The
cerium electrodes work well with the inverter power sources.
Generally used to weld carbon & stainless steels, nickel alloys, copper alloys
and titanium.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Lanthanum tungsten electrode (characteristics)
The lanthanated tungsten electrodes are ecological because the thorium oxide
has been substituted by non radioactive Lanthanum oxide.
The most used electrodes are EWLa-1 (1[%] Lanthanum, Black), EWLa-1.5
(1.5 [%] Lanthanum, Gold) and EWLa-2 (2 [%] Lanthanum, Blue).
The addition of 1 [%] or 2 [%] of Lanthanum oxide increases the maximum
current capacity of these electrodes of 50 [%] in comparison with the pure
tungsten with same electrode’s diameter using AC current.
The increase of lanthanum oxide percentage in the electrode increases also
the cost.
These electrodes have excellent arc starting, low-burn-off rate, arc stability,
and excellent re-ignition characteristics. The 1.5 [%] content appears to most
closely match the conductivity properties of 2 [%] thoriated tungsten.
Compared to cerium and thorium the Lanthanum electrodes had less tip wear
at given current levels.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Lanthanum tungsten electrode (characteristics)
Lanthanum electrodes generally have longer life and provide greater

resistance to tungsten contamination of the weld.
The Lanthanum is dispersed evenly throughout the entire length of the
electrode and it maintains a sharpened point well, which is an advantage for
welding on DC or AC with Advanced Squarewave power sources.
Thus the Lanthanum electrodes work well on AC or DC electrode negative

with a pointed end or they can be balled for use with AC sine wave power
sources.
Generally used to weld carbon & stainless steels, nickel alloys, copper alloys
and titanium.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Zirconium tungsten electrode (characteristics)
A Zirconium oxide alloyed tungsten electrode is preferred for AC welding

when the highest quality work is necessary and where even the smallest
amounts of weld pool contamination cannot be tolerated. This is accomplished
because the Zirconium alloyed tungsten produces an extremely stable arc
which resists tungsten spitting in the arc.
They are utilised when the working conditions are critical for the pure
tungsten electrodes (medium current density) and thoriated electrodes (AC
with very low density).
Therefore they are generally used in manual welding with medium-low current
density.
Zirconium electrodes are typically used only for AC welding with a balled end.
The most used electrodes are WZ3 (0,3 [%] of Zirconium, Brown).
They are used for welding aluminium, magnesium and their alloys.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Rare earth tungsten electrode (characteristics)
This classification covers tungsten electrodes containing unspecified additions
of rare earth elements (cerium, lantanium and others). As specified by the
manufacturer, the purpose of the additions is to affect the nature or
characteristics of the arc.
The manufacturer must identify the specific addition or additions and the
quantity or quantities added.
Some “rare earth” electrodes are in this category and they contain various
percentages of the 17 rare earth metals (Scandium,Yttrium and all elements
between atomic number 57 and 71 of periodic table). One mixture is 98%
tungsten, 1.5% lanthanum oxide, and a .5% special mixture of other rare earth
oxides.
Some of these electrodes work on AC and DC, last longer than thoriated
tungsten, can use a smaller size diameter tungsten for the same job, can use
a higher current than similar sized thoriated tungstens, reduce tungsten
spitting, and are not radioactive.
They are more expensive than the other electrode types.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Electrode preparation (DCEN)
For DCEN use the tungsten electrode is tapered with a conical shape.
The cone edge shall be a needle point especially when are welded thin
sheets in the field between 0.12 [mm] and 1 [mm]. In this case the needle
point hasn’t a great consumption because with DCEN the 70% of energy is
directed on the piece ad moreover the used current is very low. In other
applications, a slightly blunted end is preferred because the extreme point
may be melted off and end up in the deposit.
The height of the cone shall be in a field between 2 and 2.5 times of the
electrode diameter. Therefore, with an electrode of 1,6 [mm] the cone height
can pass from 3,2 [mm] to 4,0 [mm].
Electrode Tapered end
2.5 electrode diameter

Needle point Blunted Balled end
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Electrode preparation (Inverter,AC sinewave use)
For Inverter Squarewave use the electrode shape is very nearly the same as
for DC electrode negative welding. This improves the ability to focus the arc
along with an even greater localisation of the heat into the work. In this case is
not recommended the use of pure tungsten.
For AC Sine Wave use the electrodes should have a hemispheric or balled
end formed.
The diameter of the end should not exceed the diameter of the electrode by
more than 1.5 times. As an example, a 1,6 [mm] electrode should only form a
2.4 diameter end maximum. If it becomes larger than this because of
excessive current, there is the possibility of it dropping off to contaminate the
weld. If the end is excessively large the arc tends to wander around on the
large surface of the electrode tip. The arc becomes very hard to control as it
wanders from side to side.
If welding conditions are correct, a visual observation of the electrode should
reveal a ball end of uniform shape and proper size.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Electrode preparation
The grinding operations shall be executed in order to avoid concentric grinding
marks than can produce an unstable arc. If there are some grinding signs,
they shall run in the length direction of electrode. If the grinding is done on a
coarse stone and the grinding marks are concentric with the electrode, there
are a series of ridges on the surface of the ground area. There is a possibility
of the small ridges melting off and floating across the arc. If the stone used for
grinding is not clean, contaminating particles can be lodged in the grinding
crevices and dislodge during welding, ending up in the deposit.
1-stable arc 3-grinding wheel

1-wandering arc 3-grinding wheel
2-tapered end 4-grinding marks
2-tapered end 4-grinding marks
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Electrode penetration
Regarding the penetration a pointed end of electrode produces a more focused arc
and a deep and narrow penetration.
A balled end electrodes produces, on the contrary, a wide and shallow penetration.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Electrode diameters foreseen by
EN 26848 [mm]
Tolerance
0,5÷1,0÷1,6÷2,0÷2,5
 0.05
3,2÷4,0÷5,0÷6,3÷8,0 Tolerance
10,0  0.10
Foreseen lengths by EN 26848 [mm]

Tolerance
50÷75÷150÷175
 1.0
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Electrode diameters and lengths foreseen by AWS

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Gas nozzles or cups
Gas nozzles or cups as they are better known, are made of various types of heat
resistant materials in different shapes, diameters and lengths.
The nozzles are either screwed into the torch head or pushed in place.
Nozzles can be made of ceramic, metal, metal-jacketed ceramic, glass, or other
materials. Ceramic is the most popular, but are easily broken and must be replaced often.
Nozzles used for automatic applications and high amperage situations often use a water-
cooled metal design.
Gas nozzles or cups must be large enough to provide adequate shielding gas coverage
to the weld pool and surrounding area. A nozzle of a given size will allow only a given
amount of gas to flow before the flow becomes turbulent. When this occurs the
effectiveness of the shielding is reduced, and nozzle size must be increased to restore an
effective non-turbulent flow of gas.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Gas lenses
A gas lens is a device that replaces the normal collect body.

It attaches to the torch body and is used to reduce turbulence and
produce a longer undisturbed flow of shielding gas. A gas lens will allow
the welder to move the nozzle further away from the joint allowing
increased visibility of the arc. A much larger diameter nozzle can be
used, which will produce a large blanket of shielding gas. This can be
very useful in welding material like titanium.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Codification of consumables: EN 1668

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Codification of consumables: other standards
• Other standards are:

– EN 12070 ( Cr - Mo steels)
– EN 12072 (Stainless steels)
– ISO DIS 18273.2 (Aluminium and aluminium alloys)
• The AWS standards are :

– AWS 5.18 (Carbon steels)
– AWS 5.28 (Low alloy steels)
– AWS 5.9 (Stainless steels)
– AWS 5.10 (Aluminium and aluminium alloys)
– AWS 5.14 (Nickel and nickel alloys)

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Shielding gases
All arc welding processes utilise some method of protecting the molten weld
pool from the atmosphere. Without this protection, the molten metal reacts with
gases in the atmosphere and produces oxidation,porosity,etc. in the weld bead
greatly reducing weld strength.
Primarily two inert gases are used for shielding purposes for TIG. They are
argon and helium. Shielding gases must be of high purity for welding
applications. The purity required is at a level of 99.99 [%].
Although the primary function of the gas is to protect the weld pool from the
atmosphere, the type of gas used has an influence on the characteristics and
behaviour of the arc and the resultant weld bead.
The chief factor influencing the effectiveness of a shielding gas is the gas
density. Argon, with an atomic weight of 40 is about one and a half times
heavier than air and ten times heavier than helium which has an atomic weight
of 4.
Argon after leaving the torch nozzle tends to form a blanket over the weld,
whereas helium tends to rise rapidly from the arc area. In order to obtain
equivalent shielding, flow rates for helium are usually two to three times that of
argon.
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Argon
Argon is obtained as a product in the manufacturing of oxygen. Breaking down

the content of the atmosphere would approximately yield the following:
0.9% Argon
78.0% Nitrogen
21.0% Oxygen
0.1% Other rare gases
Looking at these percentages, it’s evident that many cubic meter of air must be
processed in order to obtain a cylinder of argon. Argon may be obtained in the
gaseous state in cylinders or as a liquid in specially constructed cylinders or in
bulk tanks.
As a liquid, argon will be at a temperature of slightly below -184 [°C]. The most
commonly used size of cylinder are 935 Litres at 182 [bar] at 21 [°C]. When
large volumes are required a bulk liquid supply is most desirable and
economical.
Since argon is extracted from air, it can contain some impurities like oxygen,
nitrogen, CO2, humidity traces. The percentage of these elements shall be very
low. In general, Argon for welding shall have a purity greater than 99,99 [%].

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Argon
For welding of particular materials like titanium the gas purity shall be greater
than 99,995 [%].
When choosing a shielding gas, a fact that must be considered is the
ionisation potential of the gas. Ionisation potential is measured in volts and is
the point where the welding arc will be established between the electrode and
the work piece through the shielding gas. In other words, it is the voltage
necessary to electrically charge the gas so that it will conduct electricity. The
ionisation potential of argon is 1.5 lower than helium. Therefore, arc voltage
produced with argon would be lower than that produced by helium; therefore
we have a more stable arc, and easier arc start and re-ignition.
Argon, since has an atomic weight greater than Helium, provides excellent
cleaning action even at low amperages.
Argon is insoluble in the fused seam and for this reason is very low the risk to
have inclusions of this gas in the weld.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Argon
Argon has low thermal conductivity which means it is not a good conductor of
heat. This results in a more compact, higher density arc. The core part of the
arc is more hot in comparison with helium and for this reason the weld metal
drops that pass in the arc zone are more fluid.
Arc density refers to the concentration of energy in the arc. With argon this
energy is confined to a narrow or more “pinpointed” area and then also the
penetration is deep ad narrow.
EN 1089-3
Gas cylinder colour
Old colour New colour

lilac Green

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Helium
Helium is present in the atmosphere in quantity of 5 parts for one million.
In the United States and in Canada there are natural sources where Helium is
produced with an high grade of purity.
Helium used for welding has a gas purity grade greater than 99,995 [%].
Unlike argon, helium has high thermal conductivity. Due to this higher thermal
conductivity, the arc column expands, reducing current density in the arc. The
arc column will become wider and more flared out than the arc column with
argon shielding gas. The consequence is a wider penetration in comparison
with Argon shielding gas and less risks of undercuts on the boundary of the
welding seam.
Greater are also the penetration and the dilution.
EN 1089-3 Gas cylinder colour
Old colour New colour Wider and deeper penetration

Brown Brown with Helium
111
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Helium
With an equivalent arc length, helium will produce higher arc voltage than
argon. Since the total power is a product of voltage and amperage, it is
apparent that more heat energy is available with helium. Helium is better than
Argon on thick and elevated thermal conductivity materials (Aluminium and
Magnesium) and where high travel speeds are desired.
With helium shielding any slight variation of arc length can have quite an
affect on arc voltage and consequently total arc power. For this reason, helium
is not as desirable as argon for manual welding applications.
Because of its higher ionization potential, it is more difficult to start an arc with
helium shielding gas, especially at lower amperages. Argon is used almost
exclusively when welding at 150 amps and lower.
Because helium is a light gas, flow rates are usually two or three times higher
than argon for equivalent shielding. The cost of helium is considerably more
than argon, and with the increased flow rate, total cost of shielding goes up
sharply. The cost must be weighed against increased penetration on thick
material and the increased travel speed attainable.
Helium also, is insoluble in the fused seam and for this reason is very low the
risk to have inclusions of this gas in the weld.
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Argon-Helium mixtures
Mixtures are utilised in order to have intermediate characteristics between

argon and helium,
These mixtures have:
1) more arc stability compared with pure helium;
2) more penetration compared with pure argon;
3) greater welding speed compared with pure argon.
The most often used mixtures are:25 [%] Ar-75 [%] He
30 [%] Ar-70 [%] He

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Argon-Hydrogen mixtures
Just as helium is mixed with argon to take advantage of the best features of
both gases, hydrogen is mixed with argon to further constrict the arc and
produce a cleaner weld with a greater depth to width ratio (penetration).
This mix is used primarily for welding austenitic stainless steels and some
nickel alloys. The addition of hydrogen to argon also increases travel speed.
It should be noted that an argon hydrogen mix will introduce the risk of
hydrogen cracking, undercuts and metal porosity particularly in multipass
welds.
This type of mixture, in the most used quantities, (95 [%] of Ar and 5 [%] of H2)
is not inert, but slightly reducing.
EN 1089-3 Gas cylinder colour of Hydrogen

Red Red

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Nitrogen
Nitrogen when mixed with argon provides the capability of producing more
energy to the work than with argon alone.
This can be particularly beneficial when welding materials of high conductivity
such as copper. However, a nitrogen mix cannot be used on ferrous metals
such as steels and stainless steels because nitrogen pick up in the weld pool
causes a significant reduction in strength and a weaker, more porous bead.
Pure nitrogen or a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen may be used as backing
shielding gas for root pass protection- mainly for stainless steels.
EN 1089-3 Gas cylinder colour of Hydrogen alone

Red Red

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Preflow and postflow
The purpose of both preflow and postflow is to prevent contamination of
both the weld pool and the tungsten electrode by the surrounding
atmosphere.
When the torch is not in use, air will enter the system through the nozzle.
Moisture in the air can condense inside the nozzle and gas hose and then
cause hydrogen contamination during initial stages of the weld. The
shielding gas preflow will clear the air and moisture from the torch and
prevent this contamination.
Postflow works a little differently. Immediately after the welding arc is
extinguished, the weld bead, filler rod and the tungsten electrode remain
hot enough to cause a chemical reaction with oxygen in the atmosphere.
The result of this oxidization is quite obvious when it occurs because it
causes the weld bead, filler rod and tungsten to turn black. Proper
postflow will prevent oxidization from occurring by shielding the hot
electrode and weld area, and by speeding up the cooling process.
It should be remembered that a tungsten that has discoloured because of
oxidization must be properly removed.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Operation technique
• The best position of the torch and filler metal is shown in the following
picture:
Filler metal
75°
Torch
15°
Piece
Torch direction 117
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Special applications (tube to tube-sheet welding)
Coffee processing plant, AISI 304L steel
Cu-Ni tubesheet for the salt industry

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Orbital welding
TIG torch
Circumferential
weld
Tube

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Hot wire TIG
• The main difference, in

comparison with standard TIG, is
the wire filler metal pre-heating
with a supplementary power
source.
• The electric arc works with lower
heat inputs
• The welded materials are the
same of the standard TIG:
- carbon and low alloyed steels,
stainless steels (duplex and • The process is particularly used
superduplex), nickel and titanium for welding of tubes with medium-
alloys. high thickness.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Key hole TIG
• Is a variation of TIG cold wire process that permits:
- more simple edges preparations (also square bevels)
- reduction or elimination of filler metal
-higher productivity.
In the example a comparison between standard TIG and key hole TIG
welding of 12 [mm] thickness in AISI 304L

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Gas Metal Arc Welding
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Process Characteristics
• Developed in the 1950’s

• Also referred to as “MIG”
• Uses consumable “bare” filler wire
• Equipment costs are moderate
• Capable of high deposition rates and travel speeds
• Used both in manual and semi-automatic modes
• Easily interfaced for use in robotic applications
• Significant technological developments in past 10 years
• Widely used in mass production industries

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
GMAW Filler Metal Designations
Composition
Electrode 6 = high silicon
Solid Electrode
Rod (can be used
with GMAW) Minimum ultimate tensile
strength of the weld metal

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Shielding Gas
• Shielding gas can
affect
– Weld bead shape
– Arc heat, stability,
Ar Ar-He He CO2 and starting
– Surface tension
– Drop size
– Puddle flow
– Spatter
Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
GMAW Modes of Metal Transfer

Spray Globular
Short Circuiting Pulsed Spray

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
GMAW Advantages
• Deposition rates
higher than SMAW
• Productivity higher
than SMAW with
no slag removal
and continuous
welding
• Easily automated

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Quality Issues
• Spatter - droplets of molten

electrode material that land
outside the weld fusion area
and may or may not fuse to
the base material
• Porosity - small volumes of
entrapped gas in solidifying
weld metal
• Undercut – notch at weld
fusion boundary resulting
from high welding speeds
• Bead shape – concavity or
convexity of the bead profile

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Limitations
• Equipment is more expensive and
complex than SMAW
• Process variants/metal transfer
mechanisms make the process
more complex and restricts the
process “window”
• Restricted access
– GMAW gun is larger than
SMAW holder
– Out-of-position issues
• Welding fume

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Flux-Cored Arc Welding
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Characteristics
• Developed and widely implemented in the 1970’s

• Process is very similar to GMAW
• Uses metal wire consumable with flux “core”
• Equipment costs moderate
• High productivity
• Does not rely on shielding gas for weld pool protection
• Fume generation high

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
FCAW Electrode Classification
Electrode
Type Gas, Usability
Minimum UTS and Performance
70,000 psi
Flux Cored /Tubular
Position Electrode

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Advantages
• High deposition rates
• Deeper penetration than
SMAW
• High-quality
• Less pre-cleaning than
GMAW
• Slag covering helps with
larger out-of-position
welds
• Self-shielded FCAW is
draft tolerant.

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Limitations
• Slag must be removed
• More smoke and fumes
than GMAW and SAW
• Spatter
• FCAW wire is more
expensive
• Equipment is more
expensive and complex
than for SMAW

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Plasma Arc Welding
Plasma Arc Welding

ORIFICE GAS
ELECTRODE
SHIELDING GAS
CONSTRICTING NOZZLE
OUTER GAS NOZZLE PLENUM CHAMBER
THROAT LENGTH ELECTRODE SETBACK
ORIFICE DIAMETER
TORCH STANDOFF WORK

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Plasma Arc Welding
Characteristics
 Process introduced commercially by Linde, Union

Carbide in the 1960’s
 Uses non-consumable electrode
 Heat from arc is used to produce a super-heated
plasma
 Shielding is obtained from ionized gas
 Filler metal may be introduced
 Equipment costs moderately high
 Reasonably high productivity
 Low fume generation

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Plasma Arc Welding
Plasma Arc Modes

CONSTRICTING NOZZLE
ORIFICE GAS
SHIELDING
GAS
WORK
TRANSFERRED NONTRANSFERRED

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban
Plasma Arc Welding
Selection Criteria
• Advantages • Industries
– Better penetration than – Medical (pacemakers)
GTAW and GMAW – Aerospace
– 100% root penetration by – Electronics
formation of “keyhole” – Precision manufacturing
– Easily automated • Applications
– Bellows and seals
– Good out-of-position
– Motors and transformers
– Low fume generation
– Tube mills
• Disadvantages
– Cladding, wire mesh, process
– Equipment cost piping
– Familiarity with – Space shuttle tanks
technology

Prof.Dr. Emel Taban

Welding Technology Lecture Notes Part 2 - Prof DR Emel TABAN Sept 2021

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Welding Technology Lecture Notes Part 2 - Prof DR Emel TABAN Sept 2021

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Kocaeli University

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alloying elements to change SOLID DEPOSIT MATERIAL DURING TRANSFER

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• Short circuit current is generally low,

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• Rutile and acid electrodes

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– Coatings contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate or calcium fluoride.

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ELEMENT ELEMENT IN THE DEPOSITION

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• Electrodes must be kept dry as moisture

ELECTRODE MOISTURE CONTENT

• Basic electrodes exposed to damp air for more

• After they have dried, they should be stored in a

• Bending the electrode can cause the coating to

The European method of specifying iron power

This is shown as follows:

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FLAT UPHILL DOWNHILL

150 A. current, Voltage, arc lenght are correct

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SMAW Electrode Classification Example

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• No arc flash or glare

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• Experimentally, it has been used

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– In submerged arc welding, current may

– DCEP is mainly in welding, as it gives higher penetration

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• The distance between the current

Deposition rate [Kg/h]

AS THERE IS NO VISUAL CHECK DURING WELDING,

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FUSED FLUXES MIXED FLUXES AGGOLMERATED FLUXES

ACID NEUTRAL BASIC

The weld metal properties depend on the flux wire combination

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USED WITH MEDIUM/HIG Mn WIRES

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USED WITH LOW Mn WIRES

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SAW Flux / Filler Metal Compositions

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