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Republic of the Philippines

BASILAN STATE COLLEGE
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Secondary Education

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1ST SEMESTER, ACADEMIC YEAR 2022-2023

M 101 (COLLEGE AND ADVANCED ALGEBRA)

9:00 – 10:30 TTH
Josephine Antonia M. Gahapon – Assistant Professor IV

UNIT 1: ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS (1 – 2 weeks)

1.1 Review of Algebraic Expressions

1.2 The Fundamental Operations of Algebraic Expressions
1.3 Special Products and Factors
1.4 Algebraic Fractions
1.5 Simplifying Complex Fractions
1.6 Solving Equations Involving Rational Expressions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

1. Review the important concepts in algebraic expression;

2. Demonstrate knowledge and skills in performing basic operations in polynomials;
3. Use synthetic division to obtain the quotient and the remainder when a
polynomial is divided by a linear expression of the form x – c, where c is the
constant; and
4. Develop critical thinking and establish linkage to polynomial expression in solving
real-life problems.

REFERENCES:

1. Alcabedas, Estrella Evelie, et al; Advanced Algebra, Trigonometry, and Statistics

2. Bernardo, Aida D., et al; College Algebra (Worktext)
3. Litong, Domingo L.’ Contemporary Math
4. Ruivivar, Leonor A.; Advaced Algebra, Trigonometry, and Statistics

ACTIVATION OF PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

Algebra is a branch of Mathematics that

uses numbers and symbols to express and
analyze relationships between known and
unknown quantities. In Algebra, number are
the centarl theme. You learned numbers and
operations in Arithmetic. Algebra is also a
study of numbers and their properties, but it
begins where Arithmetic leaves off and makes
extensive use of symbols.

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This lesson begins with the review of algebraic expression. This includes terms used in algebra
such as constants and variables, exponents, terms, and so on and so forth. Basic operations in
polynomials and synthetic division will be discussed in this lesson.

ENGAGEMENT IN RELEVANT CONTENT APPROPRIATE LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Activity 1

REVIEW OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

An algebraic expression is a constant, a variable, or a combination of indicated operations

involving constants and variables. For example,

a. 2 b. x c. √ d. e. -4

When an algebraic expression is written as the sum of other algebraic expression, each of the
expression is called a term. Example (e) above can be written as the sum

(- 4) its terms are , 2 , and -4

An algebraic expression consisting of one term that is either a constant or a product of a

constant and a variable or variables raised to an integral exponent is called a monomial. Example (a)
and (b) are monomials. however, example (c) cannot be a monomial because the variable x is raised
to rational exponent . Note that √ = .

Any sum of monomials is called a polynomial. A polynomial consisting of two terms is called a
binomial, and a polynomial of three terms is called a trinomial. Some examples of binomials are 2x – 1,
2x2 + y, 6 – y3. Note that the exponents of the variables are all positive integers. Some examples of
trinomials are 2x2 – 5x + 3, a + 2b + 3c, and 4 – xy + x2y3. Example (e) cannot be considered a trinomial
because of the term which is equal to is not a monomial. Can you tell why? A polynomial 3x – 4y
+ 7xy – 8 is a polynomial of four terms.

We may name polynomials using capital letters. A polynomial x can be represented by P(x).
Thus, we may say P(x) = 5x2 + 2x – 1. In general, we evaluate polynomials or algebraic expressions by
substituting a given value or values for all the variables found in the expression. If x = -3, then P (-3) is
the value of the polynomial evaluated at x = -3.

Example 1: If P(x) = 5x2 + 2x – 1, then what is P(-3)?

Solution: We evaluate the polynomial at x = -3.

P(-3) = 5(-3)2 + 2(-3) – 1
= 5(9) + (-6) – 1
= 45 – 6 – 1
P(-3) = 38

The degree of a term in one variable is the exponent of the variable of that term. For
example, 2x3 has a degree of 3. Any nonzero constant term has a degree of zero. The constant 0 has no
degree. The degree of a term of two or more variables is the sum of the exponents of all the variables
in the term. For instance, the term 8ab has a degree of 2. Note that both a and b has an exponent of 1
and hence, the sum of their exponents is 2. The term -4x3y2z has a degree of 6. What do you think is the
degree of a monomial 6xyz?

The degree of a polynomial is equal to the degree of the term with the highest degree. For
example, the polynomial 2x3 – 5x2 + 4 has a degree of 3 while the polynomial 8x 4y2 +
2 3 4 2 2 3
5xy + x y has a degree of 6. As a polynomial in variable x, 8x y + 5xy + x y has a degree of 4 while as
a polynomial in y, it has a degree of 2.

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In general, a polynomial P in x of degree n can be expressed as

P(x) =

where 0 and n is a positive integer.

Example 2: For each of the following algebraic expressions, determine if it is a monomial, a

binomial, or a trinomial. State also the degree of each expression.

a. 6x2y e. -5
b. -3y4 f. 3x4 – y3
c. 2y – 1 g. 7x2 – 3x + 10x5
d. 4x2y3 – 2xy2 + x3 h. 0

Solution:
a. The expression 6x2y is a monomial and its degree is 3.
b. The expression -3y4 is a monomial and its degree is 4.
c. The expression 2y – 1 is a binomial and its degree is 1. Note that y1 = y.
d. The expression 4x2y3 – 2xy2 + x3 is a trinomial and its degree is 5. Note that among
the terms, 4x2y3 has the highest degree. The variable x has an exponent of 2 while
y has an exponent of 3, thus 2 + 3 = 5.
e. The expression -5 is a monomial. It is a constant and therefore has a degree of 0.
Note that we can multiply -5 by any variable raised to the zeroth power since any
quantity raised to the zeroth power is equal to 1. Thus, -5 can be written as -5x0
where x 0, that is -5 = -5(1) = -5x0.
f. The expression 3x4 – y3 is a binomial. As a polynomial in x, it has a degree of 4 and
as a polynomial in y, it has a degree of 3.
e. The expression 7x2 – 3x + 10x5 is a trinomial and its degree is 5.
g. The expression 0 is a monomial. It has no degree.

FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Activity 2

Addition of Polynomials

To find the sum of two or more polynomials, we simply combine like terms, add their numerical
coefficients and copy the common literal coefficients. Here we observe the rule on adding signed
numbers.

Example: Add 5x + 4y + 8z - 2 and 3x – 2y + 7z + 8

Solution 1: Rewriting each polynomial in columns

5x + 4y + 8z - 2
3x – 2y + 7z + 8
8x + 2y + 15z +6 → answer

Solution2: Combining like terms

(5x + 3x) + (4y – 2y) + (8z + 7z) + (-2 + 8)
= 8x + 2y + 15y + 6

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Activity 3

Subtraction of Polynomials

To subtract one polynomial from another polynomial, we simply change the sign of the
subtrahend and add the polynomials following the rule in adding signed numbers.

Example: Subtract 5x3 – 6x2 + 5x – 3 from 12x3 – 8x2 + 3x + 10

Solution 1: Rewriting each polynomial in columns

12x3 – 8x2 + 3x + 10 12x3 – 8x2 + 3x + 10
-(5x3 – 6x2 + 5x – 3) + -5x3 + 6x2 - 5x + 3
7x3 – 2x2 - 2x + 13 → answer

Solution2: Horizontal Method

(12x3 – 8x2 + 3x + 10) – (5x3 – 6x2 + 5x – 3)
= 12x3 – 8x2 + 3x + 10 – 5x3 + 6x2 - 5x + 3
= (12x3 – 5x3) + (-8x2 + 6x2) + (3x – 5x) + (10 + 3)
= 7x3 + (-2x2) + (-2x) + 13
= 7x3 – 2x2 – 2x + 13 → answer

Activity 4

Multiplication of Polynomials

When a number is taken as a factor and is multiplied by itself several times, the product is
called the power of the repeated factor.

Let n be a positive integer, then:

The quantity of is called the power of is the base and n is the exponent of the power.

The following are the laws of exponents:

1. The Product of Powers

Examples:
a.
b. = 64
c.

2. The Power of a Power

Examples:
a.
b.
c. = 729

3. The Power of a Product

Examples:
a. =
b. =
c. =

The laws of exponents and the distributive axioms allow us to perform multiplication of
algebraic expression.

Examples:
a.

b.
=
=

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c.
=
=

Activity 5

Division of Polynomials

To divide algebraic expressions, we will consider the fourth law of exponent.

1. = =

2. = =

3. The Power of a Quotient (the fourth law of exponents) states that:

If m and n be positive integers, a Then:

= {

Examples:

a. =

b. = =

c. =

In example (c), when the base is raised to the zero power, it is equal to 1. This is true for any
base except zero.

To divide polynomials, divide the coefficient of the dividend by the coefficient of the divisor,
then apply the law of exponents for the variables to get the final quotient.

Examples:

a. Divide
b. Find the quotient when
c. Divide

Solution:

a. = =

___________ _
b. /
(-)

(-)
- 2x – 3
(-) - 2x – 3
0

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Observe that the procedure is very similar to the ordinary division algorithm. In the example
above, we say that is exactly divisible by 2x + 3 because the remainder is 0.

_ ___________________
c. /
(-)
-
(-)

(-)
- 185x + 95

We write the final answer as

To check if the quotient is correct, we multiply it by the divisor. When there is a remainder, we
add it to the result and compare the sum with the dividend. This is left for you to do.

SPECIAL PRODUCTS AND FACTORS

Remember that numbers multiplied to form a product are called factors of such product.
Unless otherwise indicated, we will deal only with integral facctors, that is, integers factored over the set
of integers.
This module discusses the types of special products. It also touches on factoring binomials,
trinomials, and polynomials of more than three numbers.
Some exercises are presented to help you understand the topics. Worksheets and chapter test
are provided for you to answer and will be returned on the agreed date. These exercises pose as a
challenge to develop diligence, patience, accuracy, and to enhance your analytical abilities.

There are certain products of polynomials called special products that occur frequenctly and
should be recognized. In these special products, x and y represent variables and a, b, and c represent
constants. The products can be verified by performing the multiplications.

Special Products

Activity 6. The Product of Two Binomials of the Form (ax + b)(cx + d)

(ax + b)(cx + d) = acx2 + adx + bcx + bd = acx2 + (ad + bc)x + bd

The product of two binomials is obtained by using the FOIL method.

(F = first term; O = outer term; I = inner term; L = last term)

1. The first term is the prodcut of the first terms of the binomials.
2. The middle term is obtained by adding the product of the outer terms to the
product of the inner terms.
3. The last term is the product of the last terms of the binomials.

Examples:

a) (2x + 5)(3x – 4) = (2x)(3x) + (2x)(-4) + 5(3x) + 5(-4)

= 6x2 – 8x + 15x – 20
= 6x2 + 7x – 20

b) (5a + 4b)(2a + 3b) = (5a)(2a) + 5a(3b) + 4b(2a) + (4b)(3b)

= 10a2 + 15ab + 8ab + 12b2
= 10a2 + 23ab + 12b2

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Activity 8. The Product of the Sum and Difference of Two Binomials

(x + y)(x – y) = x2 – y2 The product of the sum and difference of two terms is the
square of the firts term minus the square of the second term.

The product of the sum and difference of the same two terms is a special case in the sense that
its middle term is zero and leads to a very simple product called the difference of two squares.

Examples:

a) (4x + 3y) (4x – 3y) = (4x)2 – (3y)2 = 16x2 – 9y2

b) (2m4 – 5n3) (2m4 + 5n3) = (2m4)2 – (5n3)2 = 4m8 – 25n6

c) [(a + b) – 3] [(a + b) + 3] = (a + b)2 – 32 = (a + b)2 – 9

d) (5x – 4) (5x + 4) = (5x)2 – 42 = 25x2 - 16

Activity 9. The Square of a Binomial

(x + y) (x + y) = x2 + 2xy + y2 (x – y) (x – y) = x2 – 2xy + y2

The square of the sum (or the difference) of two terms is the square of the first, plus (or minus)
twice the product of the two terms plus the square of the second term.

The product of the square of a binomial is known as a perfect trinomial square.

Examples:

a) (3x + 6) (3x + 6) = (3x)2 + 2(3x) (6) + 62 = 9x2 + 36x + 36

b) (5a2 – 2b2) (5a2 – 2b2) = (5a2)2 – 2(5a2) (2b2) + (2b2)2

= 25a4 – 20a2b2 + 4b4

c) (4m – 8) (4m – 8) = (4m)2 – 2(4m) (8) + 82 = 16m2 – 64m + 64

Activity 10. The Cube of a Binomial

(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3 (x – y)3 = x3 – 3x2y + 3xy2 – y3

The cube of the sum (or the difference) of two terms is the cube of the first term plus (or minus)
thrice the square of the first times the second plus thrice the product of the first and the square of the
second plus (or minus) the cube of the second term.

There are always four terms in the cube of a binomial. All terms in the product are positive in
the cube of the sum of two terms. The cube of the difference of a binomial will have an alternate –
and + signs.

Examples:

a) (7x + 3y)3 = (7x)3 + 3(7x)2(3y) + 3(7x) (3y)2 + (3y)3

= 343x3 + 441x2y + 189xy2 + 27y3

b) (2a – 4b)3 = (2a)3 – 3(2a)2(4b) + 3(2b) (4b)2 - (4b)3

= 8a3 – 48a2b + 96ab2 – 64b3

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Activity 11. Special Case of a Product of Binomial and Trinomial

(x + y) (x2 – xy + y2) = x3 + y3 (x – y) (x2 + xy + y2) = x3 – y3

When the trinomial factor (based on the binomial factor) is the square of the first plus (or
minus) the product of the first and the second plus the square of the second, the product is the sum (or
difference) of two cubes.

This case is so special in the sense that the definite forms of the binomial and trinomial lead to a
very simple product called the sum or difference of two cubes.

Examples:

a) (x + 5y) (x2 – 5xy + 25y2) = x3 + 125y3

b) (4x – 2y) (16x2 + 8xy + 4y3) = 64x3 – 8y3

Factoring

Activity 12. Removal of the Common Factor

In every term of a polynomial contains a common monomial factor, then, by the distributive
law, the polynomial can be written as the product of the common monomial factor and the quotient
obtained by dividing the original polynomial by the common factor. For instance, a is a common
monomial factor of each term of the trinomial ax + ay + az; thus

ax + ay + az = a (x + y + z)

Examples:

a) To factor the polynomial 6x3y2 – 3x2y + 9xy, we first observe that 3xy is a common
monomial factor of each term; hence
6x3y2 – 3x2y + 9xy = 3xy (2x2y – x + 3)

b) 8m5 – 4m4 + 2m3 + 6m2 = 2m2(4m3 – 2m2 + m + 3)

c) x2n + xn+2 = xn(xn + x2)

Activity 13. Factoring the Difference of Two Squares

x2 - y2 = (x + y) (x – y) The left side of this formula is the difference of two squares, and
the formula states that it can be written as the product of the sum and difference of square roots of
the two squares.

The difference of two squares is the prodcut of two binomials, one binomial expressing the sum
and the other binomial, the difference of the sum of two terms.

Examples:

a) The binomial x2 – 4 is the difference of the two squares x2 and 22.

Therefore x2 – 4 = (x + 2) (x – 2)

b) x2 – 25 = (x + 5)(x – 5)
c) 9a4 – 36b2 = (3a2)2 – (6b)2 = (3a2 + 6b)(3a2 – 6b)

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Activity 14. Factoring a Perfect Trinomial Square

Activity 3 defines the square of a binomial as a trinomial which has two of its as perfect squares
and the other term as twice the product of the square roots of the two squares. This special trinomial is
called a perfect trinomial square. Given a perfect trinomial square, therefore, its factors are two
identical binomials which are either the sum (or difference) of the square roots of the two squares
depending on whether the sign of the term which is not a square is positive (or negative). In symbolic
notations.

x2 + 2xy + y2 = (x + y)2 = (x + y) (x + y)

x2 - 2xy + y2 = (x - y)2 = (x - y) (x - y)

Examples: Factor

a) x2 – 4x + 4
b) x2 + 14xy + 49y2
c) 4x2 + 12x + 9
d) 9a2 – 30ab + 25b2

Solutions:
a) In the given trinomial are two squares, x2 and 4, whose square roots are x
and 2, respectively. Since twice the product of x and 2 is the middle term of the
trinomial, x2 – 4x + 4 is a perfect square. Therefore, x2 – 4x + 4 = (x – 2) (x – 2) or
(x -2)2.

b) x2 + 14xy + 49y2 = (x + 7) (x + 7) or (x + 7)2

c) 4x2 + 12x + 9 = (2x + 3) (2x + 3) or (2x + 3)2
d) 9a2 – 30ab + 25b2 = (3a – 5b) (3a – 5b) or (3a – 5b)2

Activity 15. Factoring Trinomial of the Form x2 + bx + c

This section deals with techniques and patterns for factoring trinomials of the form x2 + bx + c,
whose quadratic coefficient is one and whose constant term is either positive or negative.

Observe some products of binomials of the form x2 + bx + c, where c is positive.

Examples:

a) (x + 3) (x + 4) = x2 + 7x + 12.
The coefficient of x is 7 which is the sum of 3 and 4.
The constant term is 12 which is the product of 3 and 4.

b) (x – 5) (x – 3) = x2 – 8x + 15
The coefficient of x which is -8 which is the sum of -5 and -3.
The constant term is 15 which is the product of -5 and -3.
The preceding examples suggest this pattern:
(x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b) x + ab. By the symmetric property of equality,
it follows that x2 + (a + b) x + ab = (x + a) (x + b)

c) Factor x2 + 9x + 20
From the pattern, factors can be found by looking for two integers whose product
ab is 20 and whose sum (a + b) is 9

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Positive factors of 20: 1(20) 2(10) 4(5)

Corresponding sum: 21 12 9
Therefore, x2 + 9x + 20 = (x + 4) (x + 5)

d) Factor x2 – 10x + 16
This time the product is 16 and the sum is – 10.
Both factors must be negative.
Negative factors of 16: -1(-16) -2(-8) -4(-4)
Corresponding sum: -17 -10 -8
2
Therefore, x – 10x + 16 = (x – 2) (x – 8)

Now, observe some products of binomials of the form x2 + bx + c, where c is negative.

e) (x + 8) (x – 3) = x2 + 5x – 24
The coefficient of x is 5 which is the sum of 8 and -3.
The constant term is -24 which is the product of 8 and -3.

f) (x – 7) (x + 3) = x2 – 4x – 21
The coefficient of x is -4 which is the sum of -7 and 3.
The constant term is -21 which is the product of -7 and 3.

g) Factor x2 + 8x – 20
The combination of integers must have a product of -20 and a sum of 8.
Since the sum is positive, the positive factor of -20 must have the greater absolute
value.

Factors of -20: -1(20) -2(10) -4(5)

Corresponding sum: 19 8 1
Therefore, x2 + 8x – 20 = (x + 10)(x – 2)

h) Factor x2 – 7x – 18
This time, the combination of integers must have a product of -18 and a sum of -7.
The constant number -18 suggest that the two integers must have opposite signs,
and the negative factor the greater absolute value.
Factors of -18: 1(-18) 2(-9) 3(-6)
Corresponding sum: -17 -7 -3
2
Therefore, x – 7x – 18 = (x – 9)(x + 2)

Activity 16. Factoring Trinomial of the Form ax2 + bx + c, │a│> 1

A trinomial of the form ax2 + bx + c, where the quadratic coefficient is greater that one can be
factored s binomial of the form (ax + b)(cx + d). recall the products of binomials.

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Examples:

a) Note signs in the products:

(2x + 1)(3x + 4) = 6x2 + 11x + 4
(2x – 1)(3x – 4) = 6x2 – 11x + 4
If the second terms of each binomial are either both positive or both negative,
1) The middle term of the trinomial has the same sign as the second term in the
binomials;
2) The last term of the trinomial is a positive number.

b) Note signs in the product:

(2x + 1)(3x - 4) = 6x2 - 5x + 4
(2x – 1)(3x + 4) = 6x2 + 5x + 4
If the second term of each binomial have opposite sign:
1) The middle term of the trinomial takes the sign of the greater absolute value in
the difference between the inner and the outer products;
2) The last term of a trinomial is a negative number.

c) Factor 2x2 + 5x + 3
1) Factor: first term → 2x and x
last term → 1 and 3
Only positive factors are considered because both the middle and last terms in
the trinomial are positive.

2) Possible binomial factors:

x 3x
(2x + 1)(x + 3) (2x + 3)(x + 1)

6x 2x

3) Test the inner and outer products to find the sum 5x for the middle term.
x + 6x = 7x
3x + 2x = 5x Correct

4) Therefore, 2x2 + 5x + 3 = (2x + 3)(x + 1)

d) Factor 2x2 – 7x + 6
1) Factor: first term → 2x and x
last term → -2 and -3; and -1 and -6
Only negative factors are considered because the middle term of the trinomial
is negative and the last term is positive.

2) Possible binomial factors:

-2x -x
(2x - 2)(x - 3) (2x - 1)(x - 6)

-6x -12x

-3 x -6x
(2x - 3)(x - 2) (2x - 6)(x - 1)

-4x -2x

3) Test the inner and outer products to find the sum -7x for the middle term.
-2x + (-6x) = -8x -x + (-12x) = -13x
-3x + (- 4x) = -7x Correct -6x + (-2x) = - 8x

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4) Therefore, 2x2 – 7x + 6 = (2x - 3)(x - 2)

e) Factor 6x2 + 4x – 10
1) Factor: first term → 2x and 3x; x and 6x
last term → 1 and -10; -1 and 10; 2 and -5; -2 and 5
The last terms of the binomials must have opposite signs because the last term
in the trinomial is negative.

2) Possible binomial factors:

(2x + 1)(3x – 10) (x + 1)(6x – 10)
(2x – 1)(3x + 10) (x – 1)(6x + 10)
(2x + 2)(3x – 5) (x + 2)(6x – 5)
(2x – 2)(3x + 5) (x – 2)(6x + 5)

3) Sum of inner and outer products

3x + (-20x) = -17x 6x + (-10x) = -4x
-3x + 20x = 17x -6x + 10x = 4x Correct
6x + (-10x) = -4x 12x + (-5x) = 7x
-6x + 10x = 4x Correct -12x + 5x = -7x

4) There are two equivalent binomial factors

6x2 + 4x – 10 = (2x – 2)(3x + 5)
6x2 + 4x – 10 = (x – 1)(6x + 10)

Activity 17. Factoring the Sum and Difference of Two Cubes

(x3 + y3)((x + y)(x2 – xy + y2) (x3 - y3)((x - y)(x2 + xy + y2)

The first factor is the sum or difference of the cube roots of the terms in the binomial. The
second factor consists of all positive terms or alternate positive and negative terms depending on
whether a sum of two cubes or a difference of two cubes is given.

Examples:

a) 64x4y – xy4 = xy(64x3 – y3)

= xy[ (4x)3 – y3]
= xy(4x – y)(16x2 + 4xy + y2)
b) 27m3 + 64n6 = (3m)3 + (4n2)3 = (3m + 4n2)( 9m2 – 12mn + 16n4)
c) (a + b)3 – c3 = [(a + b) – c][(a + b)2 + (a + b)c + c2]
d) 8x3 + y3 = (2x + y)(4x2 – 2xy + y2)

Activity 18. Factoring by Grouping

This type is usually applied to polynomials having four or more terms. Proper grouping of terms
is necessary to make the given polunomial factorable.

Examples:

a) Factor ab – 3b + ac – 3c = (ab – 3b) + (ac – 3c)

= b(a – 3) + c(a – 3)
= (a – 3) (b + c) Common binomial factor

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b) Factor x2 + 6x + 9 – y2 = (x2 + 6x + 9) – y2 perfect trinomial quare

= (x + 3)2 – y2 difference of two squares
= (x + 3 – y)(x + 3 + y)

c) 3ax + 2bx – 3ay – 2by = (3ax – 3ay) + (2bx – 2by)

= 3a(x – y) + 2b(x – y)
= (x – y) (3a + 2b)

ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS

A rational expression (also called as algebraic fraction) is an algebraic expression of the

𝒑
form , where p and q are polynomials and q 0. Examples of rational expressions are:
𝒒
𝟒 𝟓𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝟑𝒙𝒚 𝟐𝒚𝟐
and .
𝟓 𝟑𝒚 𝒙𝟑 𝟏 𝒙 𝒚

The algebraic expression is not a rational expressionbecause the denominator √ is not a

√
polynomial. Neither is the expression a rational expression.

Since division by zero is undefined, we must never permit the variable to assume values that
would cause division by zero. Any value that would cause division by zero is called an excluded value.

Any excluded value of an expression is a value of a variable that would

cause division by zero in the expression.

Activity 19. Simplifying Rational Expression

To Reduce a Rational Expression to Lowest Terms

 Factor both the numerator and the denominator of the rational

expression.
 Divide the numerator and the denominator by any non-zero
factor.

Examples: Reduce each expression to lowest term.

a)

b)

c)

d)

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Solution:

Factor the GCF 3 out of the numerator and the

a) GCF x, out of the denominator by the common
factor (x – 2). Assume that x 2 to avoid division
by zero.

b) is already in reduced form since the GCF of

the numerator and the denominator is 1.

Factor the numerator as the difference of two

c) = = squares, and factor the GCF 5, out of the
denominator. Then divide both by the common
factor (x – y). Assume that x y to avoid division
by zero.

Factor the numerator as difference of two

d) = = squares, factor the denominator by trial and error.
Then divide both by the common factor.

𝒙 𝟐𝒚
Do not divide out the Xs in the fraction 𝒙 𝟕𝒚
. The x in the numerator is a factor of the
first term only. It is not a factor of the entire numerator. Likewise, the x in the
denominator is a factor of the first term only. It is the factor of the entire denominator.

Since the variables in a rational expression represent real numbers, the rules and procedures for
performing multiplication and division with rational expressions are the same as those for performing
these operations with arithmetic fractions. (Multiplication and division will be covered before addition
and subtraction so that you can develop some of the skills needed to add rational exponents.)

Activity 20. Multiplying Rational Expression

The rule in multiplying rational expressions is: If a, b, c, and d are real expressions, and b 0
and d 0, then
= The result should always be reduced to lowest terms.

Multiplying Rational Expressions

1. Factor the numerator and the denominator of both rational expressions. Then write
the product as a single fraction, indicating the product of the numerators and the
product of the denominators.
2. Reduce this fraction by dividing the numerator and the denominator by any
common nonzero factors.

Examples: Find the product of the following algebraic fractions.

a) b) c) •(

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Solution :

Factor the numerators and the

a) = =
denominators. Then write the product as
a single fraction.

Reduce this fraction by cancelling the

common factors, (a – 3b) and 15x.

Factor the numerators and the

b) = = denominators. Then write the product as
a single fraction.
=
Reduce this fraction by dividing the
common factors.

Factor the first numerator and the first

c) •( = denominator. Note that the second
factor has a denominator of 1.
•( = =x+y
Reduce by dividing out the common
factor.

Activity 21. Dividing Rational Expression

Division of rational expressions follows the same rule as in division of arithmetic fractions. That
is, if a, b, c, and d are real expressions, and b 0, c 0, and d 0, then

Dividing Rational Expressions

1.
Rewrite the division problem as the product of the dividend and the reciprocal of
the divisor.
2. Perform
Examples: Divide thethe multiplication
following using
algebraic the rules for multiplying rational expressions.
fractions.

a) b)

Solution:

Rewrite the division problem as the product of the

a) = dividend and the reciprocal of the divisor.

= Factor and the reduce by dividing out the common

factors.

Rewrite the division problem as the product of the

b) = dividend and the reciprocal of the divisor.

= = Factor and the reduce by dividing out the common

factors.

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Activity 22. Adding and Subtracting Rational Expression

The rules for adding and subtracting rational expressions are the same as those for adding and
subtracting arithmetic fractions. If a, b, and c are real numbers, and c 0, then

and . Always reduce the result to lowest terms.

Examples: Simplify each of these expressions.

b)

Solution:

The denominators of these fractions are the same,

a) = = = so subtract the numerators.

These fractions have the same denominators, so

b) = = = simply add the numerators. Then reduce the sum
by dividing both the numerator and the
denominator by x

It is easy to make errors in the order of operations if you are not careful when adding or
subtracting rational expressions. Examples below illustrate how parentheses can be used to avoid errors.

Examples: Simplify each of these expressions.

b)

Solution:

Note: A common error is to write the numerator

a) = as 5x + 7 – 3x – 1. To avoid this error, enclose the
terms of the numerator in parentheses before
= = = = combing like terms. Factor then reduce to lowest
tems.

Again, use parenthes to avoid an error in sign.es in

b) = = the numerator.
Simplify the numerator.
= = Factor then reduce to lowest terms.

A Word of Caution!

The – sign between the fractions in these examples affects every term of the numerator.
Whenever we subtract one fraction from another, we must remeber to subtract each term of the
numerator in the second fraction.

Remember that = = . These alterntive forms are often useful when you are working
with these two fractions whose denominators are opposites.

Example: Simplify -

Solution: - = + = = = =

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Noting that the denomiator 3x – 6 and 6 – 3x are opposites, change to the equivalent form .
Now that the denominators are the same, you can add the numerators. Then factor and reduce the result by
dividing both the numerator and the denominator by 3.

Rational expressions can be added or subtracted only if they are expressed in terms of a
common denominator. Although any common denominator can be used, we can simplify our work
considerably by using the least common denominator (LCD). Sometimes the LCD can be determined
by inspection.

Activity 23

Examples: Simplify the following algebraic fractions.

a) b) c)

d) e) 3x – 5 -

Solution:

First determine the LCD.

a) = 6xy2 = 2 • 3xy2
15x2y = 3 • 5x2y
= ( ) ( ) = = LCD = 2 • 3 • 5 • x2y2
LCD = 30x2y2

Then convert each fraction so that it has

this LCD as its denominator.

Finally, add the fractions.

The LCD is (a + 4)(a – 5). Convert each

b) = fraction so that it has the LCD as its
denominator.
= = =
Add like terms and simplify the
numerator.

First fatcor each denominator. The LCD of

c) these two fractions, 18(x – 2)(x – 3)(x +4).
= Convert each fraction so that it has this
LCD as its denominator.
=
Leaving the denominator in factored
form, simplify the numerator by
= multiplying and then combining like
terms.
=
The numerator is prime, so this exoression
is already in educed form.
=

Some of the steps illustrated in example can be combined in order to shorten the solution. Although
most of the steps in the solution are still in examples d and e, some have been combined. When
combining steps, be careful not to make an error in sign

Factor each denominator. Noting that the

d) factor m – 2 in the first denominator is the
opposite of the denominator 2 – m in the
= last fraction, change to the
equivalent form .

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= •
Now, convert each fraction so that it has
the LCD (m + 3)(m – 2) as its
= denominator. Simplify the numerator by
multiplying and combining like terms.
=
Factor the numerator and reduce by
dividing out the common factor m – 2.
=

e) 3x – 5 - = Change 3x – 5 to the equivalent form

and to the equivalent form - .
= = = Express each fraction in terms of LCD, x –
1.
= =
Simplify the numerator by multiplying
and combining like terms.
=

Factor the numerator to determine

whether this rational expression can be
reduced. Since the GCF of the numerator
and the denominator is 1, this fraction is in
the lowest terms. Leave the numerator in
factored form in the answer.

SIMPLIFYING COMPLEX RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

Activity 24

There are two methods of simplifying complex fractions. Both are worth learning since some
problems can be worked more easily by the first method while others by the second method. Example
a illustrates method 1 and example b illustrates method 2.

Rewrite complex fraction as a divison

a) Simplify problem. A denominator of 1 is understood for
.
= Then rewrite the divison problem as the
product of the dividend and the reciprocal of
the divisor.
= =
Factor and reduce by dividing out the
= – common factors.

The LCD of all the fractions within the

b) Simplify numerator is x3. Multiply both the numerator
and the denominator by this LCD.
( )
= = Caution: Be careful not to multiply the
( ) ( ) numerator and the denominator by different
values.
= = = Factor the numerator as the difference of two
cubes. Factor the GCF, x, out of the
denominator. Then reduce by dividing the
common factor, x2 + x + 1.

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SOLVING EQUATIONS INVOLVING RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

Activity 25

Fractional Equations are solved by multiplying both sides of the equations by the LCD. This
method produces an equation equivalent to the original one as long as we do not multiply by zero.
Multiplying by an expression that is equal to zero can produce an equation that is not equivalent to
the original equation and thus can produce an extraneous value. An extraneous value is not a solution
of the original equation. Hence, when solving an equation with a variable in the denominator, check
that the solutions do not include a value excluded from the domain of the variable because of division
by zero.

Solving an Equation Containing Rational Expressions

1. Multiply both sides of the equation by the LCD.

2. Solve the resulting equation.
3. Check the solution to determine whether it is an excluded value
and therefore extraneous.

Examples: Solve

1) 2)

Solution:

a)
Note that x – 7 is an excluded value.
( ) ( ) Multiply both members of the equations by
the nonzero LCD x – 7. The LCD is nonzero
3 + 5x – 35 = 8
since 7 is an excluded value. Solve the
5x = 40 resulting equation.
x=8
Since x = 8 is not an excluded value, this
Answer: The solution set is {8}. solution should satisfy the equation.

Verify.
b) Note that the only excluded value is a = 3.
Noting that the denominators are opposites,
( ) = (a – 3)(4) + ( ) change to .

Multiply both sides by the nonzero LCD, a – 3.

The LCD is nonzero provided a 3.

Solve the resulting equation for a.

This value causes division by zero in the orginal
equation, so there is no solution. a = 3 is the excluded value noted above, so
this value is extraneous.
Answer: The solution set is .

M 101: COLLEGE and ADVANCED ALGEBRA