CHAPTER- i1

INTRODUCTION

CONCEPT iOF iSANITATION iAND iPUBLIC

iHEALTH

“Poor isanitation iand iwater isupplies iare ithe iengines ithat idrive icycles iof idisease,
ipoverty iand ipowerlessness iin ideveloping inations1”

1. Introduction

Preservation iof igood ihealth iis isynonymous ito iand iinevitable ifor i survival i and
iprogress iof ihuman irace. iHealthy iliving iconditions iand igood iquality ihealth iis inot
ionly ia inecessary irequirement; iit iis ialso ia irecognized ihuman iright ifor ieach iand
ievery iindividual.2 iTogether, i“clean iwater, isanitation, ipersonal ihygiene iand igood
inutrition” iare ithe ibasic iessentials iwhich imust ibe iprovided ito ithe iinhabitants iof ithe
ideveloped ias ialso iof ithe ideveloping iworld.3 iAll ithese ifactors iplay ia icrucial irole iin
ireducing idisease iand ienhancing ihealth, iand iabsence iof ieven ione ifactor ican icertainly
ilessen ithe ipositive ieffect iof ithe iother ifactors, istill, igenerally, isanitation iis ithe imost
ineglected.4

Farther iaway ifrom ithe ifocus iof ipublic ieye, ian iunseen icontingency icontinues i to
iunfold. iNeither iit iis ias icatastrophic ias ia ibomb iblast inor idoes iit iclaim idozens iof
ilives ior iengulfs ientire igeographical iarea ilike ia iflash iflood idoes, iinstead iit
ivictimizes imostly iinfants iand iyoung ichildren ifrom irural ivillages iand iurban islums,
ione iby ione, iin ia icountable itime iperiod, iand ileading ito iits igrimace, iis ilargely
iunnoticeable. iEvery iday, ithis iperpetual ibut iapparently iinvisible icalamity iclaims ithe
ilives iof iaround i3,900 ichildren ibelow ifive, iaccording ito iWorld iHealth iOrganization5.

1
Available iat: ihttp://www.google.co.in/url?url=http://www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/human-
iwaste.pdf&rct i(Last iaccessed ion iMarch i10, i2015).
2
iSrivastava, iSanjay iPrakash, iSanitation, iPublic iHealth iand iHealth iCare iLaws iin iIndia: iAnalyzing
iTheoretical iFoundations i(May i21, i2011).
3
iAvailable iat: ihttp://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2014-08-(Last iaccessed ion iMay19,
i2015). i4 iSobsey iMD, iBartram iS. iWater iquality iand ihealth iin ithe inew imillennium: ithe irole
iof ithe iWorld iHealth iOrganization iGuidelines ifor iDrinking-Water iQuality. i2003; i56:396-405.
5
Available iat: ihttp://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp04_2.pdf i(Last iaccessed ion
iJan i18, i2015).
1
 The itoll ithat ipoor ihealth itakes ion iits ivictims iis inot ijust ia idefinite iand ifinal ideath
ibut ialso icontinuous isufferings, idecreased iproductivity iand ilost iopportunities ifor
ieducation. iBehind ithis iwholesale ideprivation iof ilife iand ipotentiality iis ithe ilack iof
isomething ithat inearly ieveryone iconsiders ifor igranted, isomething iessential,
iunremarkable, icommon; itoilets iand iother idimensions iof iimproved isanitation iand isafe
idrinking iwater.6

Worldwide i2.5 ibillion ipeople ilack iimproved isanitation ifacilities iand i15 iper icent ii.e
ialmost iaround i1.1 ibillion iinhabitants iout iof ithe itotal ipopulation istill iresort ito
idefecting iin iopen, icommonly idefined ias i“defecation iin ifields, iforests, ibushes, ibodies
iof iwater ior iother iopen ispaces.”7

The iUnited iNations iconsidered ithe igravity iof ithe isituation iin iits i„Millennium
iSummit‟ iwhich iwas iheld iin iNew iYork iin ithe iyear i20008 iand ithereafter, iduring iits
i„World iSummit ion iSustainable iDevelopment‟ iwhich iwas iheld iin iJohannesburg iin ithe
iyear i2002,9 ideveloped ithe i„Millennium iDevelopment iGoals‟ i(MDGs) iwith ithe ivision
iof ieradicating ipoverty iand iattaining isustainable idevelopment. iInitially, ithe ibasic igoal
ito ibe iachieved iby ithe iyear i2015 iwas ito ireduce iby ihalf ithe itotal ipopulation ihaving
ino iaccess ito iclean idrinking iwater iand ifacilities ifor isanitation iin ithe ibaseline iyear iof
i199010 ibut ialarming ievidences iprove iotherwise ias ino isignificant iimprovements icould
ibe iwitnessed iin igeneral isanitary iconditions.

In i2015, ionly i2.9 ibillion ipeople imade iuse iof ia itoilet, iout iof iwhich, i1.9 ibillion
ipeople iused iprivate isanitation ifacilities iwhich iwere iconnected ito iproper isewerage
isystems iand i0.9 ibillion ipeople iused ilatrines ifrom iwhich iexcreta iwas idisposed iof iin
isitu.11 iHowever, iprogress iis ilargely iuneven ibetween ipeople iof idifferent iregions,
ibetween iinhabitants iof irural iand iurban iareas iand ibetween irich iand ipoor ipopulation.12
iStill, i2.3 ibillion ipeople iwere ivictims iof ithis iglorifying iproblem iand i892 imillion
idefecated iin ithe iopen. iAlmost i80% iof iwastewater igot idischarged iinto irivers idue ito
iwhich iat ileast i10% iof ithe iworld‟s itotal ipopulation iwas iforced ito

6
iIbid.
7
iWHO iand iUNICEF iProgress ion iDrinking-water iand iSanitation: i2012 iUpdate, iWHO, iGeneva iand
iUNICEF, iNew iYork, i5.
8
i Available iat: i http://www.un.org/en/events/pastevents/millennium_summit.shtml i (Last i accessed i on
i 2015 iJuly15).
9
iAvailable iat: ihttp://www.joburg.org.za/pdfs/johannesburgdeclaration.pdf i(Last iaccessed ion i2015 iJul15).
10
i Millennium i Development i Goal i (MDG) i 7, i Target i 10, i aims i to i “Halve, i by i 2015, i the
i proportion i of i people iwithout isustainable iaccess ito isafe idrinking iwater iand ibasic isanitation.”
2
11
i Available i at: i https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sanitation i (Last i accessed i on i 2017
i Jan i28).
12
iIbid..

3
consume ifood iirrigated iby iwastewater iaccounting ito ideath i of iaround i 1000 ichildren
iper iday.13

After ithe iexpiry iof ithe itimeline ifor iachieving iMDG, ia irelatively inew iset i of
isustainable idevelopment igoals ihave ibeen iadopted iwith ithe ideadline iof iyear i2030.
iThese inew itargets ispecially ifocus ion iimproving iwater iquality iand iending iopen
idefecation, ithe iultimate ioutcome iof iwhich, ionly itime iwould itell.14

The iunsanitary iconditions iare iparticularly iappalling iin iIndia15 ias iit istill ilags imuch
ibehind ivarious ideveloping ias iwell ias ideveloped icountries iin ithe iarea iof i improved
isanitation.16 iOn ithe i„Environmental iPerformance iIndex‟ iof iYale iand iColumbia, iit
istands iat idisappointing i21st iposition ion isanitation, ias iagainst i67th iregional iposition
iand i48th iposition iamongst iits irelative iincome igroup.17 iThis iall ileads ito imoving ithe
ioverall iposition iof ithe icountry ito i120th ii.e isignificantly ibelow iall iits isimilar iincome
igroups.18

Around i700 imillion iIndians ido inot ihave ithe iliberty ito iuse ia iproper itoilet ibecause
iof iwhich iIndia ican ibe itermed ias ithe i“world‟s ilargest iopen iair ilavatory” iwhere
ialmost ithree-fifth iof ithe iworld‟s itotal ipopulation iis iseen isquatting ioutside19 iand ionly
i13% iof ithe isewage igenerated iby ithe i1.1 ibillion ipeople iis itreated.20 iThis iwater
ipollution i leads i to i the itransmission iof ioral-fecal idiseases ilike idiarrhea iwhich
ialone iis iresponsible ifor iover i535,000 ideaths, iof iyoung ichildren iup ito ithe iage iof i5
iyears. iPolluted iwater ialso iresults iin ibreeding iof imosquitoes ithat ibeing ithe idefinite
icarriers iof idiseases ilike iMalaria iand iDengue ifever iare iapparently ithe ireason ibehind
ianother i300,000 ideaths iin iour icountry ievery iyear.21

Thus, ias ia iresult iof ipoor isanitary iconditions, iour icountry iis ilosing icrores iof irupees
iannually; idiseases i proving idear ito i the ipoor i families, iand ifor ithe ieconomy ias
i a iwhole iwith

13
iwater, isanitation iand ithe imillennium idevelopment igoals: ia ireport icard ion iglobal iprogress iby ijoan
ib. irose, iphd ijuly i10, i2015

14
iAvailable iat: ihttps://waterandhealth.org/safe-drinking-water/drinking-water/water-sanitation-
millennium- idevelopment-goals-report-card-global-progress/(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iJan i16)
15
iMajra iJP, iGura. iIndia ineeds ia igreat isanitary iawakening. iIndian iJ iOccup iEnviron iMed. i2008;
i12:143.
16
iPandve iHT. iEnvironmental isanitation: iAn iignored iissue iin iIndia. iIndian iJ iOccup iEnviron iMed.
i2008; i12:40.
17
iAvailable iat: ihttp://epi.yale.edu/epi/country-rankings i(Last iaccessed ion i2015 iJan i15).
18
iAvailable iat: ihttp://www.newsweek.com/india-environmental-mess-91207(Last iaccessed ion i2015 iMarch
4
i17). i19Available iat: ihttp://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/9354258/India-the-worlds-largest-
open- iair-toilet.htmlIndia i(Last iaccessed ion i2015 iJuly i18).
20
Available iat: i http://www.economist.com/node/12749787 i(Last iaccessed ion i2015 iFeb i12).
21
iBhattacharya iSK. iProgress iin ithe iprevention iand icontrol iof idiarrheal idiseases isince iIndependence.
iNatl iMed iJ iIndia. i2003;16:15–9.

5
 regard i to i the i loss i of i productivity iand i incurring i of i expenditures i on i medicines,
i health i care, iand ifunerals.22

2. Concept iof iSanitation

Sanitation iis ia ibrooding itopic iof ithe ihour iin iour isubcontinent, igaining iits istature ias
ia imatter iof iserious idiscussion. iAnother ialarming ifact ibeing ithat ino iclear idefinition
i of iSanitation iis ideclared iby ithe iUnited iNations iSystem. iDifferent iorganizations
ihave iused ivarying idefinitions.23

So ifar ias ia inormative idefinition iof iright ito isanitation iis iconcerned, ithe
i„International iYear iof iSanitation‟ i2008 iprovided ithe imuch ineeded iimpetus ias iit
ideclared ithat, i“ iEveryone, iand ithat imeans iall ipeople iin ithe iworld, ihas ithe iright
ito ia ihealthy ilife iand ia ilife iwith idignity. iIn iother iwords, ieveryone ihas ithe iright ito
isanitation.” i24

Taking ithis iopportunity, ithe i„World iHealth iOrganization‟ ihas iexplained ithe iword
„sanitation‟ ias:

"Sanitation igenerally irefers ito ithe iprovision iof ifacilities iand iservices ifor ithe
isafe idisposal iof ihuman iurine iand ifeces”. iThe iterm i“sanitation ialso irefers ito ithe
imaintenance iof ihygienic iconditions, ithrough iservices isuch ias igarbage icollection iand
iwastewater idisposal."25

It ihas ifurther ibeen idefined iby ithe i„Water iSupply iand iSanitation iCollaborative
iCouncil‟ ias i"The icollection, itransport, itreatment iand idisposal ior ireuse iof ihuman
iexcreta, idomestic i wastewater i and i solid i waste, i and i associated i hygiene
i promotion"26 i and i by
„Millennium iDevelopment iGoals‟ i(MDGs) ias i“connection ito ia ipublic isewer,
iconnection ito ia ipublic isystem, ipour iflush ilatrine, isimple ipit ilatrine ior iventilated
iimproved ipit ilatrine. iThe iexcreta idisposal isystem iis iconsidered iadequate iif iit iis
iprivate ior ishared i(but inot ipublic), iand iif iit ihygienically iseparates ihuman iexcreta
ifrom ihuman icontact”.27

22
Available iat: ihttp://theviwspaper.net/sanitation-and-hygiene-the-need-of-the-hour/ i(Last iaccessed ion
i2015 iMarch i2).
23
iAvailable iat: ihttp:// iwww.wssinfo.org/definitions-methods/introduction/(Last iaccessed ion i2015 iMarch
i28).
6
24
iWHO iand iUNICEF iProgress ion iDrinking-water iand iSanitation: i2012 iUpdate, iWHO, iGeneva iand
iUNICEF, iNew iYork.
25
iAvailable iat: i https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation i(Last iaccessed ion i2015 iJune i12).
26
iAvailable iat: ihttp://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2012/jmp_report/en/(Last iaccessed
ion i2015 iMarch i23).
27
iSupra inote i13 iat i689.

7
 Thus, ithe iterm i“Sanitation inot ionly iimplies ithe idisposal iof ihuman iexcreta ias iis
ibeing iunderstood; iit iis ia ibroader iconcept iencompassing iseven icomponents ilike,

i) safe idisposal iof ihuman iexcreta,

ii) usage iand imaintenance iof isafe idrinking iwater,
iii) personal ihygiene,
iv) food iand ihome ihygiene,
v) safe idisposal iof isolid iwaste,
vi) safe idisposal iof iliquid iwaste, iand
vii) Community ienvironment icleanliness”.28

3. Right ito iSanitation: iInternational iPerspective

The i “Human i Right i to i Sanitation” i is i related i to i and i is i almost i inseparable i from

i the
„human iright ito isafe idrinking iwater‟ ias iwithout iproper ifacilities ifor isanitation,
iablution iof ithe ihuman ibeings ipollute ithe iwater iresources, idegrades ithe iwater iquality
iand ileads ito idisastrous ihealth ieffects. iMoreover, iit iis ialso irooted iin idifferent ihuman
irights ifor iinstance, ihuman iright ito ihave ian iadequate istandard iof iliving, ibetter
ifacilities ifor ihousing, ipublic ihealth, ieducation, iclean idrinking iwater, iwork, ilife,
iphysical isecurity ietc.29

„Universal iDeclaration ion iHuman iRights‟,30 i1948 istates ithat i“everyone ihas ithe iright
ito ia istandard iof iliving iadequate ifor ithe ihealth iand iwell-being iof ihimself iand iof ihis
ifamily, iincluding ifood, iclothing, ihousing iand imedical icare iand inecessary isocial
iservices”.31 iThe ihuman iright ito ihave ian i„adequate istandard iof iliving‟ ihas ifurther
ibeen iprovided iby ithe isubsequently idrafted iUnited iNations ideclarations ias iwell ias
itreaties, ithe imost isignificant ibeing ithe i„International iCovenant ion iEconomic, iSocial,
iand iCultural i Rights‟, i 196632. iArticle i1133 iof ithe i1966 iconvention iensures ithe
iprovision iof ithe iprivilege ito ian i„adequate istandard iof iliving‟, iwhereas, iArticle i12

iprovides ifor ithe i„right ito ihealth‟. iSo, iit ican ibe istated
28
iAvailable iat: ihttp://www.unwater.org/downloads/media/sanitation/10Things.pdf(Last iaccessed ion
i2015 iMarch i28).
29
iHuman iRights iCouncil, iReport iof ithe iIndependent iExpert ion ithe iIssue iof iHuman iRights
iObligations irelated ito iAccess ito iSafe iDrinking iWater iand iSanitation, iPromotion iand iProtection iof
iAll iHuman iRights, iCivil, iPolitical, iEconomic, iSocial iand iCultural iRights, iIncluding ithe iRight ito
iDevelopment, i4, iA/HRC/12/33( iJul. i1, i2009) i.
30
iAvailable iat: ihttp://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/(Last iaccessed ion i2015 iMarch i28).
31
iArticle i25(1) i.
8
32
Available iat: ihttp://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CESCR.aspx i(Last iaccessed ion
i2015 iMarch i28)
33
iArticle i11(1).

9
that ihaving iapproachable imeans iof idrinking iwater iand isanitation ifacilities iis i an
iinbuilt ifeature iof iall ithese ibasic ihuman irights ias ihaving ithe iprivilege ito ienjoy iboth
iis ithe ikey ideterminant iof ione‟s ihealth iand iwell-being.

There iare icertain iHuman irights itreaties iwherein ispecific ireference iis igiven ito isafe
idrinking iwater iand isanitation ias iwell. iArticle i14 i(2) i(h) iof ithe i„Convention ion ithe
iElimination iof iAll iForms iof iDiscrimination iagainst iWomen‟,1979 i(CEDAW)
iprovides, i“the iright ito ienjoy iadequate iliving iconditions, iparticularly iin irelation ito
ihousing, isanitation, ielectricity iand iwater isupply, itransport iand icommunications”.34
iSimilarly, i„The iUnited iNations iConvention ion ithe iRights iof ithe iChild‟, i1989
iemphasized ithat iunder iArticle i24, i“States ihave ia iresponsibility ito iensure iaccess ito
iclean idrinking iwater”.35

Further, ithe i„Convention ion ithe iRights iof iPersons iwith iDisabilities‟, i2006 i36
i(CRPD) iprovides iunder iArticle i28(a), i“the iright ito iensure iequal iaccess iby ipersons
iwith idisabilities ito iclean iwater iservices, iand ito iensure iaccess ito iappropriate iand
iaffordable iservices, idevices iand iother iassistance ifor idisability-related ineeds”.

Even ithe i„ILO iConvention iNo. i161 iof i1985‟ idealing iwith i„Occupational iHealth
iServices‟ iensures iunder iArticle i5 ithat, i“Without iprejudice ito ithe iresponsibility iof
ieach iemployer ifor ithe ihealth iand isafety iof ithe iworkers iin ihis iemployment, i…
ioccupational ihealth iservices ishall ihave isuch iof ithe ifollowing ifunctions i…: i(b)
iSurveillance iof ithe ifactors iin ithe iworking ienvironment iand iworking ipractice iwhich
imay iaffect iworkers‟ ihealth, iincluding isanitary iinstallations”.37

Thus iit iis iclear ithat ithe ihuman iright ito ihave iaccess ito iclean idrinking iwater iand
iimproved isanitation iis ifully iincorporated iunder iinternational ilaw ias ibasic ihuman
iright38 iand ithe isame ihas ialso ibeen icovered iunder ithe inational ilegislation.

34
iCommittee ion ithe iElimination iof iDiscrimination iagainst iWomen, igeneral irecommendation iNo. i24
i(1999) ion iarticle i12 iof ithe iConvention i(women iand ihealth), iPara. i28.
35
iCommittee ion ithe iRights iof ithe iChild, igeneral icomment iNo. i7 i(2006) ion iimplementing ichild
irights iin iearly ichildhood, iPara. i27.
36
iAvailable iat: ihttp://www.un.org/disabilities/convention/conventionfull.shtml i(Last iaccessed ion i2015
iMarch i15).
37
iAvailable iat: ihttp://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?
p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C161 i(Last iaccessed ion i2015 iMarch i15).
38
iAvailable iat: ihttp://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Press/IE_2009_report.pdf(Last iaccessed ion i2015 iMarch
i15).
10
4. Right ito iSanitation: iNational iPerspective

The ibasic iprivilege iof ihaving iaccess ito ifacilities ifor isanitation iin iIndia itakes iits
ipresent ilegal iform ifrom ithe i„fundamental irights‟ iprovided iin ithe i„Constitution iof
iIndia‟. iEven ithough ithe i„right ito isanitation‟ ihas inot ibeen iexpressedly iincorporated
ias ia ifundamental iright iunder ithe iIndian iConstitution, istill, ithe iever iactive ijudicial
ilimb iof ithe igovernment ihas iincluded iit iwithin ithe iambit iof ithe i„fundamental
iright ito ilife‟ iprovided iunder iArticle i21 iof
„The iConstitution iof iIndia‟, i195039. iHon‟ble ithe iApex iCourt iof iIndia, iobserved:

“The iright ito ilife ienshrined iin iArticle i21,

icannot ibe irestricted ito imere ianimal
iexistence. iIt imeans isomething imuch imore
ithan ijust iphysical isurvival.”40

In i„Vikram iDeo iSingh iTomar iv. iState iof iBihar‟,41 ithe iSupreme iCourt iapproved ithe
iabove iobservation iand iheld ithat:

“The iright ito ilife iincludes ithe iright ito ilive

iwith ihuman idignity iand iall ithat igoes ialong
iwith iit, inamely, ithe ibare inecessaries iof
ilife”42.

Further iin ithe ilandmark ijudgment iof i„L. iK. iKoolwal iv. iState i(Rajasthan)‟,43 ithe
iHon‟ble iCourt ideclared ithat,

“Maintenance iof ihealth, ipreservation iof ithe

isanitation iand ienvironment ifalls iwithin ithe
ipurview iof iArticle i21 iof ithe iConstitution
ias iit iadversely iaffects ithe ilife iof ithe
icitizen iand iit iamounts ito islow ipoisoning
iand ireducing ithe ilife iof ithe icitizen ibecause
iof ithe ihazards icreated, iif inot ichecked.44”

39
iArticle i21.
40
iKharak iSingh i v. iState iof iU.P., iAIR i1963 iSC i1295.
41
iAIR i1988 iSC i1782.
42
iId i.at i2.
43
iAIR i1988 iRaj i2.
11
44
iId. iat i2.

12
Thus, iArticle i21 iwith ithe iexpansion iof iits iscope ihas icasted ia iduty iupon ithe iState
ito isecure ito ieach iand ievery iindividual, iincluding ia iprisoner, iwhether ihe ibe ia
iconvict ior iunder- itrial ior ia idetenu, ian iopportunity ito ienjoy ihis ilife iin ia ibetter
imanner iwith idignity, iwhich iincludes ithe iright ito ipractice isafe isanitation.45

For iachieving ithese igoals, ithe imakers iof ithe i Constitution i simultaneously
iincorporated i„Directive iPrinciples iof iState iPolicy‟ iwhich, ithough iunenforceable iare
istill ifundamental iin igovernance iof ithe icountry iand iattach ivaluable iimportance ito ithe
iprotection iand iimprovement iof ienvironment, ibetter iliving iconditions, ihealth, iadequate
ilevel iof inutrition iand ithe istandard iof iliving iby iimproving ihealth iof ithe igeneral
ipublic.46

„Article i47‟ iin iPart iIV i(Directive iPrinciples) iincorporated iby ithe i42nd iAmendment
iof ithe iConstitution, icasts ian iobligation ion ithe iState ito iaddress ithe iissues irelated ito
ipublic ihealth ias iits iforemost iduty. iApart ifrom iit, i„Article i48-A‟ iof i„Constitution iof
iIndia‟, i1950, ienjoins ithat i"the iState ishall iendeavor ito iprotect iand iimprove ithe
ienvironment iand ito isafeguard ithe iforests iand iwild ilife iof ithe icountry". i„Article i51-
A i(g)‟of i„Constitution iof iIndia‟, i1950 icasts i"a ifundamental iduty ion ievery icitizen iof
iIndia ito iprotect iand iimprove ithe inatural ienvironment iincluding iforests, ilakes, irivers
iand iwild ilife iand ito ihave icompassion ifor iliving icreatures".47

Therefore, iit iis ithe iobligation iof ithe iState ias iwell ias ithe iindividuals ito i strive ito
iachieve ia ihygienic ienvironment iwhich iwhen inot ifulfilled, igives ithe iliberty ito
i every iinhabitant iof ithe icountry ito iknock ithe idoors iof ithe iCourt ito imake isure ithat
ithe iState, iinstrumentalities, iagencies, idepartments, ilocal ibodies iand istatutory ibodies
iempowered iunder ithe ilaw iof ithe iland ifulfill iits ipart isincerely.48

Like ithe iState, ievery icivic iauthority iis iclothed iwith ipower iand iequipped iwith
imeans ito iensure ithe icitizens iright ito ienjoy ilife iwith idignity iand iif iit ifails ito
iprovide ithem, iit iwould iviolate iArticle i21. i„Article i243 iG‟ iof i„Constitution iof
iIndia,‟ i1950 ihas iempowered iPanchayats ito itake idecisions iwith iregard ito ithe imatters
idealt iunder ithe i„eleventh iSchedule‟ iand iunder i„Article i243-W‟49 iof i„Constitution iof
iIndia‟, i1950, iread iwith ithe i„Twelfth iSchedule‟ iof ithe iConstitution, ieven ithe
imunicipalities iare imandated ito iact ias iinstitutions iof iself-governance iin imatters ilike
i:- i“(i) iwater isupply ifor idomestic, iindustrial iand icommercial

45
iP. iBharathi iv. iUnion iTerritory iof iPondicherry iand iOrs, i2007 iCriLJ i1413.
46
iAvailable iat: ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directive_Principles_in_India i(Last iaccessed ion i15th iJuly
13
i2014).
47
iExcerpt ifrom icase iVirender iGaur iand iothers i v. iState iof iHaryana iand iOrs, i1995(2)SCC577.
48
iExcerpt ifrom ithe icase iAlmitra iH. iPatel iv. iUnion iof iIndia, iAIR i2000 iSC i1256 iat i2.

14
purposes i; i(ii) ipublic ihealth, isanitation, iconservancy iand isolid-waste imanagement i;
i (iii) iurban iforestry, iprotection iof ienvironment iand ipromotion iof iecological iaspects i;
i (iv) iprovision iof iurban iamenities iand iconveniences”, ietc.

Thus, iit iis ithe ifunction iof ithe ilocal iauthority ii.e. ithe imunicipal iauthority ito imaintain
icleanliness iby itimely idisposal iof ithe igarbage iand isolid iwaste iand ito iresolve ithe
idifficulties iof ithe icitizens ivis-a-vis iwater ilogging, ipit ifalls, imud, ietc. iWhen ithey ifail
ito idischarge ithese ifunctions, ithis iCourt iis iwell iwithin iits ibounds ito igive iproper iand
iadequate idirections ito ithe icivic iauthorities.50

Dealing iwith ithe iissue iof iproviding ibasic iamenities ito ithe icitizens iwhile ifulfilling
iits iprimary iobligation ientrusted iby ithe iConstitution, ithe iApex iCourt ianalyzed ithe
iproblem iemerging iout iof ithe iproceedings imentioned iunder iSection i133 iof ithe
i„Criminal iProcedure iCode‟ iin i„Municipal iCouncil, iRatlam iv. iVardhichand iand
iothers‟,51 iwherein iit iwas iheld ithat:

“Where ithere iexisted ia ipublic inuisance iin ia

ilocality idue ito iopen idrains, iheaps iof idirt,
ipits iand ipublic iexcretion iby ihumans ifor
iwant iof ilavatories iand iconsequential
ibreeding iof imosquitoes, ithe iCourt icould
irequire ithe iMunicipality iunder iSection i133
iof ithe iCriminal iProcedure iCode iand iin
iview iof iSection i123 iof ithe iMunicipalities
iAct ito iabate ithe inuisance iby itaking
iaffirmative iaction ion ia itime-bound ibasis.
iWhen isuch iorder iwas igiven, ithe
iMunicipality icould inot itake ithe iplea ithat
inotwithstanding ithe ipublic inuisance;
ifinancial iinability ivalidly iexonerated iit
ifrom istatutory iliability.52”

Thus, ithe imunicipal iauthorities icannot irun iaway ifrom ifulfilling itheir iresponsibilities
iset iout iunder istatute. iMoreover, ithe iprovisions ilaid iunder i„Criminal iProcedure
iCode‟, i1973 imust ibe iadhered ito iby ithe istatutory ibodies iirrespective iof ithe ifinancial
ilimitations.

15
50
iExcerpt ifrom icase iSuo iMoto iv. iAhmedabad iMunicipal iCorporation iand iOrs. i2006(2) iGLR i1129.
51
iAIR i1980 iSC i1622.
52
iId.at i8-9.

16
 Section i133 ialso icasts ithe iresponsibility ion ithe iMagistrate ito iget ithe inuisance
iremoved iwithin ispecific itime iperiod.53 iIt iis ia istatutory iobligation icasted ion ithe
ipublic iauthority iclothed i with i statutory ipower i to i be i carried i on i the i behalf i of
i the i public i in i general iafter ithe iinitiation iof ipublic iproceeding. iAnd iany ilapse iin
ifulfilling ithe isaid iorder iwill iattract ithe iprovisions iof iSection i188, i„Indian iPenal
iCode‟, i1860.54

This iConstitutional iduty iearmarked ifor ithe iState iand iits iinstrumentalities iunder
iSection i133 iof i„Code iof iCriminal iProcedure‟, i1973 ihas ialso ibeen istrengthened iby
iSection i91 iof i„Civil iProcedure iCode‟, i1908 iand iSection i268 iof i„Indian iPenal
iCode‟, i1860 ias ithey iare ibound ito itake inecessary isteps ito ipromote, iprotect iand
ienhance iboth ithe iman-made iand ithe inatural ienvironment.

5. Right ito iHealth i

According ito iArticle i25(1) iof iUniversal iDeclaration iof iHuman iRights i“Everyone ihas
ithe iright ito ia istandard iof iliving iadequate ifor ithe ihealth iand iwell-being iof ihimself
iand iof ihis ifamily, iincluding ifood, iclothing, ihousing iand imedical icare iand inecessary
isocial iservices, iand ithe iright ito isecurity iin ithe ievent iof iunemployment, isickness,
idisability, iwidowhood, iold iage ior iother ilack iof ilivelihood iin icircumstances ibeyond ihis
icontrol”. iThe igenerally isatisfactory imeaning iof ihealth iis ithat igiven iby ithe iWHO iin
ithe iintroduction iof iits iconstitution, ias iindicated iby ithe iWorld iHealth iOrganization,
i“Health iis ia icondition iof icomplete iphysical, imental iand isocial iprosperity iand inot ionly
ithe inonappearance iof idisease”. iAs iof ilate, ithis iannouncement ihas ibeen iintensified ito
iincorporate ithe icapacity ito ilead ia i‘socially iand ieconomically iproductive ilife’.

Earlier ithe iRight ito iHealth iwas ia ipart iof iDirective iPrinciples iof iState iPolicy i(DPSP).
iArticle i38 iof iIndian iConstitution iimposes ian iobligation ion ithe iState ithat istates iwill
imake isure iabout ia isocial irequest ifor ithe iadvancement iof igovernment iassistance iof ithe
iindividuals ihowever iwithout igeneral ihealth iwe ican’t iaccomplish iit. iIt iimplies iwithout
igeneral ihealth igovernment iassistance iof iindividuals iis iunthinkable. iIn iIndia ithe
iDirective iPrinciple iof iState iPolicy iunder iArticle i47 ithinks iof iit ias ithe iessential
iobligation iof ithe istate ito iimprove igeneral ihealth, imaking isure iabout iequity, ihuman
istate iof iworks, iexpansion iof idisorder, imature iage, idisablement iand imaternity ibenefits
17
iand ifurthermore ithought iabout. iHowever, ithe iSupreme iCourt ihas icarried ithe iright ito
ihealth iunder iArticle i21. iThe iextent iof ithis iarrangement iis iextremely iwide. iIt iendorses
ithe iright iof ilife iand iindividual ifreedom. iThe iidea iof iindividual ifreedom ifathomed
inumerous irights, iidentified iwith iby iimplication ito ilife ior ifreedom iof ian iindividual.
iFurthermore, ipresently ian iindividual ican iguarantee ihis iright iof ihealth. iConsequently,
ithe iright ito ihealth, ialongside ivarious iother icommon, ipolitical iand imonetary irights, iis
imanaged iinsurance iunder ithe iIndian iConstitution.

Constitutionality iof iArticle i21

According ito iArticle i21 iof ithe iConstitution i– i“no iperson ishall ibe ideprived iof ihis/her
ilife ior ipersonal iliberty iexcept iaccording ito ithe iprocedure iestablished iby ilaw. i‘Life’ iin
iArticle i21 iof ithe iConstitution iisn’t ijust ithe iphysical idemonstration iof ibreathing. iIt
idoesn’t iimply iinsignificant icreature ipresence ior iproceeded iwith idrudgery ithrough ilife.
iIt ihas ia ilot imore iextensive iimportance iwhich iincorporates ithe iright ito ilive iwith
ihuman inobility, ithe iright ito ilivelihood, iright ito ihealth, iright ito ipollution ifree iair, iand
iso iforth. iIn ithe iState iof iPunjab iv. iM.S. iChawla, iit ihas ibeen iheld ithat-the iright ito
ilife iensured iunder iArticle i21 iincorporates iinside iits iambit ithe iright ito ihealth iand
iclinical iconsideration. i

The iSupreme iCourt iin iVincent iv. iUnion iof iIndia, iaccentuated ithat ia ihealthy ibody iis
ithe ivery iestablishment iof iall ihuman iactivities. iArticle i47, ia iDirective iPrinciple iof
iState iPolicy iin isuch imanner ilays ipressure ion ithe iimprovement iof igeneral ihealth iand
idenial iof imedications iharmful ito ihealth ias ione iof ithe iessential iobligations iof ithe
istate. iIn iConsumer iEducation iand iResearch iCenter iv. iAssociation iof iIndia, ithe
iSupreme iCourt iset iout ithat: i“Social iequity iwhich iis ia idevice ito iguarantee ilife ito ibe
isignificant iand idecent iwith ihuman inobility irequires ithe iState ito igive ito ilaborers
ioffices iand ichances ito ireach iat iany irate ileast istandard iof ihealth, imonetary isecurity
iand iedified iliving. iThe ihealth iand iquality iof ilaborers, ithe icourt istated, iwas ia
isignificant ifeature iof iright ito ilife. iDisavowal ithereof ibares ithe ilaborers ithe ibetter
iaspects iof ilife idamaging iArt. i21.”

Historical iBackground iand iJurisprudence iof iRight ito iHealth i

18
Right ito ihealth ialludes ito iand imeans ithe imost iachievable idegrees iof ihealth ithat ieach
iperson iis iqualified ifor. iHealth ihas ibeen igreatly iviewed ias ithe iessential iand imajor
ihuman iright iby ithe iglobal inetwork iunder iworldwide ihuman irights ilaw. iAs iopposed ito
ithe ivarious ihuman irights, ithe iright ito ihealth imakes ia icommitment iupon ithe istates ito
iguarantee ithat ithe iright ito ihealth iis iregarded, iensured iand isatisfied, iand iis iproperly
iqualified ifor ievery ione iof iits iresidents. iAs iindicated iby iSalmond, ieach iright ihas ia
irelating iobligation ito ibe isatisfied iand ithere ican ibe ino iright iwithout ian iequal
icomponent iof iobligation. i

Also, ithere iare iboth ipositive iand inegative ienforceable isubstances iwith irespect ito ithe
iright ito ihealth; ithese ireach ifrom isatisfactory isecurity iby ithe istate, igiving iequivalent
ihealth icare ioffices ito ievery iperson iand iforcing ithe imost isignificant icommitment iupon
ithe istate ito imake isuch iideal iconditions iwhich irender ithe isatisfaction iof ithe iright ito
ihealth. i

The ibeginning iof ithe iright ito ihealth idates iback ias i1946 iwhen ithe iprimary iglobal
iassociation, iWorld iHealth iOrganization i(WHO) iappeared ito ifigure ihealth iterms ias
ihuman irights. iAlso, ieven ibefore ithe ihappening ito ithe iWorld iHealth iOrganization,
ithere iwere ia ifew inations ithat ihave ibeen iin ithe iperiod iof iconceding ihealth ias ia
icentral iright. iThe idevelopment iowes iits ireality ito ithe imodern iupheavals iadditionally
iwherein ithe ilaborers iwere itreated ias iitems iand ithe ibusinesses ipaid ino iheed ito ithe
iinsanitary istates iof iworking izones. iAccordingly, ithe iinterest ifor ihealth ideveloped ito
ithe idegree ithat iit icame ito ibe itreated ias ione iof ithe isignificant iparts iof ithe icrucial iand
iessential ihuman irights ithat iany iindividual ihaving ihis/her ireality ion iearth iis iqualified
ifor. i

The ibasic irequirements ito ibe ifulfilled iin iproviding iright ito ihealth

A imore iintensive igander iat ithe iuncovered icontent iof ithe iConstitution iof iIndia iwill
irender ito ithe iend ithat ithe iRight ito ihealth ihas inot ibeen ilegitimately ijoined ias ia imajor
iright. iNotwithstanding, ithe icomposers iand ithe iestablishing ifathers iof ithe iconstitution
ihad iextremely iunrealistic ivision iand iin ithis imanner, ihad iforced ithe iobligation ion istate
iin ithe iidea iof iDirective iPrinciples iof iState iPolicy iunder iPart iIV iof ithe iConstitution
iwherein iit iis ithe iduty iof ithe istate ito iguarantee isocial iand ifinancial iequity ito iits
iresidents. iIn ithis iway, ia igeneral isurmising iis ithat iPart iIV iof ithe iConstitution

19
ilegitimately ior iin ia iroundabout iway iidentifies iwith ithe iopen istrategy ias ifar ias ihealth.
i

Article i38 iof ithe iConstitution isets iout ithe iduty iof ithe istate ito imake isure iabout isocial
irequests ifor ithe iadvancement iof ithe igovernment iassistance iof igeneral ihealth. iArticle
i39 istatement i(e) irelates ito ithe iassurance iof ihealth iof ithe ilaborers. iArticle i41 iidentifies
iwith igiving iopen ihelp iby ithe istate iin iuncommon iconditions, ifor iexample, idisorder,
ihandicap, imature iage iand iso ion. iArticle i42 iensures ithe ihealth iof ithe inewborn ichild
iand ithe imoms, ifor iexample ias iit iwere, iit irelates ito imaternity iadvantage. iArticle i47
iforces ian iessential iobligation iof ithe istate iin iprogress iof igeneral ihealth, iin imaking
isure iabout iequity, igiving iaccommodating istates iof iwork ito ithe ilaborers, iaugmentation
iof iadvantages irelating ito iinfection, ihandicap, imature iage iand imaternity ibenefits.
iWhat’s imore, ithe istate iis iunder ia icommitment ito ideny ithe iutilization iof ialcohol iin
ilight iof ia ilegitimate iconcern ifor ithe iopen igreat. iArticle i48A istates ithe iobligation iof
ithe istate itowards igiving iof ia idecent iand ihealthy icontamination ifree icondition. i

In iany icase, ithese iDirective iPrinciples iof iState iPolicy ihold ionly iconvincing iworth iand
iare inon-justiciable, ifor iexample ithey iare inot ienforceable iin ithe iofficial icourtroom. i

For ithe ivery iexplanation iof iDirect iPrinciples iholding ijust ipowerful iworth, ithe istate
iutilized ithis ias ia iweapon ito iget iaway ifrom iits iobligation, iduty iand iliabilities iin
igiving iand isecuring ihealth iof ithe iregular iopen. iConsequently, ithe iHon’ble iSupreme
iacted ias ithe ihero iand ibrought ithe iright iunder ithe idomain iof iArticle i21 iof ithe
iConstitution iof iIndia. iThe iextent iof iArticle i21 ihas, iin ithis imanner, ibeen iextended.
iArticle i21 iguarantees ithe iright iof ilife iand ifreedom ito ievery iperson, iresidents ior inon-
residents. iThe iidea iof iindividual ifreedom iis iintended ito iincorporate irights ithat imight
ipossibly ibe ilegitimately iconnected ito ithe ilife iand ifreedom iof ian iindividual; iwhich
ipresently iincorporates ithe iright ito ihealth itoo. i

The icommencement iof ithe itime iof idynamic ilaw ifollowing iacknowledgment iof iprincipal
iright iwas iof ilate iduring ithe isuit irelating ito ihuman irights iin iKesavananda iBharati.
iWhat’s imore, iaround ia isimilar itime iadditionally, ithe istanding istandards iwere iloose
irelating ito ithe iadvancing iof iPublic iInterest iLimited, iand iaccess ito iequity. iThere
ifurther iprompted ia iprecarious iascent iin ithe ihealth irelated isuit. i

20
In ithis iway, ithere iwere ifurther iimprovements iincluding ifoundation iof ithe ishopper
icourts iand ibesides, ithe iacknowledgment iof ihealth icare ias iprincipal iright. iThis iis ion
ithe igrounds ithat ithe iSupreme iCourt ipermitted ipeople ito iapproach istraightforwardly ifor
ithe iinsurance iof ihuman irights. i

Right ito ilife iunder iArticle i21 iof ithe iConstitution ihas ibeen igenerously ideciphered ito
imean isomething imore ithan ionly ihuman ipresence iand iincorporates ithe iright ito ilive
iwith inobility iand iconventionality. iIn i1995, ithe iHon’ble iSupreme iCourt iof iIndia ion
iaccount iof iParmanand iKatara iheld ithat ithe iindividuals iwho iare irevealed iinto ithe
icalling iof iclinical iare iresponsible ifor igeneral ihealth iand ihave ian iintrinsic icommitment
ito iensure ithe iequivalent iso ithe iindividuals iwho iare ihonest ican ibe isecured iand ithe
iblameworthy ibe irebuffed. iIn ione imore iinstance iof iSpring iMeadow iHospital, ithe icourt
iheld ithat ithere iis ia irequirement ifor isharpening iof iimportant ilaw irelating ito ithe
isubstance iof ithe iright ito ihealth. iA idemonstration ito imanage ilegitimate irestriction iof
imarketed itransplantation ihas iadditionally ienergized ithe iright ito ihealth. i

Subsequently, ithe iacknowledgement iof inobility iand ibasic iright ito ilife iprompted
iperceiving ithe isignificance iof ihealth. iFor ianother isituation iof iBandhua iMukti iMorcha
iv. iAssociation iof iIndia, ithe icourt iheld ithat idespite ithe ifact ithat ithe iDirective
iPrinciples iof iState iPolicy ihold iinfluential iworth, iyet ithey iought ito ibe iappropriately
iactualized iby ithe istate; iand iit iwas ifor ithis isituation iadditionally ithat ithe icourt ihad
ideciphered ithe ipoise iand ihealth iinside ithe iambit iof ilife iand ifreedom iunder iArticle i21
iof ithe iConstitution iof iIndia. iIn iConsumer iEducation iand iResearch iCenter iv.
iAssociation iof iIndia, ithe icourt ihad iexplicitly iopined ithat iright ito ihealth iwas
iadditionally ia ifundamental ifactor ito ihave ian iimportant iexistence iand ifor ithe iright ito
ilife iunder iPart iIII. iWhat’s imore, ithe icourt ilikewise iexpressed ithat ihealth iincorporates
ithe ientrance ito iclinical iconsideration ifor ithe imost inoteworthy ifulfillment iof
iexpectations ifor ieveryday icomforts. i

In ithe iRam iLubhaya icase, iwhile ilooking iat ithe ispinning iaround ithe iissue iof iright ito
ihealth iunder iArticle i21, i41 iand i47 iof ithe iConstitution iof iIndia, ithe icourt isaw ithat
ithe iright iof ione iassociates iwith ithe iobligation iof ianother. iConsequently, ithe iright
iendowed iunder iArticle i21 iforces ian iequal iobligation ion ithe istate iwhich iis iadditionally
istrengthened ias iunder iArticle i47. iDespite ithe ifact ithat ifew ischools iand iemergency
iclinics iare iset iup iby ithe iadministration ihowever, ithe iobligation iisn’t isatisfied iuntil
21
ithey ican ibe iin ireach iof ithe ioverall ipopulation. iIt iis irelevant ito itake inote iof ithat ithe
iHon’ble iCourt ifor ithis isituation irespected ihealth ito ibe ia iconsecrated, iholy iand
iimportant iright. i

Further, iin iPaschim iBanga iKhet iMazdoor iSamity icase, ithe iextent iof iArticle i21 iwas
iadditionally ibroadened; ithus ithe icourt iheld ithat iit iis ithe iduty iof ithe ilegislature ito
igive isufficient iclinical iguidance ito ieach iindividual iand ito iwork iin ithe igovernment
iassistance iof ithe ioverall ipopulation. iIn iaddition, iArticle i21 iforces icommitment ion ithe
iexpress, ithe istate iis irequired ito iensure iand ishield ithe irights iof ieach iindividual. i

The iHon’ble iSupreme ifor ianother isituation iheld ithat ihealth iis ia icentral iright iand iisn’t
ilimited ito ijust inonattendance iof iailments ior iaffliction. iThe iclinical iand ihealth ioffices
iare ikind iof iimpetus ifor ithe ilaborers’ ito iwork iwith ibest iefficiency iboth iin iphysical
iand imental iterms. iDefinitively, iclinical ioffices iare ilikewise ipart iof ithe igovernment
imanaged isavings. iIn ithe iT. iRamakrishna iRao icase, ithe iHon’ble iHigh iCourt igave ithe
iperception ithat iensuring icondition iis ithe iobligation iof ithe itwo iresidents iand ithe istate.
iArticle i21 ilikewise igrasps ithe isecurity iand iconservation iof ithe iearth ifor ithe
iexplanation ithat ithe inatural icontamination iis ia imoderate idemise iand ialong ithese ilines,
iit iis iinfringement iof iArticle i21 iof ithe iConstitution iof iIndia. iIn ithe ipopular iinstance
iof iRatlam iMunicipal iCorporation, ithe icourt iheld ithat iit iis ithe iessential iobligation iof
ithe istate iunder iArticle i47 iof ithe iConstitution ito iguarantee ithe ieveryday ienvironments
iof ithe iindividuals iare ihealthy iand iuphold ithis iobligation iagainst iany ilegislative ibody
ior iauthority iwho idefaults iin idoing iso iindependent iof ithe imoney irelated iassets iit ihas. i

The iConstitution iof iIndia ion ithe iright ito ihealth icare

The iSupreme iCourt, iin iPaschim iBanga iKhet imazdoor iSamity iand iors iv. iThe iState iof
iWest iBengal iand iOrs, iwhile ibroadening ithe iextent iof iArticle i21 iand ithe
iadministration’s iobligation ito igive iclinical iguidance ito ieach iindividual iin ithe ination,
iheld ithat iin ia igovernment iassistance iexpress, ithe iessential iobligation iof ithe
iadministration iis ito imake isure iabout ithe igovernment iassistance iof ithe iindividuals.
iGiving isatisfactory iclinical ioffices ito ithe iindividuals iis ia icommitment iembraced iby ithe
iadministration iin ia igovernment iassistance istate. iThe iadministration ireleases ithis
icommitment iby igiving iclinical iconsideration ito ithe ipeople itrying ito iprofit ifrom ithose
ioffices. iArticle i21 iforces ia icommitment ion ithe istate ito idefend ithe iright ito ilife iof
ieach iindividual. iProtection iof ihuman ilife iis ihence iof icentral isignificance. iThe
22
iadministration iemergency iclinics irun iby ithe istate iare icompelled iby ia isolemn
iobligation ito iexpand iclinical ihelp ifor isaving ihuman ilife. iDisappointment iwith irespect
ito ian iadministration iemergency iclinic ito igive iideal imedical itreatment ito ian iindividual
ineeding isuch itreatment, ibrings iabout iinfringement iof ihis iright ito ilife iensured iunder
iArticle i21. iThe iCourt imade icertain iextra ibearing iin iregard iof igenuine iclinical icases: i

1. Sufficient ioffices iare igiven iat ithe igeneral ihealth ihabitats iwhere ithe ipatient
ican ibe igiven iessential itreatment iand ihis icondition ibalanced iout. i

2. iMedical iat ithe ilocale iand isub idivisional ilevel iought ito ibe iredesigned iwith
ithe igoal ithat igenuine icases ibe itreated ithere. i

3. Offices ifor igiven iauthority itreatment iought ito ibe iexpanded iand ihaving
irespect ito ithe ideveloping ineeds, iit imust ibe imade iaccessible iat ithe iarea iand
isub idivisional ilevel iemergency iclinics. i

4. So ias ito iguarantee iaccessibility iof ibed iin iany icrisis iat iState ilevel imedical
iclinics, ithere iought ito ibe ia iconcentrated icorrespondence iframework iwith ithe
igoal ithat ithe ipatient ican ibe isent ipromptly ito ithe iemergency iclinic iwhere
ibed iis iaccessible iin iregard ito ithe itreatment, iwhich iis irequired. i

5. iLegitimate igame iplan iof irescue ivehicles iought ito ibe imade ifor itransport iof
ia ipatient ifrom ithe igeneral ihealth iplace ito ithe iState iemergency iclinic. i

6. Sanitation iin iIndia: iA iNeglected iIssue

Despite iall ithese ilegislative isafeguards, iIndia‟s isanitation iis iexecrable iand iin ithe
iprevious iyear ior itwo ithe iproblem ihas ibecome ialarmingly iurgent. iHistorically, ithe
iIndians ihave iprioritized ion ihaving iaccess ito ifacilities ifor isanitation. iUnderground
idrainage isystems iwere ialso iestablished iduring ithe iIndus iValley iand iHarappa
icivilizations iso ias ito ifacilitate ithe ipassage iof iwaste iwater. iAround i5000 iyears iago,
ithe iSanitary iengineering iwas iat ia imuch ideveloped istage.55 iImproved ifacilities ifor
isanitation icould ieven ibe iwitnessed iacross ithe idynasties iof ithe iMauryas, iGuptas ior
ithe isouthern ikingdom iof iVijayanagara ithat iruled ithe isubcontinent iat ithat itime.
iDifferent isocial ireformers iof iIndia ialso ifocused ion ithe isignificance iof isanitation iand
ilead ivarious icampaigns ito ipropagate ithe isame. iWhether iit ibe iPatanjali‟s iphilosophy,
iteachings iof iVivekananda ior ithe iGandhian inotion iof isanitation, ithe iSanitation iwas

23
igiven iutmost iimportance iin iIndia‟s ihistory56.

53
Available iat: ihttp://www.shareyouressays.com/knowledge/removal-of-public-nuisances-section-133-of-
icrpc/119538 i(Last iaccessed ion i2015, iFeb i22)
54
iSupra inote i52 iat i8.
55
iExcerpt ifrom ithe icase iR. iTamilarasi iand iothers iv. iDistrict iCollector, iSalem iand iOthers,
i2011(6) iR.C.R. i(Civil) i2515.
56
i Available i at: i http://pragati.nationalinterest.in/2014/08/indias-sanitation-story/ i (Last i accessed i on
i 2015 i Feb i17).

24
6.1 Lack iof iToilets: iWomen’s iSafety iand iGirl-Child iAbsenteeism iin iSchools

Lack iof iSanitation ihas ispecial iconsequences ifor iwomen, inot ijust iin iterms iof iassault
ias ifaced iby ithe iBadaun isisters97, ibut ialso iin iterms iof ihealth. iBeing iforced ito iwait
i for ithe iprivacy iof idarkness ileads ito iurinary itract iinfection, iconstipation, istress iand
ipoor imenstrual ihygiene. iAggrieved iand ibeing iinfluenced iby iBollywood imovie,
i„Toilet: iEk iPrem iKatha‟, ithe iyounger ilot iis ieven irefusing ito imarry itheir iprospective
igrooms iwho iare inot ihaving iaccessible ifacilities ifor isanitation iat itheir irespective
iplaces iby iinitiating itheir iown imovement i-"No iToilet, iNo iBride" ior, ias iit iis
icommonly icalled, i"No iloo? iNo iI ido.” i98

Lack iof iSanitation ialso iresults iin igirls idropping iout iof ischools ionce ithey iattain
ipuberty.99 i Recognizing i the i gravity i of i the i situation, i the i government i of i India
i launched i the
„National iUrban iSanitation iPolicy‟ iin i2008 iwith ithe iagenda iof iachieving i100%
isanitation icoverage iin iurban iareas.100The ipolicy imakes iit inecessary ifor ischools ito
iemphasize ion iproper isanitation, i personal i hygiene, i clean i toilet i habits i and, i most
i importantly i separate i toilets i for igirls iand iboys. iHowever, ireports ishow ithat ifour
iout iof i10 ischools iacross i India istill idon‟t ihave ifunctional itoilets, iwhile imore ithan
i31% iof ischools ihave ino iseparate iprovision iof itoilets ifor igirls. iEven iif ibathrooms
ifor igirls iare iavailable, imany iof ithem iare iunsatisfactorily imaintained ior iare
iinadequate iin inumber. iThis icauses igirls ito iremain iabsent ifrom iclasses ifor ilong
iperiods iof itime, ior, iin iextreme icases, iquitting ischool.101

Availability iof iToilets iat ischools ihas ieven ibeen ipropagated iunder ithe i„Right ito
iEducation iAct‟, i2009102 iand ifurther irecognized iby iHon‟ble ithe iApex iCourt iin ithe
idecision irendered iin iEnvironmental iand iConsumer iProtect. iFound iv. iDelhi
iAdministration iand iOrs103but ithe iStates ihave iclearly ifailed ito ifulfill itheir
iresponsibility iof iproviding ithe ibasic iamenities iearmarked iunder ithe iAct.

97
Available iat: ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Badaun_gang_rape_allegations(Last iaccessed ion i2015
iMarch i15).
98
iAvailable iat: ihttp://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/l ilI/AR2009101101934.html.
i(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iMay i12).
99
iAnubha iDhal i“Separate iToilets ifor iWomen imust.” iMint, iJune i17, i2014.
100
iAvailable iat: ihttp://indiagovernance.gov.in/files/NUSP.pdf(Last iaccessed ion i2015 iMarch i15).
25
101
iSupra inote i93.
102
iAvailable iat:http://mhrd.gov.in/rte_rules(Last iaccessed ion i2015 iMay27).
103
i2012(10)SCC211.

26
Analysis iof iUnion ibudget i2018-2019 ireveals ithat ithere ihas ibeen ia i2.1 i% idecline
iover i2017-18 ibudgetary iallocation itowards ithe iNational iHealth iSector iwhich iwas
imere i1.8% iof ithe itotal iCentral iBudget iin ithe ibudget i year iof i2014-15. iSimilarly,
iSwachh iBharat iMission ihas ialso ifaced ia icut iof i7% ifrom ithe ishare iallocated ito ithe
imission iduring ilast iyear. iMoreover, ithe ishare iof iannual ibudget itowards iinformation,
ieducation iand iactivities ifor icommunication ihas ialso idropped iby i6% ifrom ithe
iallocation iin ithe iyear i2017-18.154

Thus, ieven ithough ithe istudy i“squatting irights”, istates i“Sanitation ibrings ithe isingle
igreatest ireturn ion iinvestment iof iany idevelopment iintervention i– ifor ievery i$1 ispent
ion isanitation iat ileast i$9 iis isaved iin ihealth, ieducation iand ieconomic idevelopment,”
istill idue ito ilow ipublic iinvestment itowards ihealth iand isanitation isector, ithe
isanitation isystem iis ifound iin iruins.155

6.12 Scattered ilegal iinstruments

This iproblem iis iall ithe imore ipressing ias icurrently, ithere iare ia imajority iof iscattered
ilegal iinstruments ithat ideal iwith ithe iright ito isanitation.156.

There iare iprovisions iin irespect ito isanitation ifrom ithe ilocal ito ithe inational ilevel.
iFurther ithere iare iseparate ipolicies iand ilaws ifor ithe irural ias iwell ias ithe iurban iareas
ilike i„The iCentral iRural iSanitation iProgramme‟ i(CRSP) ilaunched iin i1986, i„National
iRural iHealth iMission‟ iin i2005, iIndira iAwas iYojana ieffective ifrom i2004, i„Total
iSanitation iCampaign‟ i(TSC) icommissioned iin i1999 iand ithen ire- ilaunched ias
i„Nirmal iBharat iAbhiyan‟ i(NBA) iwith ieffect ifrom i1 iApril i2012 iand ithe irecently
iinitiated i„Swachh iBharat iAbhiyan‟ iin ithe iyear i2014. i157 iIn iaddition, ia ipoignant ipart
iof ithe ibroader isanitation iframework iis ifound iin isectors iof ilaw ithat ihave icloser ior
ilooser iassociation iwith isanitation ilike ithe iwater ilegislation158 ithat

153
iTejinder iK. iSoni. i“Health iCare ifor iAll: iA iHuman iConcern” i5 iArmy iInstitute iof iLaw iJournal.
i102 i(2012). i154 iAvailable iat:www.firstpost.com, ifeb i02 i2018, ibudget i2018: iHealth, ieducation,
isanitation iallocation iappears ito ibe imost iin i3 iyears ibut iit iisn‟t. i(Last iaccessed ion i11 iDec i2018).
155
iSupra inote i 60.
156
iAvailable iat: ihttp://www.ielrc.org/content/f12031.pdf i(Last iaccessed ion i2015
iMarch i28). i157 iAvailable iat: ihttp://www.ielrc.org/content/f1301.pdf i(Last iaccessed ion
i2015 iMarch i28). i158 iSee iSection i19 iof iThe iWater i(Prevention iand icontrol iof
iPollution) iAct, i1974.

27
 often iincludes isanitation iin iits ipurview, ias iwell ias, ienvironment ior ihealth
ilegislation159 ior ilabor ilegislation160 ior ifood isafety ilaws161.

However, iat ithe imost iground ilevel, ithere iis ineither iany ilegislation iproviding ithe
iframework ithrough iwhich ithe iright ito isanitation ican ibe irealized inor iframework
ilegislation iadministering ithe isanitation isector iin igeneral.

7. Objectives iof iStudy

The iresearch iwas icarried iout ito iachieve ithe ifollowing iobjectives:

1. To istudy ithe icontextual iissues isurrounding ithe isanitation icrisis iin iIndia.

2. To istudy i and icritically ianalyze ithe ivarious iConstitutional iand

ilegislative iprovisions iconcerning isanitation iand iits iviolation ithereof.

3. To i study i and i critically i analyze i the i various i policy i initiatives i that

i has i been iadopted iby ithe iGovernment iso ias ito irecognize ithe iright ito
isanitation.

4. To ianalyze iwhether ispecial ipolicy iattention ihas ibeen igiven iwith iregard
ito ithe iphysical iand isexual iviolence ifaced iby iwomen ipracticing iopen
idefecation.

5. To istudy ithe isanitation ilaws iand ischemes ispecifically idealing iwith ithe
ieradication iof imanual iscavenging.

6. To istudy ithe ivarious icase ilaws iand iunderstand ithe ijudicial i opinion
irecognizing ithe iright ito isanitation.

7. To imake isuggestions ifor ithe iimprovement iin ithe ipresent ipolicy iand
iregulatory iframework idealing iwith ithe iright ito isanitation iso ithat iit ican
ibe iproperly iimplemented.

8. Research iHypotheses

To ifulfill ithe iabove isaid iobjective, ithe ifollowing iresearch ihypotheses iwere iformulated:

1. The iprevalent ilegal iand ipolicy imeasures iin iIndia ifully irealize ithe iright ito
isanitation ias ian iaccepted ibasic ihuman iright.

159
See iSection i3 iof iThe iEnvironment i(Protection) iAct, i1986.
28
160
iSee iSection i13 iof iThe iChild iLabor i(Prohibition iand iRegulation) iAct, i1986 iand iChapter i3 iof
iThe iFactories iAct, i1948.
161
iSee iSection i18 iof ithe iFood iSafety iand iStandards iAct, i2006.

29
 2. Right i to i Sanitation i seems i to i be i incorporated i but i not i efficiently
iimplemented i under ithe ilegal iframework.

9. Research iMethodology

The iresearch iwork iwas ibased iupon iboth ithe idoctrinal iand inon-doctrinal imethod. iThe
idoctrinal istudy iincluded ithe istudy iof isecondary idata iwhich icomprised iof istatutes,
itext ibooks, ilegal icommentaries, ilegal ijournals, ireporters, ijudgments, ireports iof
iPlanning iCommission iof iIndia iand iLaw iCommission, inewspapers, imagazines,
idigests, iwebsites iand ipublished istatistics. iThe inon- idoctrinal istudy iwas iin ithe iform
iof iprimary isource ior ifirsthand istudy iand iwas icollected ithrough iquestionnaires.

10. Review iof iLiterature

Literature iReview iis ia irecital iof iwhat ihas ibeen ipublished ion itopic iso ifar iand
iconclude ithe iresearch ifindings ithat iothers ihave ireported iand icomment ion ieach
istudy‟s iworth iand ivalidity. iThe ireview iof ithe iprofessional iliterature iin icompliance
ito imy iresearch iarea iwill ihelp ito icontextualize ior iframe imy iresearch iwork. iIt iwill
ialso igive ireaders ithe iprerequisite ibackground ito iunderstand imy iresearch.162

Philippe iCullet iand iLovleen iBhullar, iin itheir ibook ientitled, i“Sanitation iLaw iand
iPolicy iin iIndia: iAn iIntroduction ito iBasic iInstruments163” ihave igiven ian ioverview iof
ithe iprevalent ilegal ias iwell ias ipolicy iinstruments irelated ito isanitation iin iIndia. iThis
ibook iis ithe imost icomprehensive iaccount ion isanitation iin iIndia ithat ilays ispecial
iprominence ion ithe ilegal idimensions iof isanitation iin iIndia iand ifocuses ion ithe
iimportance, icomplexity, iand ifragmented icharacter iof ithe ilegal iand ipolicy iframeworks
ithat iinform ithe isanitation isector i.

The ibook i“Squatting iwith iDignity: iRural isanitation iin iIndia164” iby iKumar iAlok
ispeaks i about i the i story i of i the i successes i and i challenges i faced i in i building i the
i fast i growing irural isanitation inetwork iin iIndia. iIt idisplays ia idetailed iaccount iof
i the idevelopment iof ithe irural isanitation imovement iin iIndia iin ithe ilast idecade.

162
iAvailable iat: ihttp://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/henrichsenl/ResearchMethods/RM_3_03.HTML(Last
ivisited ion i12th iJuly i2015).
163
iPhilippe iCullet iand iLovleen iBhullar, iSanitation iLaw iand iPolicy iin iIndia: iAn
iIntroduction ito iBasic iInstruments, i(Oxford iUniversity iPress,2015).
164
iKumar iAlok, iSquatting iwith iDignity: irural isanitation iin iIndia i, i(Cloth,2010).

30
The ibook igives ia ihistorical iaccount iof ithe isignificance iattached ito isanitation iand
ihygiene iin iancient iIndia iand ithe ievolution iof isanitation ipolicy iin imodern iIndia iand
iseizes iin idetail ithe ikey idebates iand ichallenges iconfronted iby ipolicy imakers iand
iprogram imanagers iacross ithe istates. iOne ichapter istudies iabout ithe iweaknesses iin
ithe iprogram iand ithe iscope iof iimprovement. iThe ibook idetails ia ivision ifor ithe
ifuture iof ithe isanitation iprogram iin iIndia iand iprovides iinnovative iideas ifor
idelivering ia isecond igeneration iof isanitation iinitiatives. iThe ilessons ifrom iIndia iare
iequally isignificant ifor iother icountries iin ithe iworld ithat iare istruggling iwith isimilar
iproblems.

Philippe iCullet‟s ibook i“Realizing ithe iRight ito iWater iand iSanitation iat ithe
iInternational iand iNational iLevels: iThe iCase iof iIndia165” ioutlines ithe iright ito iwater
iand isanitation iat iboth ithe iinternational ilevel iand inational ilevels. iTaking ia ilook i at
i the iinternational ilegal idimension ithe ibook ianalyses ion ithe irecognition iof ithe
ihuman irights iinstruments, ithe iwater iand isanitation ipart iof iother ihuman irights
iparticularly ithe irights ito ihealth, ifood iand iequality, iand ithe iother iinternational ilaw
iinstruments iwhich iinvariably ileads ito ithe iprovision iof ithis iright iitself.

At ia inational ilevel ithe ibook ianalyses iIndia ias ia icountry iwhere ithe iexistence iof ia
ifundamental iright ito iwater iand isanitation iis igreatly iuncontested. iThe ibook iexamines
ithe icomplex ilegal iframework iin iplace iat ithe iunion iand istate ilevel ifor ithe
irecognition iof ithe iright iin iboth irural iand iurban iareas i and ialso iconsiders iongoing
iand iproposed ireforms ito ithe ilaw iand ipolicy iin iIndia.

The ibook i“Encouraging iChange, iSustainable iSteps iin iWater iSupply, iSanitation iand
iHygiene166” iwritten iby iS iSutton iand iH iNkoloma iconsiders iat iways ito ienable ipeople
ito iadvance itheir iwell-being ithrough ibetter iwater isupply, iwater iuse, isanitation iand
ihygiene. iIt iuses imethods iwhich iinvolve iall ifractions iof ithe icommunity iand
iconcentrates ion ichanges ithat ican ibe igained iat iminimal icosts.

The iideas iin ithe ibook iproduces ia iframework iin ia iform ithat ican ibe iaccustomised iby
ipeople iin ivarious icountries iso ithat ithe ifacts ican ireflect ithe ilocal isituation irather
ithan ithat iin ia

165
iPhilippe iCullet, iSanitation iLaw iand iPolicy iin iIndia: iAn iIntroduction ito iBasic
iInstruments, i(Routledge,2015).
Available iat: ihttp://www.amazon.in/Realizing-Sanitation-International-National-Levels/dp/
0415532728(Last ivisited ion i27th iJuly i2015).
166
S iSutton iand iH iNkoloma i, iEncouraging iChange, iSustainable iSteps iin iWater iSupply, iSanitation iand
31
iHygiene
, i(TALC i,2003).

32
different icountry ito i achieve iimprovements, ieven iwhen ioutside iassistance iis inot
iavailable, iand ithe istress iis ion ilow icost, ior ino icost ichanges.

Philippe iCullet iand iSujith iKoonan‟s ibook inamed i“Water iLaw iin iIndia: ian
iIntroduction ito iLegal iInstruments167”under ichapter i5 ititled ias iSanitation, iWater
iQuality iand iEnvironment iaddresses ithree idistinct ibut iclosely ilinked iissues. iThe
ifirst iis isanitation, iwhich iis iintrinsically ilinked inot ionly ito iwater isupply, ibut ialso ito
iissues iof iwater iquality i(health) iand ithe ienvironment. iThe isecond isection iconsiders
iexisting iattempts iat iproviding iwater iquality istandards iand iwater ipollution. iThese
iare ias iimportant iin iterms iof idrinking iwater ias ithey iare iin iterms iof ihealth iand
ienvironmental iaspects. iThe ilast isection iconsiders ibroader iaspects iconcerning iwater
iand ienvironment.

The iBig iNecessity: iThe iUnmentionable iWorld iof iHuman iWaste iand iWhy iIt
iMatters168”written iby iRose iGeorge iaddresses ithe itaboo, irevealing ieverything ithat
imatters iabout ihow ipeople ido iand idon‟t ihandle itheir iown iwaste. iFrom ithe ideep
iunderground isewers iof iParis, iLondon, iand iNew iYork, ian iinfrastructure icatastrophe
iis iwaiting ito ihappen ito ian iIndian islum iwhere iten itoilets iare ishared iamongst i60,000
ipeople, i Rose iGeorge istops ialong ithe iway ito istudy ithe ipotential isaviors: iChina‟s
ifive imillion ibiogas idigesters, iwhich igenerate ienergy ifrom iwaste; ithe iheroes iof ithird
iworld isanitation imovements; ithe iinventor iof ithe ihumble i Car i Loo; i and i the i U.S.
i Army‟s i personal i lasers i consumed i by i soldiers i to i zap i their ifeces iin ithe ifield.
iWith irazor-sharp isatire iand icrusading iurgency, iamalgamating ilevity iwith igravity,
iRose iGeorge ihas iturned ithe isubject iwe ilike ito irefrain ifrom iinto i a icause i with ithe
imost iserious iof iconsequences.

The iarticle, i“Fixing idreadful isanitation iin iIndia irequires inot ijust ibuilding ilavatories
ibut ialso ichanging ihabits169” ielaborately idiscusses ithe ipractice iof idefecating iin ipublic
iin icontinuum iwith inumerous iother ihabits iof ispreading ithe ifilth. iThe iauthor ihas
istated ithat iwhile ithe iproblem iof idefecation iis isignificant, ithe itolerance iof iIndians
itoward ifilth iin itheir ipublic ispaces iis iastonishingly iingrained iand ithis iis itrue inot
ijust iof ipoor iIndians iwho ihave ino ispace ibut icuts iacross iwealth iand ieducation
ilines. iNevertheless, icrediting iopen idefecation ito

167
iPhilippe iCullet iand iSujith iKoonan, iWater iLaw iin iIndia: iAn iIntroduction ito iLegal

33
iInstruments, i(Oxford iUniversity iPress,2011).
168
iRose iGeorge i, iThe iBig iNecessity: iThe iUnmentionable iWorld iof iHuman iWaste iand iWhy
iIt iMatters i, i(Metropolitan iBooks, i2008).
169
i Available iat: i http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21607837-fixing-dreadful-sanitation-india-requires-
not- ijust-building-lavatories-also-changing i(Last iaccessed ion i15th iJuly i2014).

34
religious idoctrines imight ibe iextending ithings itoo ifar. iRural iIndia idoes ihave ia
icultural iinclination itowards iopen idefecation, ibut iI isuspect ithat iit ihas imore ito ido
iwith iabsence iof iawareness irather ithan iHinduism.

Shikha iNayyar‟s iarticle ititled, i“Sanitation, iHealth iand iHygiene iin i India170”
idescribes isome iinteresting istatistics ion isanitation iin iIndia. iIt ialso iexplains ihow
ipublic ihealth ieducation icampaigns ion igeneral itools isuch ias ihand iwashing ican ihelp
ito ibenefit ihealth iand ihygiene iin iIndia.

Heidi iWorley iin iher iarticle ipublished ias, i“Water, iSanitation, iHygiene, iand
iMalnutrition iin iIndia171” ihas ianalyzed ithe ilink ibetween ihigh irates iof ichild
imalnutrition iin iIndia iand ithe icountry""s ipoor isanitation, iilluminating ia ipotential
icause iof ia iprotracted iproblem. iShe ihas iexplained ithat ifor iIndia, ithe iproblem iis inot
iabsence iof ifood, ibut irather ia ilack iof itoilets ifor ione-half iof iits iinhabitants, ii.e. iat
ileast i 620 imillion ipeople, idefecates iin iopen.

Aarti iKelkar-Khambete”s iarticle, i“The isanitation icrisis iin iIndia i- iAn iurgent ineed ito
ilook ibeyond itoilet iprovision172” isheds ilight ion ithe ifact ithat iaround i65% iof ithe itotal
iIndian ipopulation ilacks iaccess ito itoilet ifacilities iand ithe ihouseholds iwith iaffordable
isanitation ifacilities imake ivery iless iuse iof ithe isame. iIn ithe icoming ifuture, iIndia iis
islowly imoving itowards ia imajor isanitation icrisis ias iall ithe iefforts imade iin
iaddressing isanitation ichallenges ihave igiven ilimited iresults.

She ieven istates ithat iit iis ihigh itime ito icritically iexamine iand ishift iour ifocus ifrom
iproviding ithe ifacilities ito ithe ipresent icomplexities iof ithe iissues iinvolved, ithat iare
ilargely iresponsible ifor iaffecting ithe ibehavior iof ithe ipeople ias iif iwe ido inot
i address i the isame, iwe iraise ithe irisk iof i"missing iall ithe itrees ifor ithe iforest", ii.e.
isimply iby icounting ithe inumber iof itoilets iraised, iwe itend ito iignore ithe isocial iand
ieconomic iimpact ithat ithe isanitation irequirements ihave ion ithe ipeople.

170
iAvailable iat:http://www.healthissuesindia.com/2014/02/05/sanitation-health-hygiene-india/(Last
iaccessed ion i23rd iFeb2015).
171
iAvailable iat:http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2014/india-sanitation-malnutrition.aspx
i(Last iaccessed ion i9th iNov i2014).
172
iAvailable iat:http://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/sanitation-crisis-india-urgent-need-look-
beyond- itoilet-provision i(Last iaccessed ion i30th iJune i2015).

35
 11. Significance iof ithe iStudy

For ithe ilongest itime, isanitation igained ilittle iattention ifrom ipolicymakers iand ilawyers,
ialthough iit iwas inot ientirely ioutside ithe ipurview iof ilaws iand ipolicies iin iIndia.
iHowever, ithe ipast icouple iof idecades ihave iseen ia isignificant idifference iin ithe
imanner iin iwhich isanitation iis icatered ito, iboth iat ithe inational iand iinternational
ilevels. iWhile ithis ichange iis icoexisting iwith ian iincreasing iinterest iamong iacademics
iand ipractitioners iin ithe ipolicy iperspectives ion isanitation, ithe istress ion iits ilegal
idimensions ihas ilagged ibehind isignificantly. iThe ipiecemeal inature iof ithe iprevalent
ilegal iinstruments ihaving ia ibearing ion isanitation iand ithe iabsence iof iawareness iabout
ithese iinstruments ihas ifurther iassisted iin ithis iknowledge ideficit.

This istudy itries ito ifill ithis igap iby ipiecing itogether ithe isupplies iof ithe iexisting ilegal
iinstruments ithat iattempt ito iaddress ithe ivarious idimensions iof isanitation iin iIndia. iIn
ithe iprocess, iit ifeatures, ito iresearchers, ipolicy-makers, ilawyers iand iother ipeople
iconcerned iabout isanitation, ithe iprominence, icomplexity iand ifragmented inature iof ithe
ilegal iand ipolicy iframeworks ithat iinform ithe isector.

12. Universe iof iStudy

The iempirical istudy iwas iconducted iin iand iaround ithe iperiphery iof iUnion iTerritory
iof iChandigarh, ionce i„The iCity iBeautiful‟, iwhere iat ipresent ihundreds iof ithousands
iare ibeing iaffected idue ito ipreventable iconditions ieach iyear ibecause iof ithe idemons
i of ipoor isanitation iand ihealth iissues iarising iout iof ithe isame, iso ias ito ilist iout isome
iof ithe isteps iwhich iwould ihelp ito iraise ithe icondition iof isanitation iand ias ia
iconsequence ithe iliving istandards iof ithe ipeople.

13. Plan iof iStudy

The istudy iis ibroadly idivided iinto isix ichapters ithat iaddress ithe ivarious iaspects
irelated ito ithe iright iof isanitation. iEvery ichapter iincludes ia iseparate iintroduction ithat
iprovides ithe iframework iof ithe isubject idealt itherein iand iends iwith ia iconclusion ithat
isums iup ithe iissue istated iin ithe irespective ichapters ioutlined ias iunder:

Chapter i1: iIntroduction: iConcept iof iSanitation iand iPublic iHealth.

This iis ithe iintroductory ichapter ithat idraws iour iattention itowards ithe ioften ineglected,
iyet, imost iimportant ideterminant iof ihealth iof ian iindividual- iSanitation. iIn ithis
ichapter, ithe iconcept iof isanitation ihas ibeen iexplained iand ithe icurrent iglobal ias iwell
36
ias i Indian iposition iwith iregard ito ithe isanitation isector ihas ibeen ianalyzed iby
ihighlighting ithe iastonishing ifacts

37
 and ifigures. iMajor iareas iof inational iconcern ihave ialso ibeen idiscussed ithat
iculminates iwith ia isuitable iconclusion.

Chapter i2: iLaws irelating ito iSanitation iand iPublic iHealth: iInternational iPerspective.

This iChapter itraces ithe iinternational ijourney iof irecognition iof ithis iright ias ihuman
iright. iIt ienlists ithe idifferent itreaties, iconventions, iconferences, iresolutions iand
ideclarations iwhich ipaved ithe iway ifor idelinking iof ithis iright ifrom iright ito isafe
idrinking iwater iand iits iultimate iacceptance ias ia iseparate ihuman iright iessential ifor
ienjoyment iof iother ihuman irights. iAt ithe iend, ithe ichapter ialso ilays idown ithe
iregulatory imechanisms ilaid idown iunder ithese iinternational iinstruments ifor iensuring
itheir iproper iimplementation.

Chapter i3: iLaws irelating ito iSanitation iand iPublic iHealth: iNational iPerspective.

This iChapter istudies iin idetail ithe ivarious inational ilegal iinstruments ias iwell ias ipolicy
idocuments ithat iimplicitly ias iwell iexplicitly irecognize ithe iright ito isanitation. iThe
iChapter ihighlights ithat ieven ithough iour ilegal iframework iis idevoid iof iany ispecific
ilegislation ito ideal iwith ithe isanitation isector, ibut istill iit ihas ibeen igiven iconsiderable
irecognition ithereby istrengthening ithe igoals iand iobjectives iset iout iunder ithe
iConstitution.

Chapter i4: iRole iof iJudiciary iin ithe irealization iof ithe iright ito iSanitation iand iPublic
iHealth.

This iChapter ianalyses ithe iactive irole iplayed iby ithe iThird iPillar iof iour iGovernment iin
iGiving idue irecognition ito ithe ibasic iright iof ian iindividual ito ihave iaccess ito isafe iand
ihealthy ienvironment ias ialso ito ithe isanitation ifacilities iby iliberal ienlargement iof ithe
iscope iof iRight ito iLife. iIt iexamines ithe ivarious idirectives iand iinstructions iissued ito
idifferent ipublic iand imunicipal iauthorities iafter ithe iintervention iof ijudiciary iin ithis
isocial isector ithus ilaying idown ithe itargets ito ibe iachieved ifor ithe ipresent ias iwell ias
ifuture igenerations.

Chapter i5: iSanitation iLaws iand iPublic iHealth iin iIndia: iAn iEmpirical iStudy.

This iChapter idepicts ithe iground ireality iregarding ithe iaccess iand iimplementation iof
ithe iright ito isanitation ias irecognized iunder ithe iabove imentioned iinternational iand
inational iinstruments. iThe istudy icarried iout iin iand iaround iChandigarh iby imeans iof
iQuestionnaire iis ipresented iby iway iof icharts iand igraphs ithereby imaking iit ieasier
38
ifor ithe ipublic, ilaw imaking

39
 bodies i as i well i as i implementing i authorities i to i take i appropriate i measures i for
i ensuring i this iright ito ione iand iall.

Chapter i6: iConclusions iand iSuggestions.

This iChapter iminutely ihighlights ithe ipositive ias iwell ithe inegative iaspects irelating ito
ithe iimplementation iof iright ito isanitation iand ilays idown ithe isuggestions i and
irecommendations iwhich imay iprovide ia ibenchmark ifor iproviding ithis iright ito ithe
imasses.

14. Conclusion

If iwe ihave ito irise iabove ithe idismal ipicture iof i malnourished ichildren, i unhealthy,
ifilthy iand iunsafe ihuman isurroundings, ithen iwe ineed ito ifight ithis isituation iof icrisis
iwith ivigor iand ifervor. iBut inone iof ithese ichallenges ican ibe iaddressed isolely iby ithe
i pledges i and ipromises imade iby ithe imiddle iclass ipeople ito ibeautify itheir ihabitats.
iCleaning iIndia irequires idemolishing ithe ideadweight iof iIndia‟s iinequalities, iand iof
iour itolerance iof isocial ihumiliation iand ithe igovernmental icomplacency itowards
iwomen, ipeople iof ilower icastes iand ireligions iand iof ipeople iliving iin islums.173

Strengthening iof iinstitutions, ieffective imonitoring, ibehavior ichange iand i evaluation

ifor ienhanced iaccountability iand iinnovations iin idesign iand iimplementation iwill ihave
ito imark ithe ifinal isanitation ijourney ithat iIndia iis igoing ito iembark iupon.174 iUntil
ithis ihappens, iwe iwould ievoke iGandhi‟s iname iin ivain iby idepoliticizing ione iof
iIndia‟s imost ideep ipolitical iissue, isustained iby ipowerlessness iand ineglect iof iIndia‟s
imillion iof ilesser ilives.175

173
iSupra inote i104.
174
iSupra inote i60.
175
iSupra inote i104.

37
38
 CHAPTER iII i
HISTORICAL iASPECT iOF iRIGHT iTO iHEALTH i

Introduction

The iconcept iof i‘right ito ihealth’ iis ia ibasic ihuman iright iand ihas ibecome ithe imost
iburning iand idebated iissue iall iover ithe iworld iparticularly iafter ithe ioutbreak iof ithe
iCOVID-19 ipandemic. iIndia iis ia idemocratic icountry iwhich ihas iflourished iupon ithe
iidea iof isetting iup ia iwelfare istate iin ithe icountry iby iassuring ivarious ifundamental
irights iand ifreedoms ito ithe ipeople. iThe ivarious ifundamental i irights i iare i iassured i
iin i iPart i iIII i iunder i iArticles i i12-35 i iof i ithe i iConstitution i iof i iIndia. i iAlthough
ithe iright ito ihealth iis inot iexpressly imentioned iin ithe iConstitution iof iIndia, iit ihas
inow icome ito ioccupy ithe istatus iof ifundamental irights ithrough ithe ipositive iand
iactivist irole iplayed iby ithe iHon’ble ijudiciary iof ithe icountry iwhich ihas igiven ia
ibroad iinterpretation ito iArticle i21 iof ithe i iConstitution i iof i iIndia i iby i idelivering i
inumerous i ilandmark i idecisions i ithereby i iextending i ithe i ipurview iof iArticle i21
i(Pandey, i2015) ito iinculcate iwithin iits iambit i‘right ito ihealth’ iwhich imeans iright i ito
i ilife i isignifies i imuch i imore i ithan i imere i ianimal i iexistence. i i i

The i iHon’ble i iSupreme i iCourtrealized i ithe i iimportance i iof i iright i ito i ihealth ias i
ithe i ibasis i iof i iall i ifundamental i irights i ibecause i ithe i ivarious irights iand
ifreedoms iguaranteed iby ithe iConstitution icould ibe ienjoyed ifruitfully iby ithe icitizens
ionly iwhen ithey iare ihealthy iand iare inot idevoid iof isound ithinking. iThe iframers iof
ithe iConstitution iof iIndia ialso irealized ithe iimportance iof ithe iconcept iof iright ito
ihealth ibut idid inot iinclude iit iwithin ithe icategory iof iFundamental iRights ikeeping iin
iview ithe ieconomic i isituation i iof i ithe i icountry i ijust i iafter i iindependence. i iThey i
iincorporated i ivarious i iarticles i iunder i ithe i iheading i iof i iDirective i iPrinciples i iof i
iState i iPolicy i iunder i iPart i iIV i iof i ithe i iConstitution iof iIndia ibut ileft iit ifor
iimplementation ion ithe ieconomic icapacity iof ithe iStates iwhich iindirectly i imeant i
ithat i ithe i icitizens i icould i inot i iapproach ithe i ijudiciary i ifor i iits i ienforcement i ion
i iviolation. iThus, iit imeant ithat ithey i ihave iincorporated ithese irights iwithout
iremedies. iIt iwas iin isuch i ia i iscenario i ithat i ithe i iHon’ble i iApex i iCourt i iwhich i
iis i iregarded i ias i ithe i iguardian i iof i ithe i iConstitution ias iwell ias ithe iguardian iof
ithe irights iand ifreedoms iof ithe ipeople icame ito ithe irescue iand iaccorded ithe istatus
iof iFundamental iRight ito ihealth.
39
Meaning iof ihealth i

Right ito ihealth iis ione iof ithe ibasic ihuman irights irecognized iby ivarious inational ias
iwellas iinternational icovenants. iWhen iwe irefer ito iright ito ihealth, iwe iusually imean
ieasy iaccessibility ito i ihealth i icare i ifacilities i iwithout i iany i idiscrimination i ias i iwell i
ias i ithe i idevelopment i iof i ihospital i iinfrastructures ifor iprovision iof ihealth icare
ifacilities ibut iright ito ihealth iextends ito ia iwide ivariety iof i iother i ifactors i isuch i ias i
ipure i idrinking i iwater, i isanitation, i inutritious i ifood, i iproper i ihousing i ifacilities,
iclean i ienvironment i iand i ihealthy i iworking i iconditions, i ihealth i ieducation i ias i iwell
i ias i igender i iequality i i(Fact i iSheet i iNo.31, i iW.H.O.). i iThus, i iright i ito i ihealth i
icannot i ibe i iregarded i ias i ia i isingle iright ibut iit iis ia icradle iof iseveral ibasic irights. i
iThe iright ito ihealth ialso iincludes icertain iimportant i ibut i ibasic i ifreedoms i isuch i ias i
ifreedom i ifrom i inon-consensual i imedical i itreatment i ior i imedical i iresearch, i iforced
isterilization i ias i iwell i ias i ifreedom i ifrom i icruel, i iinhuman i ior i idegrading i
itreatment i ior i ipunishment i i(Fact i iSheet i iNo.31, i iW.H.O.). i i

The ipreamble iof i ithe i iWorld i iHealth i iOrganization i(WHO) idefines ihealth ias, i“a
istate iof icomplete iphysical, imental iand isocial iwell-being iand inot imerely iabsence iof
idisease ior iinfirmity” i(Preamble, iW.H.O). iThe iInternational iCovenant ion iEconomic, i
iSocial, i iand i iCultural i iRights i i(ICESCR) i iwhich i iwas i iadopted i iby i ithe i iUnited i
iNations i iGeneral i iAssembly i ion i i16th i iDecember, i i1966 i iand i icame i iinto i iforce i
ifrom i i3rdJanuary, i i1976 i iis i ianother i isignificant i iinstrument i iwhich i iaccords i
iutmost i iimportance i ito i iright i ito i ihealth iand idefines iit ias, i“enjoyment iof ithe
ihighest iattainable, istandard iof iphysical iand imental ihealth” i i(ICESCR, i i1966, i iArt.12).
i i iHealth ihas i ialso i ibeen i iaccorded i igreat i iimportance i iin i ithe i iUniversal
iDeclaration iof iHuman iRights i(UDHR) ias, i

“Everyone ihas ithe iright ito ia istandard iof iliving iadequate ifor ithe ihealth i iand i iwell-
being i iof i ihimself i iand i iof i ihis i ifamily, i iincluding i ifood, i iclothing, ihousing iand
imedical icare iand inecessary isocial iservices, iand ithe iright ito isecurity ithe ievent iof
iunemployment, isickness, idisability, iwidowhood, iold iage ior iother ilack iof ilivelihood iin
icircumstances ibeyond ihis icontrol” i(UDHR, i1948, iArt.25). iStages iof idevelopment iof
40
iright ito ihealth iin iIndia iThe igradual idevelopment iof ihealth irights iof ithe ipeople iat
idifferent istages iof ihistory iin iIndia ican ibe iunderstood i iby i ia i ideep i istudy i iof i ithe i
iimportance i iaccorded i ito i ihealth i iat i idifferent i iperiods ias iwell ias ithe iquality iof
ihealth icare iwhich iexisted iin ithose iperiods. i

For ithe ipurpose iof istudy, ithe istages iof idevelopment iof iright ito ihealth ican ibe
idivided iinto ithe ifollowing iphases:- i

1.Ancient iperiod i
2.Medieval iperiod
3.British iperiod
4.Post-independence iperiod i

Ancient i iperiod: iSince i itime i iimmemorial i ihuman i ibeings i iwere i iinterested i ito i ibe
i ithe i imaster i iof i itheir i ihealth i iand i ihappiness i iand i iwere i ialways i ieager i ito i
iexercise i itheir i iauthority i iand i icontrol i iover i idisease. i iIn i iancient i itimes i idiseases
i iwere i ibasically i iviewed i iwith i icosmological i ior i ianthropological iperspective iand
imedicines iwere ibased ion imagical iand ireligious ibeliefs i(Park, i2015, ip.1). iWith ithe
ipassage iof itime ithere iwas igradual iadvancement iin ithe iknowledge iof iman.

The i iIndus i iValley i iCivilization iwhich i iis i ibelieved i ito ihave iexisted ibetween i i3300
ito i1900 iB.C. iwas i ione i iof i ithe i imost i iadvanced i icivilizations iof i ithe i iworld i iand
i ithe i iarchaeological i iexcavations i irevealed ithe iexistence iof iplanned itownships,
icarefully iplanned isewage isystems iand imarvellous iengineering i itechniques i iwhich i iall i
iindicated i ithe i iimportance, i i ithese i iancient i ipeople i iattached i itowards itheir ihealth
iand ihygiene. iThere ihave ibeen ievidences iof iroot icanal itreatment iand ithe ipractice iof
itaking ihigh iprotein i‘laddoos’ iin ithe iancient iHarappan iCivilization i(Tewari, i2021). iIt iis
ihistorically istated ithat ithe iAryan iInvasion itook iplace iand ithe iVedic iera istarted. iThus
ithe iAyurveda isystem iof imedicine ievolved iwhich iis ibelieved ito ibe ibased ion ithe
iVedas. i

Ayurveda iis ibased ion ithe i“tridosha” itheory i iof i idisease i iwhich i iis i ibased i ion i ivata
i i(wind), i ipitta i i(gall) i iand i ikapha i(mucus) i(Park, i2015, ip. i2). iThis iperiod ialso
41
iwitnessed ithe irise iof isome iof ithe igreatest iphysicians isuch ias iAtreya, i iCharaka, i
iSusruta i iand i iVagabhatta i i(Park, i i2015, i ip. i2) i iwho i ioffered i itheir iservices ifor ithe
iprotection iof ithe ihealth iof ithe ipeople iand iseveral ipublic ihospitals iwere iestablished ifor
ithe itreatment iof ithe ipublic.
iii
Medieval iperiod:

One iof ithe iimportant iincidents iof ithis iperiod iwas ithe iestablishment iof ithe iMughal
iEmpire iin iIndia. iDuring ithis iperiod iUnani-Tibb isystem iof itreatment icame iinto
ipractice iin iIndia. iBut iduring ithis iphase, ithe itraditional iAyurveda i isystem i ireceived i
ia i iset i iback i ibecause i iit i ilacked i ithe i ipatronage i iof i ithe i iState i iwhich i
iestablished i iits i iown i iUnani i isystem i iof i imedicine iin ithe icountry. iThis iscenario
iprevailed iin ithe ihealth isystem iof ithe icountry iuntil ithe iarrival iof ithe iBritish iin ithe
icountry.

3. iThe iBritish iperiod: i

During ithe iBritish iperiod, ithe imedicinal isystem iof iIndia icame i i iinto icontact iwith ithe
iadvanced iscience iand itechnology iof ithe iWest. iAnother imedicinal isystem.

which i iprevailed i iin i ithe i icountry i iduring i ithe i iBritish i iperiod i iwas i ithe i
iHomeopathy i isystem i iof i imedicine iwhich iwas ioriginated iby iSamuel iHahnemann.
iThe icredit ifor iestablishing ithe imodern isystem i iof i ihealth i icare i iundoubtedly i igoes
i ito i ithe i iBritish. i

iUntil i ithe i iperiod i i1885 i ithe i iBritish i iestablished ialmost i1250 ihospitals iand
idispensaries iwhich iwere imostly isponsored iby ithe iState. iThe i iBritish i iGovernment i
iappointed i iseveral i iCommissions i isuch i ias i ithe i iRoyal i iCommission i iin i i1859
ifor isuggesting imeasures ifor iimproving ithe ihealth iof ithe iArmy iofficials iwho iwere
ion iduty iin i ithe i icountry i iand i iwhich i isuggested i imeasures i ilike i ipure i idrinking
i iwater, i isanitation i iand i iprevention i iof i iepidemics.

iThe i iBritish i ialso i ipassed i iseveral i ihealth i ilegislations i isuch i ias i ithe i
iVaccination iAct, i1880, ithe iBirth iand iRegistration iAct, i1883, ithe iEpidemics iAct,
42
i1897 ietc.

Several iCommissions isuch ias i ithe i iSokhey i iCommittee i iand i iBhore i iCommittee i
iwere i iappointed ito isuggest iimprovement iin ithe iexisting ihealth iscenario iprevailing
iin ithe icountry. iThe iBhore iCommittee iunder ithe ichairmanship iof iJoseph iBhore
iwhich isubmitted iits ireport iin i1948 imade ia inumber iof iimportant irecommendations. i
iThe iBhore iCommittee irecommended i ithat i inecessity iof imaking ithe ihealth isystem
iof ithe icountry ieasily iaccessible ito ithe icommon imasses iand ino ione ishould ibe
idenied ithe iright ito iget itreatment idue ito itheir iinability ito ipay. iThe iBhore
iCommittee ialso irecommended ithe istructure iof ithe ihealth icare isystem iin ithe iform iof
iprimary ihealth icentres, isecondary ihealth icentres iand ithree-tier idistrict ihealth isystem
i(Module i1, i2013). iThe iBritish iGovernment iestablished iseveral imedical icolleges ifor
iimparting iand ienhancing ithe istandard iof i imedical i ieducation i iin i ithe i icountry i
iand i ithese i iwere i itaken i iover i iby i ithe i iIndian i iGovernment iafter iindependence
iin i1947. i

i4. iPost-independence iperiod:

Several iCommittees ifor ihealth iwere ialso iappointed iin ithe i ipost-independence i iperiod
i isuch i ias i iMudaliar i iCommittee i i(1961), i iChaddah i iCommittee i i(1965), i i
iMukherjee i i iCommittee i i i(1963), i i iJungalwalla i i iCommittee i i i(1967), i i iKartar i i
iSingh i i iCommittee i i(1973), i iShrivastava i iCommittee i i(1974). i iThese i iCommittees
i imade i iimportant i irecommendations ifor ithe iimprovement iof iexisting ihealth
iconditions iin ithe icountry iand iissued iseveral iimportant iguidelines ifor ithe isame.
iAfter ithe idawn iof iIndependence ion i15th iof iAugust, i1947, ithe iframers iof ithe
iConstitution ihad ithe inoble ivision iof iestablishing ia iwelfare istate ibased ion ithe ipillars
iof isocial, ieconomic iand ipolitical ijustice. iAlthough ihealth iwas inot iguaranteed ias ia i
iFundamental i iRight i iit i iwas i iattached i iutmost i iimportance. i

iThe i inon-justiciable i iDirective i iPrinciples iof iState iPolicy iincorporated iin iPart iIV
iof ithe iConstitution iof iIndia icontained iseveral iarticles isuch ias i iArticles i38,39 i(e)
i(f),42, i47, i48A i(Khandekar iet.al., i2012 ip. i160). iArticle i38 iof i ithe i iConstitution i
iof i iIndia i iprovides i ithat i ithe i iState i ishall i istrive i ito i iestablish i ia i isocial i iorder
i ito i ipromote ithe iwelfare iof ithe ipeople iand iundoubtedly ithere ican ibe ino iwelfare
iwithout iprotection iof ihealth. iArticle i39(e) iof ithe iConstitution iof iIndia iprovides ithat
ithe iState ishall iadopt ia ipolicy iwhereby iit ican isecure iand iprotect ithe ihealth iand
43
istrength iof iworkers ias iwell ias ichildren. iThe iConstitution ialso icasts ia iduty iupon
ithe iStates ito iprovide iopportunities iso ithat ithe ichildren iof ithe ination ican idevelop iin
ia ihealthy i imanner i iunder i iArticle i39 i(f). i

The iConstitution ialso icasts iresponsibility i ion i ithe i iStates i ito i iprovide i igood i
iworking i iconditions i iand i imaternity i irelief i iunder i iArticle i i42 i ias i iwell i ias i ito
i iraise i ithe i ilevel i iof i inutrition, i iimprovement i iof i ipublic i ihealth i iand
iprohibitions iof iintoxicating iliquor iexcept ifor imedicinal ipurposes iunder iArticle i47.
iMoreover, ithe i iState i iis i ialso i iunder i ia i iconstitutional i iobligation i ifor i ithe i
iprotection i iof i ienvironment i iunder i iArticle i i48 i iA i iof i ithe i iConstitution i iof i
iIndia i iand i iit i iis i ia i iwell-accepted i iuniversal i ifact i ithat ienvironment iprotection
ihas ia idirect iimpact ion ithe ihealth iof ithe ipeople. i i i i i i i

Five iyear iplans iand ihealthIn i ithe i iyear i i1950, i ithe iconcept i iof i iFive i iYear i
iPlans i iwas i iintroduced i ifor i ithe i iall i iround i idevelopment i iof i ithe i icountry i iin i
iwhich i ihealth i isector i ifound i ia i ivery i iimportant i iplace. i iThe i imain i iobjectives
iof iFive iYear iPlans iin iIndia iwere idevelopment, imodernization, iself-reliant ieconomy,
iand ithe iestablishment iof ian iequitable isociety i(Indian iEconomy, ip.18) iin iwhich
ihealth icare iwas ian iimportant iaspect. iThe iFirst iFive iYear iPlan i(1951-56) ifocused
ion icontrol iand iprevention iof ivarious i i icommunicable i i idiseases, i i ifamily i i
iplanning, i i iresearch, i i iwater i i isupply, i i ihygiene i i iand i i isanitation i iand i ithe i
iestablishment i iof i iPublic i iHealth i iCentres i iin i ithe i icountry i i(Afroz, i in.d., i ip.
i5). iThese iaspects iwere igiven imore iimportance iin ithe iSecond iFive iYear iPlan
i(1956-61) iAlong iwith ithese iaspects’ ifamily iplanning iwas ialso ian iimportant iarea iof
ifocus iin ithe iThird iFive iYear iPlan i i(1961-66).

Fourth i iFive i iYear i iPlan i iwhich i iexisted i ifrom i i1969-74 ifocused i ion ipreventive
ihealth iservices iand icontrol iof ivarious idiseases ilike iTuberculosis, ileprosy, imalaria
iand ithe ieradication iof ismall ipox. iThe iFifth iFive iYear iPlan i(1974-79) iintroduced
ivarious ihealth ischemes i ilike i iMinimum i iNeeds i iProgram i iwhich i iled i ito i ithe i
iintegration i iof i ifamily i iplanning, i inutrition iand iimmunization. iIn i1975, iIntegrated
iChild iDevelopment iScheme i(ICDS), iin i1971 ithe iMultipurpose iWorkers iScheme iand
iin i1977 iCommunity iHealth iGuide iwere ialso ilaunched iduring ithe iFifth iFive iYear
iPlan. iThe ideclaration iof iNational iEmergency iin ithe icountry iin i1975 iand ithe
44
ichange iin ithe iGovernment iat ithe iCentre ialso ieffected ithe ifocus iof iFive iYear iPlans
iand ithere iwas ia ishift ifrom ifamily iplanning ito iinfrastructure ibuilding iin ithe iSixth
iFive iYear iPlan i(1980-85) i i(Afroz, i in.d., i ip. i5). i iDuring i ithis i iperiod, i iIndia i
iparticipated i iat i ithe i iInternational i iConference i ion i iPublic i iHealth i iwhich i iwas i
iheld i iat i iAlma i iAtta, i iKazakhstan i iand i ialso i ibecame i ia i isignatory i ito i iAlma i
iAtta i iDeclaration i iwhich i ihad i ithe i igoal i iof i iproviding i iHealth i ifor i iAll i iby i
i2000 i iAD i i(Afroz, i in.d., i ip. i5). i i i iIn i iorder i ito i ifulfil i ithis i ivision, i ithe i
iFirst i i‘National i iHealth i iPolicy’ i iwas i iintroduced iin ithe iyear i1983. iDecentralized
iplanning iin ithe ihealth isector ias iwell ias iCommunity iparticipation iin ihealth iplanning
iwas ithe imajor iemphasis iin ithe iSeventh iFive iYear iPlan i(1985-90). iSeveral iimportant
ihealth ilegislations iwere ipassed iduring ithe iperiod iof ithe iEight iFive iYear iPlan
i(1992-97) isuch ias iInfant iMilk iSubstitute, iFeeding iBottles iand iInfant iFoods
i(Regulation iof iProduction, iSupply iand iDistribution) iAct, i1992, iPrenatal iDiagnostic
iTechnique i(Regulation iand i iPrevention i iof i iMisuse) i iAct, i1994 i iand i ithe i
iTransplantation i iof i iHuman i iOrgans i iAct, i1995. iDuring ithis iPlan inew imeasures
ilike iuser ifee, iprivatization iof iGovernment irun iinstitutions iand iPublic i iPrivate i
iParticipation i iwere i iintroduced i iwhich i iled i ito i ihigh i icost i iin i ithe i ihealth i
isector i ithus i irendering ihealth ifacilities iinaccessible ito ithe icommon ipeople i(Afroz, i
in.d., ip. i5) i.

CHAPTER-3

LAWS iRELATING iTO iSANITATION iAND iPUBLIC

iHEALTH iINTERNATIONAL iPERSPECTIVE

"Safe idrinking iwater iand iadequate isanitation iare icrucial ifor ipoverty ireduction,
icrucial ifor isustainable idevelopment iand icrucial ifor iachieving iany iand ievery ione
iof ithe iMillennium iDevelopment iGoals".

-Ban iKi iMoon, iU.N. iSecretary

iGeneral176

1. Introduction

The iInternational ilegal iSystem ihas irecently igiven ithe iimpending irecognition ito
45
ithe iright ito ihave iaccess ito iclean idrinking iwater, iand ifacilities ifor isanitation, ias ian
iintangible ihuman iright.177 i The ihuman iright i to iwater i and isanitation iwas inot
i given i the iexplicit irecognition iby ithe imakers iwhile iadopting ithe i„Universal
iDeclaration iof iHuman iRights i(UDHR) iin i1948‟178. iEven ione iof ithe iforemost ihuman
irights iconventions, ithe i“International iCovenant ion iEconomic, iSocial iand iCultural
iRights i(ICESCR) iof i1966‟, ichose ito iignore iboth ithese irights iat ithe itime iof iits
idrafting179 ias iat ithat itime, ithere iwere iminimal iconcerns iabout iwater iscarcity iand
ivarious itaboos iexisted iaround italking iabout isanitation.180

Subsequently, iseveral ideclarations imade iat ia iseries iof iinternational iconferences

icommencing ifrom ithe inineteen iseventies icarved ithe iway ifor ithe iultimate irecognition
iof ithe iright ito iwater iand isanitation ias ia ihuman iright.181

Thereafter, iincreased iattention iwas igiven ito ithe iissue182 iwith ithe ideclaration iof
ithe idecade ibetween i1981 iand i1990 ias ithe i„International iDrinking iWater iSupply
iand iSanitation

176
iAvailable iat: ihttps://www.unric.org/en/water/27360-making-water-a-human-right(Last iaccessed ion i2017
iJan i28).
177
i Sharmila i L. i Murthy i JD, i MPA, i The i Human i Right(s) i to i Water i and i Sanitation: i History,
i Meaning, i and i the iControversy iOver-Privatization, i31Berkeley iJ. iInt""l iLaw. i89 i(2013).
178
iMatthew iC. iR. iCraven, iThe iInternational iCovenant ion iEconomic, iSocial, iand iCultural iRights: ia
iperspective ion iits idevelopment i(1995).
179
iPeter iGleick, iThe iHuman iRight ito iWater, i1Water iPolicy i487, i490-491 i(1998)
180
iInga iWinkler, iThe ihuman iright ito iwater: isignificance, ilegal istatus iand iimplications ifor iwater
iallocation i42 i(2012)
181
iSupra inote i177.
182
iG.A. iRes. i61/192, i¶ i1, iU.N. iDOC. iA/RES/61/192 i(Feb. i6, i2007)

46
Decade‟183 iand ithe iyear i2008 ias ithe i„International iYear iof iSanitation‟, iwhereby ithe
iright ito isanitation iwas ifirst itime idelinked ifrom iwater.184

2010 istatement iwith iregard ito ithe iprovision iof i„Sanitation iand iWater ifor
iAll‟185and ithe
„Millennium iDevelopment iGoal‟s‟ iacknowledged iat ithe iMillennium iSummit iof iUN
iin i2000, ihad ialso igiven iits idue irecognition ito isanitation isector iby iincluding ia
ispecific itarget ion iSanitation.186

Recently, iafter ithe iculmination iof ithe i„United iNations‟ iMillennium iDevelopment
iGoals‟ i(MDGs) iin i2015,187the i„Open iWorking iGroup iof ithe iGeneral iAssembly‟ ihas
inow idecided ito iachieve i„Sustainable iDevelopment iGoals‟ i(SDGs) ifor ithe iUnited
iNations‟ ipost-2015 idevelopment iagenda i188. iThe iSDGs icomprise iof ia iseparate igoal
ion iwater iand i sanitation i(Goal i6) iwith itwo ispecific igoals iregarding iwater, isanitation
iand ihygiene i(WASH) ito ibe iachieved itill ithe iyear i2030.189

2. Human iRight ito iWater iand iSanitation: iExplicit iand iImplicit iRecognition

Right ito iSanitation ihas ialways ibeen iplaced iat ia ilower ipedestal iwith iregard ito
iother ihuman irights. iConsidering ithe ilack iof ifacilities ifor isanitation ias ia iglobal
iissue ihas ionly ibeen ia irecent iphenomenon ias iit iwas ialways iconsidered ijointly iwith
iwater190 idespite ithe ifact ithat ithe iright ito isanitation iis ihaving iclose iassociation iwith
ibundle iof iother ihuman irights ias iwell iwithout iwhich ithey ican icertainly inot ibe
ienjoyed ito itheir ifull iextent.191

183
iG.A. iRes. i34/191, iU.N. iDoc. iA/RES/34/191 i(Dec. i19, i1977).
184
i Maggie i Black i & i Ben i Fawcett, i “The i Last i Taboo,”Opening i The i Door i On i The i Global
i Sanitation i Crisis
47(2008).
185
iAvailable iat:http://sanitationandwaterforall.org/ iabout/ i[https://perma.cc/4ACF-RC4H](Last iaccessed
ion i2017 iJan i28).
186
iAvailable iat:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Development_Goals(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan
i28).
187
iG.A. iRes. i70/1, iGoal i6.2, iU.N. iDoc. iA/RES/70/1, iDeclaration i(Oct. i21,2015).
188
iWHO iand iUNICEF i(2017) iProgress ion iDrinking iWater, iSanitation iand iHygiene: i2017 iUpdate iand
iSDG iBaselines. iGeneva: iWorld iHealth iOrganization i(WHO) iand ithe iUnited iNations iChildren‟s iFund
i(UNICEF), i2017
189
iUnited iNations iA/68/970 iGeneral iAssembly iDistr.: iGeneral i12 iAugust i2014 iReport iof ithe iOpen
iWorking iGroup iof ithe iGeneral iAssembly ion iSustainable iDevelopment iGoals

47
190
iAvailable iat: iwww.hhrjournal.org/2014/09/23/sanitation-rights-public-law-litigation-andinequality-a-case
istudy-from-brazil i[https://perma.cc/XP4C-ZDVU].(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).
191
iSupra inote i5.

48
 No idoubt, iby ilinking iboth ithese irights, isanitation isector ihas ibeen iat
iadvantageous iposition i,192 ibut ithat icertainly idoes inot imeans ithat iboth ithese irights
imust icontinue ito ibe iclubbed itogether ias ione ihuman iright ibecause iby idoing iso, ithe
isanitation isector iloses iits iindividuality iand igets isimply idealt ias iits i“poor icousin.”193

Only iby itaking isanitation ias ia idistinct iright, iits idue irecognition icould ibe
iafforded ito iit ias ialso ithe iopportunity ito ithe ienvironmentalists iand ilaw imakers ito
iaddress ithe ichallenges iassociated iwith ithis iindividual iright.194

2.1 POLITICAL iDECLARATIONS iRECOGNIZING iTHE iRIGHT iTO iWATER

iAND iSANITATION

This ipart icontains ioutcome iof ivarious iconferences, itreaties iand iother
ideclarations ithat ihave ilead ito istrengthening ithe irecognition iof ithe i„human irights ito
iwater iand isanitation‟.

2.1.1 United iNations iConference ion iWater i(Mar idel iPlata i1977)

The iadvent iof ithe iright ito iwater, iwhich iin iturn iprovided ithe imuch ineeded
iimpetus i for ithe igrowth iof ithe iright ito isanitation, ican ibe ifound imentioned iin ithe
i„Mar idel iPlata iconference‟ iwhich iwas iheld iin iArgentina195in ithe iyear i1977. iThe
isaid iconference ilead ito ithe iinitiation iof ian iAction iPlan ion i“Community iWater
iSupply,” ithat irecognised ithat i“water iand idisposal iof iwaste iwater iare iessential ifor
ilife iand ihuman idevelopment”.196 iThe iprinciple idenounced itherein iwas ithereafter
istrengthened iin iAgenda i21 idetailed iunder i18th iChapter iof ithe i„U.N. iConference ion
iEnvironment iand iDevelopment‟ iwhich iwas iheld iin iRio ide iJaneiro iin ithe iyear
i1992.197

192
iMarion iW. iJenkins i& iSteven iSugden, i“Rethinking iSanitation: inovation ifor iSustainability iand
iSuccess iin ithe iNew iMillennium, iLessons iand iIn-2006” i27 iOccasional iPaper i8 i( i2006).

iSupra inote i9 iat i216.

193

iCentre ion iHousing iRights iand iEvictions, iWaterAid, i“Swiss iAgency iFor iDevelopment iand
194

iCooperation iand iUN-Habitat, iSanitation: iA iHuman iRights iImperative” i4 i(2008)

195
i United i Nations i Water i Conference, i Mar i del iPlata, i Mar. i 14-25, i 1977, i Report i of i the i United
i Nations i Water iConference, iU.N. iDoc. iE/CONF.70/29 i(1977)
196
iReport iof ithe iUnited iNations iWater iConference, isupra inote i11, iat i2.
197
i United i Nations i Conference i on i Environment i and i Development, i Rio i de i Janeiro, i Braz., i June

49
i 3-14, i 1992,
Agenda i21, iU.N. iDoc. iA/CONF.151/26 i(1993).

50
2.1.2 Dublin iStatement ion iWater iand iSustainable iDevelopment, i1992

Liberty ito ienjoy icomplete iaccess ito iclean idrinking iwater iand ifacilities ifor
isanitation iwas ifurther irecognized iin i1992 iat i„International iConference ion iWater iand
iEnvironment‟ iheld iin iDublin iwherein ispecial iimportance iwas igiven ito i“affordable
iservices iand ithe ieconomic ivalue iof iwater iin ithe iwake iof iprivate isector ifailures”.198

Initially, ithe iidea ito icreate iwater iworks iin ithe ideveloped iworld iwas ipropagated
iand ifulfilled iby ithe iprivate isector.199 iIn ireturn, iall ithe iprivate icompanies ienjoyed
icomplete imonopoly iover iwater iworks iand istressed ion igiving iaccess ito ithe irich,
iwho icould ipay ithem ithe ihigh irates200 iand irefused ito ibuild isewerage isystems,
iconsequently ihaving inegative iimpact ion ipublic ihealth, ibecause iit ihad iless iprofit
imargins.201 iResultantly, isocial ithinkers istarted idiscussing ithe iimportance iof iwater iand
isanitation iin iimprovement iof ihealth iand istarted ipropagating i the i idea i of i provision
i of i clean i water i and i an i on-site i toilet.202 i They iemphasized ithat i“Citizenship, imust
ibe iconceived inot ionly iin iterms iof ipolitical irepresentation ibut ialso iservices
iprovision”.203

2.1.3 Cairo iProgramme iof iAction, iSeptember i1994

Principle i 2 i of i the i „Cairo i Programme i of i Action‟ i which i was

i adopted i at i the
„Conference ion iPopulation iand iDevelopment‟ iheld iin iCairo iin iSeptember i1994
iaffirmed ithat i“all ipeople ihave ithe iright ito ian iadequate istandard iof iliving iincluding
isanitation”.204

2.1.4 Habitat iAgenda, iJune i1996

Similarly, ithe i„Habitat iAgenda‟ iagreed iupon iat ithe i„United iNations iConference
ion iHuman iSettlements‟ iwhich itook iplace iin i1996 iin i Istanbul iaffirmed ithat
i “everyone ihas ithe

iInternational iConference ion iWater iand ithe iEnvironment, iDublin, iIr., iJan. i26-31, i1992, iThe
198

iDublin iStatement ion iWater iand iSustainable iDevelopment i(June i1992).

199
iJames iSalzman, iThirst: iA iShort iHistory iof iDrinking iWater, i18 iYALE iJ.L. i& iHUMAN. i94, i112
i(2006).
200
iKaren iBakker, i“Privatizing iwater: igovernance ifailure iand ithe iworld‟s iurban iwater icrisis” i165-169
51
i(2010)
201
iBAKKER, isupra inote i200 iat i84.
202
i Available iat:http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/pdfs/report/HDR06-complete.pdf.(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan
i28).
203
iBAKKER, isupra inote i200, iat i55.
204
iProgramme iof iAction, iPrinciples, i¶ i2, iU.N. iDoc. iA/Conf.171/13/Rev.1, iAnnex i(Sept. i1994).

52
right i to i an i adequate i standard i of i living i for i themselves i and i their i families,
i including i . i . i . isanitation.”205

2.1.5 Johannesburg iDeclaration, i2002

The i‟Johannesburg iDeclaration ion iSustainable iDevelopment‟ iwas iadopted iat ithe
i‟World iSummit ion iSustainable iDevelopment‟, iJohannesburg, iSouth iAfrica iin ithe
iyear i2002 iwhere ithe iharmful iimpact iof ihuman iactions ion ithe idegradation iof
ienvironment iwas ithe ibasic iissue iunder iconsideration. iAlthough ithe iworldwide
iconcern ion ithis iissue iof ienvironmental idegradation iwas iearlier iraised iin ithe
i„Stockholm iConference‟ iof i1972 ias ialso ithe i„Earth iSummit‟ iof i1992, iit iwas ithe
i„Johannesburg iDeclaration‟ iof ithe iyear i2002 ithat ihighlighted ion iimproving ithe
iaccess ito isafe idrinking iwater iand ifacilities ifor isanitation iespecially ito ireduce ithe
inumber iof iinfant iand ichild imortalities iand ipoverty istricken iindividuals206 i.

The ielaborate iplan iwhich iwas iadopted, icalled ifor i“(i) ihalving ithe inumber iof
ipeople iliving iwithout isafe idrinking iwater ior ibasic isanitation; iand i(ii) ireducing
imortality irates ifor iinfants iand ichildren iunder ifive iby itwo ithirds, iand imaternal
imortality iby ithree iquarters iby ithe iyear i2015.” i207

2.2 RESOLUTIONS iBY iTHE iGENERAL iCOUNCIL iASSEMBLY iAND

iHUMAN iRIGHTS iCOUNCIL

One iafter ithe iother iresolution iwas iadopted iby ithe iU.N. iGeneral iAssembly
iand ithe iHuman iRights iCouncil iwithin ia ilimited itime iframe ithat ilead ito ithe
irecognition iof ithe iright ito isanitation ias ia iseparate iand idistinct iright. iThe iU.N.
iEconomic iand iSocial iCouncil‟s i„Sub- iCommission ion iPrevention iof iDiscrimination
iand iProtection iof iMinorities‟, i1998 ireleased ia ireport ilaying idown ithe ibasis ifor i“the
iright iof iaccess iof i everyone ito idrinking i water isupply iand isanitation iservices.”208

205
iUnited iNations iConference ion iHuman iSettlements ithe iUnited iNations iConference ion iHuman
iSettlements i(Habita it( iHIIa)bitat iII), iReport iof i, iIstanbul, iTurk., iHabitat iAgenda, i11, iU.N. iDoc.
iA/Conf.165/14, iAnnex iII i(Aug. i7, i1996)
206
Available at:http://www.sulabhinternational.org/the-world-summit-on-sustainable-development-
ijohannesburg-2002/(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).
207
iJohannesburg iDeclaration ion iSustainable iDevelopment, iA/CONF.199/20, iChapter i1,
iResolution i1, iJohannesburg, iSeptember i2002
208
iU.N. iSpecial iRapporteur, iThe iRealization iof iEconomic, iSocial iand iCultural iRights: iThe iight iof

53
iAccess iof iEveryone ito iDrinking iWater iSupply iand iSanitation iServices, iWorking iPaper iby iMr. iEl
iHadji iGuissé, iUnder iSub-Commission iResolution i1997/18, iU.N. iDoc. iE/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/7 i(June
i10, i1998).

54
 Thereafter, iin ithe iyear i1999, ithe iGeneral iAssembly ihas iset iout iits i propaganda
ion ithe iright ito idevelopment iby istating ithat iit iis iobligatory ifor ithe inational ias iwell
ias iinternational iauthorities ito iensure ithe iprovision iof ithe iright ito ifood iand iclean
idrinking iwater iso ias ito ienjoy ithe iright ito idevelopment ito iits ifull iextent.209 iAnd
ionly iafter ithe irelease iof ithis iresolution, isupport istarted ito ibuild ifor ia idistinct
i„human iright ito isafe idrinking iwater iand isanitation‟.210

2.2.1 General iComment i15 iof ithe i2002 iUN iCommittee ion iEconomic, iSocial iand
iCultural iRights.

In ithe iyear i2002, ithe i„U.N. iCommittee ion iEconomic, iSocial iand iCultural
iRights‟ iagreed iupon i„General iComment i15‟ ion ithe iRight ito iWater211 iand idecided
ithat iunder ithe iCovenant, ithe iright ito iwater iis iimplicit iwithin ithe i„right ito ian
iadequate istandard iof iliving‟ i(Article i11.1), iand i“inextricably irelated” ito ithe i„right
ito ithe ihighest iattainable istandard iof ihealth‟ i(Article i12.1) iand ithe i„right ito
iadequate ihousing iand iadequate ifood i„(Article i11.1).212

Thereafter, ia ireport iwas ireleased iby ithe i„U.N. iHigh iCommissioner ifor iHuman
iRights‟ iin ithe iyear i2007 ion i“the iscope iand icontent iof ithe irelevant ihuman irights
iobligations irelated ito iequitable iaccess ito isafe idrinking iwater iand isanitation iunder
iinternational ihuman irights iinstruments.”213 iThis idocument ialso itracked ithe iorigin iof
ithe i„human iright ito iwater‟ iunder iinternational ilaw iand ibrought ito ilight ithe
iadvancing, ibut istill idwindling, istatus iof i„right ito isanitation‟ iunder iinternational ilegal
iinstruments.214

2.2.2. Statement ion ithe iRight ito iSanitation iby ithe iUN iCommittee ion iEconomic,
iSocial iand iCultural iRights, i2010

Reiterating iits iearlier istand iand irecognizing ithe ihard ifact ithat ithe inon-availability
iof iproper i facilities i for i sanitation i not i only i affects i the i dignity i of i the

i individual i but i also i the

209
iG.A. iRes. i54/175, iU.N. iDoc. iA/RES/54/175 i(Feb. i15, i2000).
210
iAvailable iat:https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/jil/vol37/iss4/5(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).
211
iUnited iNations, iEcon. i & iSoc. iCouncil, iComm. ion iEcon., iSoc., i& iCultural iRights, i29th
iSess., i2002, iU.N. iDoc. iE/C.12/2002/11 i(Jan. i20, i2003)
212
i Benjamin i Mason i Meier, i Georgia i Lyn i Kayser, i Urooj i Quezon i Amjad i & i Jamie i Bartram,
i Implementing i an iEvolving iHuman iRight iThrough iWater iand iSanitation, i15 iWATER iPOLICY i116-133
i(2013).
213
iU.N. iHigh iComm‟r ifor iHuman iRights, iAnnual iReport iof ithe iUnited iNations iHigh iCommissioner

55
ifor iHuman iRights iand iReports iof ithe iOffice iof ithe iUnited iNations iHigh iCommissioner ifor iHuman
iRights iand ithe iSecretary-General: iReport iof ithe iUnited iNations iHigh iCommissioner ifor iHuman
iRights ion ithe iScope iand iContent iof ithe iRelevant iHuman iRights iObligations iRelated ito iEquitable
iAccess ito iSafe iDrinking iWater iand iSanitation iUnder iInternational iHuman iRights iInstruments, iU.N.
iDoc. iA/HRC/6/3 i(Aug. i16, i2007)].
214
iU.N. iMillennium iProject, i“Healthy, idignity, iand idevelopment: iwhat iwill iit itake?” i(2005).

56
enjoyment iof ivarious isocial, ieconomic iand icultural irights iin icomplete isense, ithe
iCommittee iin iits i2010 istatement ion ithe i„Right ito iSanitation‟ ihas ireaffirmed ithat
i„Right ito iSanitation‟ iis ian iimportant ipart iof ithe i„Right ito ian iadequate istandard
iof iliving‟ idealt iunder iArticle i11 iof ithe i„ iInternational iCovenant ion iEconomic,
iSocial iand iCultural iRights‟.

The istatement ialso iemphasized ithat ithe isanitation imust ibe iaccorded iseparate
itreatment ifrom iwater iand iobligated ithe istate iauthorities ito iensure ithat, i“everyone,
iwithout iany idiscrimination, ihas iphysical iand iaffordable iaccess ito isanitation, iin iall
ispheres iof ilife, iwhich iis isafe, ihygienic, isecure, isocially iand iculturally iacceptable,
iprovides iprivacy iand iensures idignity.”215

2.2.3. UN iCommittee ion ithe iRights iof iChild, i2013

In iorder ito ieffectively iregulate ithe iimplementation iof ithe i„Convention ion ithe
iRights iof iChild‟, ithe i„Committee ion ithe iRights iof ithe iChild‟ iwas iestablished iin
ithe iyear i2013. iComprising iof i18 iIndependent iexperts, ithe icommittee ieven ioversees
ithe iimplementation iof itwo iOptional iProtocols ito ithe iConvention ias ialso iany itype iof
iinvolvement iof ichildren iin iarmed iconflict, itheir isale ifor ithe ipurposes iof iprostitution
ior ipornography.216

The i„General iComment i15‟ iof ithe i„Committee idealing iwith ithe iRights iof ithe
iChild ito ithe iEnjoyment iof ithe iHighest iAttainable iStandard iof iHealth‟ ialso icasts
iresponsibility ion ithe igovernment idepartments iand ilocal iauthorities irelated iwith iwater
iand isanitation ito ieffectively icontribute itowards ithe irealization iof iright ito ihealth iof
ichildren. iThe iCommittee ieven iemphasized ithat ithe istate iparties ishall inot ibe
iexempted ifrom iperforming itheir iduties ieven ion ithe iprivatization iof ithe iright ito
iwater iand isanitation.217

2.2.4 UN iGeneral iAssembly iResolution i64/292 i(2010) iand i67/291(2013)

The iUN iGeneral iAssembly iResolution, i64/292 iof ithe iyear i2010 igave ithe ilong
iawaited irecognition iof ihuman iright ito ithe iright ito isafe iand iclean idrinking iwater
iand isanitation iafter iconsidering i it i essential i for i the i enjoyment i of i all i other
i human i rights. i The i Resolution i even

57
215
iAvailable iat:http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/human_right_to_water.shtml(Last iaccessed ion i2017
iJan i28).
216
iAvailable iat:https://www.ohchr.org/en/hrbodies/crc/pages/crcindex.aspx(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).
217
Available at:https://globalhealth.usc.edu/2013/04/17/convention-on-the-rights-of-the-child-draft-general-
icomment-no-15(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).

58
called ithe istates ito iput iin iall itheir iefforts ito iensure ithe iavailability iof isafe, iclean,
iaccessible iand iaffordable idrinking iwater iand isanitation ifor ieach iand ievery
iindividual218.

Going ia istep ifurther, ithe iUN iGeneral iAssembly iResolution, i67/291 iof ithe iyear
i2013, inot ionly idesignated iNovember i19 ias i„World iToilet iDay‟ iwith iregards ito
i„Sanitation ifor iall‟, iit ialso iurged iand iencouraged iall ithe iparticipating iStates ito
imake iall iefforts ito iend iopen idefecation iand ito iinduce ibehavior ichange iamongst ithe
ipoor ilacking iaccess ito ibasic isanitation ifacilities. iIt ialso ifocused ion idealing iwith ithe
iissue ion ilarger iscale iby iproviding isewerage iand iwastewater itreatment iplants iso ias
ito istop ithe iwater ifrom ibeing ipolluted.219

2.2.5 UN iGeneral iAssembly iresolution i68/157(18 iDecember i2013)

In ia ilandmark iresolution iadopted iin ithe iyear i2013, ithe i„Human iRights iCouncil‟
ihas ispecifically iset iout ithe icontent iof ithe i„right ito iwater iand isanitation‟ iand
iaffirmed ithat i“everyone, iwithout iany idifferentiation, iis ientitled ito ihave iphysical iand
iaffordable iaccess ito isanitation, iin iall ispheres iof ilife, ithat iis isafe, ihygienic, isecure,
iand iacceptable, iand ithat iprovides iprivacy iand iensures idignity”220 ias idetailed ibelow:

(i) Availability

This iprinciple iensures ithe iavailability iof ipermanent iand iconvenient ifacilities ifor
iSanitation iduring iall ihours iof ithe iday iin ievery ihome ior iits isurrounding i areas.221
i This iincludes iall ithe ihealth, ieducational, ipublic iinstitutions, iworkplace, iand ieven
iprisons iso ias ito iensure ithat ino ione iis irendered ihelpless. iIn isuch ilike iplaces ishared
ifacilities ifor isanitation iare ito ibe iused, itherefore ithey imust ibe iadequate iin inumber
iso ias ito imaintain ihygiene iand iavoid iwastage iof itime. iWhile ideducing ithe iactual
inumber iof itoilets iwhich iwill ibe iused iby ia iparticular ipopulation, ithe ineeds iof
ipeople ibelonging ito ithat iarea imust ibe iconsidered iin idetail.222 iMoreover, ithe iway
igoing itowards ithe isanitation iareas imus ibe iconvenient iand isafe ifor iall ithe ipersons
iwhether iyoung, iold, idisabled. i223

218
iAvailable iat:http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/64/292(Last iaccessed ion i2017
iJan i28).
219
iAvailable iat:https://undocs.org/A/RES/67/291(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).
220
iU.N. iDoc. iA/C.3/68/L.34, i(Oct. i28, i2013)

59
221
iHRC, iReport ion iSanitation, iA/HRC/12/24 iat i75
222
iId i.71
223
iSupra inote i40

60
(ii) Accessibility

Apart ifrom ibeing ieasily iavailable, iall ithe ifacilities ifor iSanitation imust ibe ieasily
iaccessible iby ieach iand ievery iperson. iAll ithe iusers imust ibe iin ia iposition ito
ieasily iapproach ithe ifacility iwhether ihe/she imay ibe iyoung, iold, idisabled ior iperson
iwith ispecial ineeds.224

Not ionly ithe iway ileading itowards ithe isanitation ifacility, ibut ialso iits ioutside
iarea, iits iinterior, isupport iareas, ithe iurinal/ ilatrine, iand iall iits isurroundings imust ibe
iarranged ito ifacilitate ithese ipersons.225 iTechnical isecurity iof ithe ifacility iis ianother
iaspect iwhich imust ibe iempasized iupon ifor iwhich iit ineeds ito ibe iregularly icleaned.226

(iii) Affordability

Being iaccessible iand iavailable iis ione ithing ibut ibeing iaffordable ianother. iThe
iavailable itoilets icould ionly iif iused iif ithey iare iwithin ithe ireach iof ievery ione‟s
ipocket iwhether ihe/she imay ibe irich ior ipoor. iAnd iaffordability icovers iall ithe
iexpenditure iincurred ion iits ibuilding, imaintenance iand ieffective ioperation ias iwell.227
i If ipeople iwould ihave ito ipay ifor imaking iuse iof ithe ifacilities ifor isanitation ithen iit
iwould iconsiderably ireduce itheir icapacity ito ispend ion iother iessential iservices iwhich
iare inecessary ifor iattaining ioverall ihealth.

But iaffordability idoes inot iimplies ithat ithese iservices ishould ibe iprovided ifree iof
icost ionly ias iin icertain iareas i where ithe ipopulation iis iable ienough ito icontribute
itowards imaking ithis iright ia ireality, icosts ican ibe icollected ifrom ithem iso ias ito
inegate ithe ieffect iof isuch ipopulation iwhich iis inot iin ia iposition ito ipay ifor ithese
iservices.228

(iv) Quality iand iHygiene

After ithe itwin iprinciples iof iavailability, iaccessibility iand iaffordability iregarding
ithe ifacilities ifor isanitation iare imet, inext icomes ithe iquestion iof imaintaining ihygiene
itherein, ias iwhithout icleanliness, ithe iavailability iof itoilets iwould inot iserve ithe
ipurpose ias isuch itoilets iwould ionly iincrease ithe iincidents iof idiseases.229

224
iId. i76
225 i
Id.
226
iId. iat i73
61
227
iHRC, iReport ion iSanitation, iA/HRC/12/24.
228
iId. iat i77-79.
229
iId. iat i72.

62
 Toilets iwith ipit ilatrines imust ibe iregularly icleaned, ihowever, ithere imanual
icleaning imust ibe iavoided iat iall icosts ias iit inot ionly istigmatizes ithe ipeople
ibelonging ito ilow icaste, ibut ialso, imakes ithem ivulnerable ito ivarious ideaths iand
idiseases idue ito ilack iof iprotective igears230.

The ipiped ifacilities imust idischarge iits iwaste iwater idirectly iin ithe isewage
itreatment iplants iand inot iin irivers ior iwater ibodies.Moreover, ithe ipipes iand itanks
icarrying isuch iwastes ito ithe itreatment iplants imust ibe idesigned iand imaintained iin
isuch ia iway ithat iall itypes iof ileakage ior ioverflow iis iavoided.

(v) Acceptability

The ilast iprinciple iwhich ihas ibeen idenounced iin ithe iresolution ideals iwith ithe
iconcept iof iSocial iand icultural iacceptability iof isuch isanitation iservices. iThe ifacilities
ifor isanitation imust ibe idesigned iby ikeeping iin imind ithe iacceptable inorms iprevalent
iin ithe isociety ifor iwhose iuse ithey iare ibeing iconstructed.231

Acceptability ias iper imost i of ithe ipopulation iwould imean ithat ithere iare iseparate
itoilets ifor imen iand iwomen iirrespective iof itheir iage iand i class.232 iAnd isuch
ifacilities imust icater ito ithe isafety iand ihygienic ineeds ithat iare iacceptable ito ithe
ipopulation.233

2.2.6 UN iHuman iRights iCouncil iresolution i15/9(September i2010)

Following ithe ifootsteps iof ithe iUN iGeneral iAssembly, ithe iU.N. iHuman iRights
iCouncil ion iSeptember i30, i2010, iuniformly iaccepted ithe i„Resolution i15/9‟ ion
ihuman irights iand iaccess ito isafe idrinking iwater iand isanitation.234 iIt iaffirmed ithat ithe
i“human iright ito isafe idrinking iwater iand isanitation iis iderived ifrom ithe iright ito ian
iadequate istandard iof iliving iand iinextricably irelated ito ithe iright ito ithe ihighest
iattainable istandard iof iphysical iand imental ihealth, ias iwell ias ithe iright ito ilife iand
ihuman idignity.”235

Thereafter, ieven ithe ithen iIndependent iExpert ion ithe iobligations ispecially idealing
iwith ithe iavailability iof iclean idrinking iwater iand ifacilities ifor isanitation ideclared
ithat i“This imeans

230
iSpecial iRapporteur ion ithe iHuman iRight ito iSafe iDrinking iWater iand iSanitation, i “Rep. ion
iStigma iand ithe iRealization iof ithe iHuman iRights ito iWater iand iSanitation,” i35, iU.N. iDoc.
iA/HRC/21/42 i(July i2 i2012)
63
231
iId iat i80
232 i
Id.
233 i
Id.
234
iHuman iRights iCouncil iRes. i15/9, iU.N. iDoc. iA/HRC/RES/15/9 i(Oct. i6, i2010).
235
iId. iat i2.

64
that ifor ithe iU.N., ithe iright ito iwater iand isanitation, iis icontained iin iexisting ihuman
irights itreaties iand iis itherefore ilegally ibinding.”236

No idoubt ithe iactual istatus ideserved iby ithe ihuman iright ito iwater iand isanitation
iunder ithe icustomary iinternational ilaw ihas inot ibeen iaccorded ito iit, istill, i„Comment
i15‟ iand ideclarations imade iby ithe iGeneral iAssembly iand iHuman iRights iCouncil
ihave igiven ithe inecessary iimpetus ito ithe iright ito iwater iand isanitation.237

2.2.7 UN iHuman iRights iCouncil iresolution i18/1 i(2011)

Reaffirming ithe iearlier ihuman irights icouncil iresolutions, ithe icouncil iby iits i2011
iresolution idealing iwith ithe i„Human iRight ito iSafe iDrinking iWater iand iSanitation‟
irecognized ithat i„the ihuman iright ito isafe idrinking iwater iand isanitation iis irelated ito
ithe iright ito ian iadequate istandard iof iliving‟. iIt ialso ihighlighted itowards ithe
iresponsibility iof ithe istate iin iensuring ithe ifull irealization iof ithe iright iby imaking iall
iplausible iefforts, iparticularly ibeing ithe iadoption iof ilegislative imeasures ito iensure iits
iproper iimplementation iin ithe icontext iof ihuman irights.238

2.2.8. iFifth iWorld iWater iForum, i2009

The iFifth i„World iWater iForum‟ iheld iin iIstanbul, iTurkey iin ithe iyear i2009 ilead
ito ithe iissuance iof ithe i„Instanbul iMinisterial iStatement‟ iunder iits itheme i„Advancing
iHuman iDevelopment iand ithe iMillennium iDevelopment iGoals‟ iensured ithe iprovision
iof i„Water, iSanitation iand iHygiene ifor iAll.‟ iIt irecognized ithat ihaving iaccess ito
idrinking iwater iand isanitation iis ia inecessity iwhich ino ione ican ipossibly ibe ideprived
iof iand istrived ito iachieve ithe idesired igoal iby ideveloping isuitable iplans iand
ipolicies.239

2.2.9 Sixth iWorld iWater iForum, i2012

The iSixth i„World iWater iForum‟ iwhich iwas iheld iin ithe iyear i2012 ireiterated
ithe imandatory iduties idealing iwith ithe iaccess ito isafe idrinking iwater iand
isanitation, istating, i“We

236
iAvailable iat:http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=36308#.UK4X3oc0WSo.(Last iaccessed ion
i2017 iJan i28).
237
i Anna i Russell, i International i Organizations i and i Human i Rights: i Realizing, i Resisting i or
i Repackaging i the iRight ito iWater?, i9 iJ. iHUM. iRTS. i1, i11 i(2010)
238
iAvailable iat:https://www.right-docs.org/doc/a-hrc-res-18-1/(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).
239
iAvailable iat:http://www.worldwatercouncil.org/fileadmin/wwc/World_Water_Forum/WWF5/
IstanbulWaterGuide_Final_ i05-03-09.pdf(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).

65
commit ito iaccelerate ithe ifull iimplementation iof ithe ihuman irights iobligations irelating
ito iaccess ito isafe iand iclean idrinking iwater iand isanitation iby iall iappropriate imeans
ias ipart iof iour iefforts ito iovercome ithe iwater icrisis iat iall ilevels.”240

2.2.10 Rio+20, iThe iFuture iWe iWant, i2012

The iRio+20 ioutcome ipapers irepresented ithe iinitial istep iwhen icountries
irecognized ithe ibasic iright ito ihave iaccess ito isafe idrinking iwater iand ifacilities
ifor isanitation iat ia isignificant
U.N. isummit imeet.241The ipart iof ithe ioutcome ipaper idealing iwith iwater ideclared ithat
ihaving iaccess ito iclean iand ihealthy idrinking iwater iand ifacilities ifor isanitation iis
ivery iimportant ifor ienjoying ione‟s ilife ias iwell ias iother ihuman irights iin ia iproper
iway. iThe ipaper ifurther ihighlighted ithe iassociation iof iwater isources iand isustainable
idevelopment iespecially iin ithe isocial iprojects idealing iwith ithe ieradication iof ipoverty
iand ihunger, ihydro ipower, iagriculture iand idevelopment iof irural iareas.

The ioutcome ipaper ialso ilaid iemphasis ion isetting iachievable igoals iin ithe
imanagement iof iwaste iwater iand ipropagated ithe iidea iof ireducing ithe ipollution
iemanating ifrom ihomes, iindustries, iagricultural isources iso ithat iwater iefficiency igets
ienhanced, iuse iand itreatment iof iwaste iwater igets iexpanded.

The ioutcome ipaper ialso irenewed ithe igoals iset iout iunder ithe iJohannesburg iPlan
iof iImplementation, ispecially ithe iones idealing iwith ithe imanagement iof iwater
iresources iand iwater iefficiency iand ifurther ireiterated ithe icommitment imade iin ithe
iInternational iDecade ifor iAction.

The ipaper ialso iencouraged ithe ipositive iinitiatives iwhich iwere iundertaken ito
ieffectively imanage ithe iwater iresources ithrough icooperative iand isharing imethods i.242

2.2.11. iUN iSustainable iDevelopment iSummit, i2015

Goal i7 iof iThe i„Millennium iDevelopment iGoals‟ iadopted iin ithe i„UN
iMillennium iDeclaration‟ iof ithe iyear i2000 iand i„World iSummit ion iSustainable
iDevelopment‟ iof ithe iyear i2002 i was i “to i halve i by i 2015 i the i proportion i of
i people i without i sustainable i access i to i safe

240
i6th iWorld iWater iForum, iMarseille, iFr., iMar. i12-17, i2012, iMinisterial iDeclaration i(Mar.13, i2012).
241
iAvailable iat:http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/06/22/rio-20-outcome-documentundermine
irights- iopponents.(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).

66
242
iIbid.

67
drinking iwater iand ibasic isanitation”243. iHowever, ias ithe iset igoal icould inot ibe
iachieved, ithe imember istates iof ithe iUnited iNations iadopted ithe i“2030 iAgenda ifor
iSustainable iDevelopment” ienlisting ithe i17 isustainable idevelopment igoals ilaying idown
ithe iplans iand istrategies ito iensure ipeace iand iprosperity ito ithe ipeople ias iwell ias ithe
iplanet ion ithe iwhole.244

The ivarious ifacts iand ifigures ihighlighted ithe isorry ipicture. i40% iof ithe iworld
ipopulation iwas istill ireeling iunder iacute iwater ishortage, i2.4 ibillion ipeople iwere inot
ihaving iaccess ito ifacilities ifor isanitation, ialmost i80% iof iwaste-water iwas
istraightaway idischarged iinto ithe iwater ibodies iand ipreventable iwater iand isanitation
irelated idiseases iaccounted ifor ialmost i1000 ichild ideaths idaily.245

Considering ithe ialarming isituation iand iemphasizing ithe iglobal iattention iwhich
imust idirectly ibe iafforded ito ithe iright ito isafe idrinking iwater iand isanitation iand
iindirectly ito ithe iright ito ihealth iand iadequate istandard iof iliving, ithe iUnited
iNations iGeneral iAssembly iin iits
„Sustainable iDevelopment iSummit‟ iof i2015 iset iout ithe iGoal i6 idealing iwith iClean
iWater iand iSanitation iwhich ilays,

“Ensuring iuniversal iaccess ito isafe iand iaffordable idrinking iwater ifor iall iby
i2030 irequires i we i invest i in i adequate i infrastructure, i provide i sanitation
i facilities, i and iencourage ihygiene i at i every i level. i Protecting i and i restoring
i water-related i ecosystems isuch ias iforests, imountains, iwetlands iand irivers iis
iessential iif iwe iare ito imitigate iwater iscarcity. iMore iinternational i cooperation i is
i also i needed i to i encourage i water i efficiency iand i support i treatment itechnologies
i in i developing icountries”246.

2.3 REGIONAL CONFERENCES RECOGNIZING THE DEMAND FOR

iSANITATION

At ithe iRegional ilevel ifollowing iconferences iand ideclarations ipaved ithe iway ifor
iadoption iof ithe i„Right ito iwater iand isanitation‟;

2.3.1 Abuja iDeclaration, iNovember i2006

Regional iConference ii.e ithe i„First iAfrica-South iAmerica iSummit‟ i(ASA) i held
iin ithe iyear i 2006 i in i Abuja, i Nigeria, i on i 30 i November i 2006 i lead i to i the

i adoption i of i „Abuja
68
243
iAvailable iat:http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/sanitation.shtml(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).
244
iAvailable iat:https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).
245
iAvailable iat:http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-6-clean-water-
and-sanitation.html(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).
246
iAvailable iat:https://www.globalgoals.org/(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).

69
Declaration‟ iwherein i65 iAfrican iand iSouth iAmerican iStates ipromised ito isafeguard
i“the iright iof iour icitizens ito ihave iaccess ito iclean iand isafe iwater iand isanitation
iwithin iour irespective ijurisdictions.” i247

Further, ithe i„right ito isanitation‟ iwas iall ithe imore istrengthened iat ithe iother
isummits iheld iin ithe iSouth iAsian, iLatin iAmerican iand iAfrican icountries. iThey iwere
ikept iat ieven ihigher ipedestal ias ithey icompletely ifocused ion ithe iaspect iof isanitation
ithereby, idelinking iit ifrom ithe iright ito iwater.248

2.3.2 Message ifrom iBeppu, iDecember i2007

At ithe ifirst i„Asia-Pacific iWater iSummit‟, iwhich itook iplace iin iBeppu, iJapan, i3-4
iDecember i2007, iten irepresentatives iof iState iand iGovernment, i37 iStates ifrom ithe
iAsia- iPacific i amicably iadopted ithe i„Message ifrom iBeppu‟ i,which ifocused ion i“the
ipeople‟s iright ito isafe idrinking iwater iand ibasic isanitation ias ia ibasic ihuman iright.”249

2.3.3 SACOSAN: iThe iDelhi iDeclaration, i2008 iand ithe iColumbo iDeclaration, i2011

The iadoption iof i„The iDelhi iDeclaration‟ iin ithe iyear i2008 ilead ito ithe
irecognition ithat, i“access ito isanitation iand isafe idrinking iwater iis ia ibasic iright, iand
iaccording inational ipriority ito isanitation iis iimperative.”250 iThis icommitment iwas
iaccepted iat i„SacoSan iIV‟ iheld iin iColombo iin iApril i2011, iwhere istates ipromised
i“in ilight iof ithe irecent iUN iresolution irecognizing ithe iright ito isanitation, ito iwork
iprogressively ito irealize ithis iin iprogrammes iand iprojects iand ieventually iin
ilegislation.”251

247
iAvailable iat:http://asasummit.itamaraty.gov.br/documents/1st-africa-south-america-summit(Last
i accessed ion i2017 iJan i28).
248
Available iat: ihttps://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/jil/vol37/iss4/5 iat i30(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).
249
iAvailable iat:www.apwf.org/archive/documents/summit/Message_from_Beppu_071204 i(Last iaccessed ion
i2017 iJan i28).
250
Available at:www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/delhi-declaration.pdf https://perma/cc/KQ3G-
iYU7U(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).
251
iAvailable iat:http://www.unicef.org/srilanka/Colombo_declaration_(4_pages).pdf[https://perma.cc/Q3HY-
iJC2K].(Last iaccessed ion i2017 iJan i28).
70
 LAWS iRELATING iTO iSANITATION iAND iPUBLIC iHEALTH

NATIONAL iPERSPECTIVE

“Sanitation iin ia icommunity iis imore iimportant ithan

iindependence.”

- iM.K. iGandhi297

1. Introduction

Sanitation iis ia iburning iproblem iof iour isociety.298 iOur iCountry iis iplagued iwith
ithe iproblem iof ilarge iscale iopen idefecation ias ialso ithe iimproper idisposal iof
iuntreated iwaste iinto ithe irivers iand iwater ibodies.299 iStill, ieven itoday, iSanitation iis
ione iof ithe imost iavoided isectors iin iIndia,300 ibecause iof iwhich, imuch iimportance ihas
inot ibeen igiven ito iits ilegal iaspects.301

For ithe ilongest itime, iSanitation idid inot ireceive imuch inotice ifrom iIndian
iPolicymakers iand iLawyers302. iFirstly, ibecause imany ipeople iwere iuncomfortable
idebating i“shit” iin ia ilaw ior ipolicy imaking icontext.303 iSecondly, iSanitation ihas ibeen
iequated iwith itoilets ifor ia ilong itime iwhich imade iit idifficult ito iunderstand ithe
iSanitation ias ia ibroader isector ithat ialso iincludes ienvironmental, ihealth, iand/or ilabor
iaspects304. iThirdly, ionce iSanitation ilaw iand ipolicy iwas iunderstood ias ibeing ia
iconsiderable ipart iof ivarious idimensions, iit ibecame ia icomplex iarea ithat irequired
ispecial iattention, iwhich iremained idifficult igiven ithe ipaucity iof iliterature ion ithe
isubject.305

No idoubt, ithe ilast icouple iof idecades ihave iseen ia isignificant iprogress iin ithe
imanner iin iwhich iSanitation iis iviewed iin iIndia iespecially iin iresponse ito ithe
irecognition iof ithe idirect ilink

297
i Available i athttps://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/gandhian-thoughts-about-cleanliness.html(Last i accessed
i on i2018 iJune i22).
298
iAvailable iathttp://www.ijsrp.org/research-paper-1015/ijsrp-p4629.pdf(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iJune i22).
299
Available athttps://www.wsscc.org/2016/07/05/study-rural-sanitation-india-aims-answers-questions-
ibehaviour-change/(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iJune i22).

300
iSupra inote i2.
301 i
Id.
63
302 i
Id
303
iLyla iMehta iand iSynne iMovik i(eds), iShit iMatters-The iPotential iof iCommunity-led iTotal iSanitation
i(Rugby: iPractical iAction iPublishing, i2011).
304
iIbid
305
iIbid

64
between iSanitation, ilife, ihealth iand idignity,306 iyet, iits ilegal iaspect iremains
i ineffective ibecause iits iboundaries iare inot iwell iestablished iand iit iis iincluded iin
iprovisions icontained iin idiverse iareas iof ilaw iand ipolicy.307

2. Legal iand iPolicy iFramework ifor iSanitation iin iIndia

The iscope iof iSanitation ilaw iand ipolicy iin iIndia iis ibroad, icomplex iand
i uncharted ibecause iit ioverlaps iwith iother idimensions iof ilaw iand ipolicy308. iThese
iinclude iConstitutional iProvisions, ilegislation icomprising iof ihealth, ienvironment, ilabor,
ifood iand iother idimensions, ijudicial idecisions iand ia ivariety iof iadministrative iorders
iand ipolicy idocuments.309

2.1 Constitutional iProvisions iRelated ito ithe iRight ito iSanitation

Indian i Constitution i does i not i specifies i any i explicit i Fundamental i Right i to

i Sanitation ibut ithe isaid iright iis iincluded itherein iunder itwo idifferent iways310. iFirstly,
ifrom ithe imid- i1980‟s, ithe ihigher ijudiciary ihas ideveloped ithe iadvent iof ithe
ifundamental iright ito isanitation ias ideduced ifrom ithe ifundamental iright ito ilife ias
iprovided iunder i„Article i21‟ iof ithe
„Constitution iof iIndia‟.311 iSecondly, ithe iConstitution icomprises, isince iits iadoption, ia
iFundamental iright ithat idoes inot idefine ithe iterm iSanitation ibut iconstitutes ian
iintegral ipart iof ia ibroadly iconceived iright ito isanitation ii.e. ithe i„abolition iof
iUntouchability‟ i(Article.17),one icomponent iof iwhich iis ilinked ito ithe ipractice iof
imanual iscavenging.312

Apart ifrom ithis, ithe iConstitution iof iIndia ialso iincludes ia inumber iof iprovisions,
iwhich iguarantee icertain ifundamental irights ito iall ipersons iand iimposes iDirective
iPrinciples ion ithe iState iso ias ito irecognize iand iimplement ithe iRight ito iSanitation.313

2.1.1 Fundamental iRights i(Part-III iof ithe iConstitution iof iIndia)

Liberties ithat ihold iutmost iimportance iin idetermining ithe iwell ibeing iof ian
iindividual iare itermed ias i„fundamental irights‟. iThe i„fundamental irights‟ iare iprovided
iunder ithird ipart iof ithe

306
iSupra inote i5 iat i1.
307
iIbid
308
iIbid
65
309
iId iat i8.
310
iIbid
311
iSee, iDr iKC iMalhotra iv. iState iof iM.P. iand iors, iAIR i1994 iMP i48.
312
iSupra inote i5 iat i9.
313
iId iat i113.

66
Constitution iof iIndia isecuring ibasic icivil irights iso ithat iall ithe iIndian icitizens ican
ienjoy itheir ilife ipeacefully iand iwith idignity ibeing iinhabitants iof ithis icountry.314

2.1.1.1 Protection iof iLife iand iPersonal iLiberty i(Article i21)

„Article i21‟ idealing iwith i„Protection iof ilife iand iPersonal iLiberty‟ istates, i“no
iperson ishall ibe ideprived iof ihis ilife ior ipersonal iliberty iexcept iaccording ito
iprocedure iestablished iby ilaw.”315 iIn icourse iof itime, ithis iconcept ihas ibeen ienlarged
iby ithe ihigher ijudiciary ito iinclude iwithin iits iambit iseveral ivital iaspects iof ihuman
ilife i„which igo ito imake ia iman‟s ilife imeaningful, icomplete, iand iworth iliving‟.316 i„

Article i21‟ iwith ithe iexpansion iof iits iscope ihas inow iincluded iin iits icanopy ithe
iprivilege ito ihave iaccess ito ibasic ifacilities ilike iclean iwater iand isanitation ias iwell
iand ihas ieven iput ia ipositive iduty iupon ithe iState ito itake isteps ifor iproviding ito ithe
iindividual ithe iright ito isanitation.317

2.1.1.2 Abolition iof iUntouchability i(Art.17) iand iProhibition iof iManual iScavenging

Admittedly, iThe iIndian iConstitution idoes inot irecognize ithe icaste ibased
idisabilities iand icommits ifor isecuring ipolitical, ieconomic iand isocial ijustice ito iall iits
iinhabitants.318 iBy igranting iequality ibefore ilaw iunder iArticle i14 iand iby iincluding
iArticle i17 iwithin ithe iambit iof iPart iIII iof ithe iConstitution iwhich istates,
i"Untouchability iis iabolished iand iits ipractice iin iany iform iis iforbidden”. iThe
ienforcement iof iany idisability iarising iout iof i"untouchability" ishall ibe ian ioffence
ipunishable iin iaccordance iwith ilaw., iit ihas ilanded ihard ion ithe iage iold ibarbaric
iproblem iof iUntouchability319 iand ihas iindirectly ieven ioutlawed ithe ihumiliating iand
idiscriminating ipractice iof imanual iscavenging ilinked iwith ithis isocial iexploitation.320

314
Available athttp://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jhss/papers/Vol19-issue3/Version-5/K019355456.pdf(Last
iaccessed ion i2018 iJune i22).
315
iFali iS. iNariman, iThe iindian iconstitution: idimensions iand iperspectives i2(1999).
316
i Narain, i Vrinda2009, i “Water i as i a i fundamental i right: i A i perspective i from i India”, i Vermont
i Law i Review,
Volume i34
317 i
Id.
318
iAshok ikumar iGupta iv iState iof iU.P.(1997) i5 iSCC. i201 i(Para i26)
319
iChaterjee, iS.K. iThe ischeduled iCastes iin iIndia i(New iDelhi iGyan iPublishing iHouse.) ip-398
320
Available athttps://www.gktoday.in/gk/article-17-of-indian-constitution-and-abolishment-of-
67
iuntouchability/(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iJune i22).

68
 In iorder ito ifulfill ithis iConstitutional imandate, ithe iLegislation ihas ialso ibanned
ithe iinhuman ipractice iof icaste irelated imanual iremoval iof iuntreated ihuman
iablutions321 iby ienacting i„The iEmployment iof iManual iScavengers iand iConstruction
iof iDry iLatrines i(Prohibition) iAct‟, i1993322 iand ithe i„The iProhibition iof iEmployment
ias iManual iScavengers iand itheir iRehabilitation iAct‟ i2013.323

2.1.1.2.1 The iEmployment iof iManual iScavengers iand iConstruction iof iDry
iLatrines i(Prohibition) iAct, i1993

Considering ithe ihard ifact ithat idespite ithe ienactment iof i„Protection iof iCivil
iRights iAct‟,1955; i„Bonded iLabor iSystem(Abolition) iAct‟,1976; i„Scheduled iCastes
iand iScheduled iTribes iAct‟, i1989; i„Protection iof iHuman iRights iAct‟,1993 iand
iexistence iof i„National iCommission ifor iSafai iKaramcharis iAct‟,1993, iaround i1.3
imillion iDalits iin iIndia, imostly iwomen, iearn itheir ilivelihood ithrough imanual
iscavenging324,in i1993, ithe iGovernment i of iIndia idrafted ithe i„Employment iof iManual
iScavengers iand iConstruction iof iDry iLatrines i(Prohibition) iAct‟325 iwhich iensures ithe
i“prohibition iof iemployment iof imanual iscavengers ias iwell ias iconstruction ior
icontinuance iof idry ilatrines iand ifor ithe iregulation iof iconstruction iand imaintenance
iof iwater-seal ilatrines.”326

It iis ia icriminal, inon-bailable iact, iwhich ipenalizes ithe iemployment iof imanual
iscavengers ior ithe ibuilding iof idry i(non-flush) itoilets iby iimposing ipunishment iup ito
ione iyear ialong iwith ia ifine iamounting ito iRs i2,000.327 iHowever, ibecause iof ithe ipoor
iimplementation iof ithe iAct iduring ithe i20 iyears iit iwas iin iforce, i“manual iscavenging”
iremains iunhindered. i328

321
i"Cleaning iHuman iWaste: i"manual iscavenging", iCaste iand iDiscrimination iin iIndia" i(PDF).
iHuman iRights iWatch. i2014.
322
The i Employment i Of i Manual i Scavengers i and i Construction i of i Dry i i iLatrines i i
i(Prohibition) i i iAct, i1993. iMinistry iof iHousing iand iUrban iPoverty iAlleviation, iGovt. iof iIndia.
323
i"Legislature ion iEradication iof iManual iScavenging". iPress iInformation iBureau. i26 iJuly i2014.
iRetrieved i26 iJuly i2014.
324
Available athttps://www.firstpost.com/living/manual-scavenging-may-be-prohibited-but-continues-
iunhindered-in-india-2801604.html(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iJune i22).
325
iAvailable iathttp://in.one.un.org/page/breaking-free-rehabilitating-manual-scavengers(Last iaccessed ion
i2018 iJune i22)./
326
iAvailable iathttps://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/TheEmploymentAct1993.pdf(Last iaccessed ion i2018
iJune i22).
327
i"Get iserious". iThe iHindu. iChennai, iIndia. iSeptember i13, i2013.
69
328
i Bhasin, iAgrima i(October i5, i2012). i"Washing ioff ithis istain iwill ineed imore". iChennai, iIndia: iThe
iHindu.

70
 According ito ithe i„socio-economic iand icaste icensus‟ iof i2011, iestimated iaround
i167,487 ihouseholds ireported ia imember iof ithe ihome ias ia imanual iscavenger.329 iState
iof iMaharashtra itopped ithe ilist iwith ithe imost–68,016–manual iscavenger ihomes,
iaccounting ifor i41% iof isuch ihouseholds inationwide. iNext ibeing iMadhya iPradesh
i(23,105), ifollowed iby iUttar iPradesh i(17,390), iKarnataka i(15,375) iand iPunjab
i(11,951). iThese ifive istates itaken i together iaccounted ifor i81% iof iIndia‟s imanual
iscavenger ihome iinvolved iin ithis iindecent ipractice.330 iThe isorry istate iof iaffairs ileads
ito ithe ienactment iof i„Prohibition iof iEmployment ias iManual iScavengers iand itheir
iRehabilitation iAct‟, i2013.

2.1.1.2.2 Prohibition iof iEmployment ias iManual iScavengers iand itheir

iRehabilitation iAct, i2013

In ithe iyear i2013, iLegislature ienacted ithe i„Prohibition iof iEmployment ias
iManual iScavengers iand itheir iRehabilitation iAct‟, i2013, iwhich iis imuch iwider iin iits
icoverage iand iimportantly, iconsiderate iof ithe iurgency iof irehabilitating imanual
iscavengers.331

Basic ifeatures iof ithe i2013 iAct iare ias ifollows:


“Prohibits ithe iconstruction ior imaintenance iof iinsanitary itoilets;

Prohibits ithe iengagement ior iemployment iof ianyone ias ia imanual iscavenger;

Violations icould iresult iin ia iyears‟ iimprisonment ior ia ifine iof irupees50,000 ior
iboth;

Prohibits i a i person i from i being i engaged i or i employed i for i hazardous
i cleaning i of i a isewer ior ia iseptic itank;

Offences iunder ithe iAct iare icognizable iand inon-bailable;

Calls ifor ia isurvey iof imanual iscavengers iin iurban iand irural iareas iwithin ia
itime ibound iframework”. i332
However, there exist certain grey areas as well which hampers its
iimplementation iwhich iis idetailed ias iunder:


“Time iframe iwithin iwhich iland iis ito ibe iallotted ias ipart iof ithe
irehabilitation ipackage ifor iformer imanual iscavengers ias iprovided ifor iin ithe
i2013 iAct;

329
iUmesh iIsalkarUmesh iIsalkar, iTNN i(30 iApril i2013). i"Census iraises istink iover imanual
iscavenging". iThe iTimes iof iIndia.
330
iSupra inote i28.
71
331
iSupra inote i27.
Available
332
at:
http://www.indiawaterportal.org/sites/indiawaterportal.org/files/manual_scavenging_act_and_municipal_waste
_water_workers_in_india_-_policy_and_practice.pdf(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iJune i22).

72
 
Correct iand itimely iidentification iof iinsanitary ilatrines iand imanual iscavengers;

Implementation iof iprovision iregarding iprohibiting i„hazardous icleaning‟ iof
isewers iand iseptic itanks;

While ithe iAct iis iencouraging iin ithat iit ifocuses ion ithe iresponsibility iof
iofficials ito iensure iits iimplementation, iit idoes inot ioutline iadministrative
imeasures i beyond iconduct irules ithat ican ibe iimposed iif iofficials ido inot
iimplement ithe iAct.”333
Even ithough, ia iray iof ihope isurfaced iafter ithe iApex iCourt iissued ivarious
iimperatives iin i2014 ito iprevent iand icontrol ithe ipractice iand ialso ito iprosecute ithe
ioffenders i334 i but ieradication iof ithe ipractice iof imanual iscavenging ihas istill inot
ireached iits itargets i and icontinues ito iexist.335 iSadly, ieven ithis iyear ian iinter-
ministerial itask iforce ireported ithe iexistence iof imanual iscavengers ias ihigh ias i53,236,
iwhich iis ifour itimes ithe idigit imentioned iin ithe iofficial irecord iof ithe iyear i2017336.
While ithe inumbers iare ian iimprovement ifrom ibefore, iwhen ia imajority iof istates
idenied ithe iexistence iof ithe ipractice, iit iis ionly ia igross iestimate iof idata icollected
ifrom i121 iout iof i600 idistricts iand istill idoes inot iinclude ithose iinvolved iin
icleaning isewers iand iseptic itanks, i(that itoo iwithout ithe iuse iof iprotective igears)
iand idata ifrom ithe iIndian iRailways, iwhich iis ithe imain iemployer iof imanual
iscavengers.337
The igrim ireality ieven isurfaced iin ithe iReport ireleased iby ithe i„Ministry iof
iSocial iJustice iand iEmpowerment‟ iin i2017, iwhich istated ithat iaround i300 imanual
iscavengers ihave idied ithat iyear iwhile icleaning ithe isewarage iand iseptic itanks.338
iHence, iabolition iof imanual iscavenging irequires ia isurgical istrike imentioning ia
idetailed, itime-bound iand itransparent itask iplan iwith imonitoring iand iaccountability
iguidelines.339

333
iIbid.
334
iAvailable iathttps://www.news18.com/news/india/stinking-reality-of-manual-scavenging-in-india-does-the-
ilaw-exist-only-on-paper-1880787.html(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iJune i22).
335
Available at https://thewire.in/caste/after-25-years-of-broken-promises-india-is-counting-its-manual-
iscavengers-again(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iJune i22).
336
iAvailable iathttps://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/manual-scavenging-non-existent-for-govt-yet-people-
die- i30-ft-under-ground-61581(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iJune i22).
337
Available athttps://indianexpress.com/article/india/53000-manual-scavengers-in-12-states-four-fold-rise-
ifrom-last-official-count-5218032/(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iJune i22).
73
338
iAvailable iathttp://socialjustice.nic.in/writereaddata/UploadFile/manualsca-act19913.pdf(Last iaccessed ion
i2018 iJune i22).
339
iSupra inote i39.

74
2.1.2 Directives iissued ito ithe iStates iunder iPart-IV iof iConstitution.

Part iIV iof iIndian iConstitution ideals iwith i„Directive iPrinciples iof iState iPolicy‟. iThe
iprovisions ispelled iout iin ithis iPart iare iun ienforceable, ibut iare inevertheless
ifundamental iin ithe igovernance iof ithe icountry340and iare ito ibe ikept iin imind iby ithe
iState iwhile ienacting ilaws.341

Just ilike ithe iPart-III iof ithe iConstitution, iPart-IV ialso idoes inot ispecifically
irecognize ithe ibasic iRight ito iSanitation, ibut iit istill iconfers ia iduty iupon iState iunder
iArticle i42 i„to iensure ithe iprovision iof ijust iand ihumane iconditions iof iwork‟ i and
iimposes ia iresponsibility ion iState iunder iArticle i47 i„to iraise ithe ilevel iof inutrition
iand ithe istandard iof iliving iand ito iimprove ipublic ihealth‟.342

The iApex iCourt iin ithe icase iof i„Vincent iPanikurlangara iv. iUnion iof iIndia‟
iexamined ithe ipurview iof iArticles i21 iand i47 ias ifollows,343

“maintenance iand iimprovement iof ipublic ihealth ihave ito

rank ihigh ias ithese iare iindispensable ito ithe ivery iphysical

iexistence iof ithe icommunity iand ion ithe ibetterment iof ithese

idepends ithe ibuilding iof ithe isociety iof iwhich ithe iConstitution

imakers ienvisaged. iAttending ito ipublic ihealth, iin iour iopinion,

itherefore, iis iof ihigh ipriority-perhaps

the ione iof ithe itop.”

Further, iby ivirtue iof iArticle i21 iand i48A (read with Article i i i i i i i i
i i51-
A(g) iwhich iendeavors i„to iprotect iand iimprove ienvironment‟, ithe iParliament ican
ieven iexercise i i iits i i ipower i i ito i i iregulate i i ithe i i iwater i i i iresources i i i iand i i
i isanitation i i i isystem. iHence, i i iproviding i i isafe i i idrinking i i iwater i i iand i i
imaintenance i i i iof i i i isanitation i i i isystem, iboth iwithin iurban iand i irural iareas,
ifalls iunder ithe ipurview iof i ithe i iState.344

340
i Available i athttps://www.clearias.com/directive-principles-of-our-state-policy/(Last i accessed i on i 2018
i Sep i04).
75
341
iAvailable iat:https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/directive-principles-of-state-policy-
1292047024-1(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).
342
iAvailable iathttp://legalaffairs.gov.in/sites/default/files/chapter%203.pdf(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).
343
iAIR i1987 iSC i990
344
Available iat ihttp://www.elrs.in/content/wss.pdf(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).

76
2.1.3 Powers iof iPanchayats iand iMunicipalities

The iduties ifor iimplementing iright ito isanitation iare ibasically idivided ibetween
i the iUnion, istates iand ilocal iinstrumentalities iof igovernance i(municipalities iin iurban
iareas iand ipanchayats iin irural iareas). iThe iConstitution iearlier igranted ithe ioverall
iauthority ito ithe istates iin ithe isanitation isector. iHowever, ino istate ihad ienacted iany
iparticular ilegislation ion isanitation iand imajority iof ithe isanitation ispecific iprovisions
ithat icontinue ito iexist iwere ifound iin iactive ilegislation ithat isimply icasted ian
iobligation iover idifferent ibodies345.

To iimprove ithe iwater isupply iand isanitation isystem iby idecentralizing ithe ipower,
ithe i73rd iand i74th iamendments ito ithe iConstitution iempowered iPanchayati iRaj
iInstitutions iunder iArticle i243 iW iread iwith ientries i3, i11 iand i23 iin ieleventh
ischedule iand iMunicipal iBodies iunder iArticle i243W iread iwith ientries i5 iand i6 iof
ithe i twelfth i schedule ito iregulate iwater isupply iand isanitation.346

The i statutory i framework i being i laid, i the i municipal i bodies i cannot i run
i away i from i its iduty. iMoreover, iThe i„Criminal iProcedure iCode‟, i1973 ifunctions
iagainst ithese ibodies iirrespective iof ithe icash icrunch iin itheir icoffers. iUnder iSection
i133, ia iduty iis iimposed ion ithe iMagistrate ito iget ithe inuisance iremoved iwithin
ispecified itime.347 iThus, ithis isection irequires ithe iexercise iof ipublic ipower ifor ithe
ibenefit iof ithe ipublic iitself. iFailure ito ifulfill ithe idirection iwill ibe ia ipunishable
ioffence ias iprovided iunder iSection i188, i„Indian iPenal iCode‟, i1860348.

Hence, iit icertainly iis ia iconstitutional iimperative ion ithe iStates ias iwell i as
i the imunicipal i authorities i under i Section i 133 i of i „Code i of i Criminal i Procedure‟,
i 1973, i to i make isure iand isafeguard ifavorable ienvironment iand ito itake iadequate
imeasures ito i „promote, iprotect iand iimprove‟ iboth ithe iman-made iand ithe inatural
ienvironment ias ihas ialso ibeen istrengthened iby iSection i91 iof i„Civil iProcedure
iCode‟, i1908 iand iSection i268 iof i„Indian iPenal iCode‟, i1860349.

345
iAvailable iathttps://www.soas.ac.uk/ledc/events/sanitation-workshop-2013/file85383.pdf(Last iaccessed ion
i2018 iSep i04).
346
Available iat ihttp://environmentportal.in/files/village-sanitation.pdf(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).
347
Available athttp://www.shareyouressays.com/knowledge/removal-of-public-nuisances-section-133-of-
icrpc/119538(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).
348
Available athttp://www.lawyersclubindia.com/forum/CrPC-133-empowers-magistrate-to-pass-order-for-
i8220-removal-of-5977.asp i(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).
349
i Available i athttps://www.scribd.com/document/328926128/Petition-before-all-SDM-s-under-section-133-
77
iCrpc-in-India-Abhishek-Kadyan(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).

78
2.2 Legislation

There iis ino ispecific ilegislation ithat ideals iwith ithe idifferent idimensions iof
iSanitation, ihowever, ithere iare ia inumber iof ilaws iwhose imain ifocus iis inot
iSanitation, iyet, ithey imake ireference ito iSanitation350. iRelevant ilegislation iwhich
imakes ithe ilink ibetween ihealth, isanitation iand iwater isupply iincludes ilaws idealing
iwith iEnvironment, iindustrial iand iinfrastructural idevelopment, iLabor ilaws, iFood ilaws
ietc.351

2.2.1 Environment idimensions iof iSanitation

The iCentral iGovernment ihas ienacted idifferent ilegislation ifor ithe isafeguarding iof
iEnvironment iand iin ithe iabsence iof iseparate ilaws ion iSanitation, ithese ipollution
iregulating ilaws iprovide ithe ilegal iframework ifor isewage itreatment iand ithe
iprevention iand icontrol iof iwater icontamination iresulting ifrom idisposal iof iuntreated
ior ipartly itreated iwaste ialthough ithere iscope iis imuch ibroader ithan iSanitation.352
iRelevant iprovisions iof ithe idifferent ienactments ithat ipay ispecial iattention ito
iSanitation iare ias ifollows:

2.2.1.1 ‘Water i(Prevention iand iControl iof iPollution) iAct’, i1974

With ithe iobjective iof irestoring ithe iwholesomeness iof iwater ithis iact iis icertainly
ione iof ithe imost iimportant iof iall ithe icentral ilaws iwhich itries ito imake isure ithose
idomestic iand iindustrial ipollutants iare inot idischarged iinto iwatercourses iwithout
iadequate itreatment. i 353

This ienactment iprovides ifor ithe imaking iof ithe icentral iand istate ipollution
icontrol iboards iwith ithe iduty ito icarry iout ia iseries iof ifunctions iwhich iinclude
icatering ito iquality istandards, iresearch, iplanning iand iinvestigations ito iadvance
icleanliness iof istreams iand iwells iand ito istop iand icontrol ipollution iof iwater. iThis
iact ialso iallows istate iboards ito icontrol iany iperson, iofficer ior iauthority, iincluding
iorders ito iclose, iprohibit ior iregulate iany iindustry, ioperation ior iprocess iand ito istop
ior iregulate ithe isupply iof iwater, ielectricity ior iany iother iservice. i 354

350
iSupra inote i241 iat i11.
79
351 i
Id.
352
iId iat i365.
353
iAvailable iathttp://envfor.nic.in/division/water-pollution(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).
354
iAvailable iathttp://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/water-prevention-and-control-pollution-act-1974(Last
iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).

80
2.2.1.2 Environment iProtection iAct, i1986

Apparently, ithe i„Environment i(Protection) iAct‟ ialso ideals iwith iwater iquality
iand ithe icontrol iof iwater ipollution. iSection i2(a) iof ithe iAct idefines i“the ienvironment
ito iinclude iwater iand ithe iinterrelationship iwhich iexists iamong iand ibetween iwater
iand ihuman ibeings, iother iliving icreatures, iplants, imicro-organisms iand iproperty”. i355

The iAct iempowers ithe iCentral iGovernment ito iset istandards ifor ithe iquality iof
ithe ienvironment ias ialso ifor iparticles idischarged ifrom iany isource. iThis iact imade
iindustry iself- iregulatory. iComplying iwith ithe iindustry ibenchmarks ifor ienvironmental
ilaws, i making ithe idata ion iwaste igeneration ipublic, iadopting icleaner itechniques ifor
ipollution iprevention, iwaste ireduction, irecycling iand iutilization, iensuring ioff-site
idisposal iand idisclosing iof idata ion iconsumption iof iwater iand iraw imaterials iare ifew
iof ithe iremarkable iadvancements iresulting ifrom ithis iaudit iprocess.356

In iexercise iof ithe ipowers iconferred iunder isections i6, i8 iand i25 iof i„the
iEnvironment i(Protection) iAct‟, i1986 ithe iunderstated irules ihave ibeen idrafted iby ithe
ilegislative ibodies ifor iensuring ithe ihealth iand isafe ienvironment ithereby ienlarging ithe
iscope iof iright ito isanitation:

 Waste iManagement iRules

• Hazardous iwastes i(management iand ihandling) irules, i1989 ias irecently iamended
ias ithe
„Hazardous iand iOther iWastes i(Management iand iTransboundary iMovement) iRules,
i2016‟ iwere ienacted ito iguarantee isafe ihandling i, igeneration, iprocessing, itreatment,
i package, istorage, itransportation, iuse ireprocessing, icollection, iconversion, iand
ioffering ifor isale, idestruction iand idisposal iof iHazardous iWaste.357

• The iBiomedical iwaste i(Management iand iHandling) iRules, i1998 ias irecently
iamended iby
„The iBio-Medical iWaste iManagement i(Amendment) iRules‟, i2018 ioutlines ithe
idetailed iprocess iwhich ihas ito ibe ifollowed iby ithe ihospitals ifor ithe iproper
isegregation, idisposal, icollection iand itreatment iof iwastes igenerated iby ithe ivarious
ihospital iand ihealth icare iinstitutions. iThe isuperseded irules ifurther imandate ithat
igenerators iof ibio-medical iwaste isuch

81
355
Available iat: ihttp://envfor.nic.in/legis/env/env1.html(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).
i356Available iat: ihttp://spa.ac.in/writereaddata/Day3(NGT).pdf(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep
i04). i357 iAvailable iat:http://cpcb.nic.in/hazardous-waste-rules/(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep
i04).

82
as ihospitals, inursing ihomes, iclinics, iand idispensaries ietc iwill inot iprefer ichlorinated
iplastic ibags iand igloves iafter iMarch i27, i2019 iin imedical iapplications ito iprotect ithe
ienvironment.358
• Municipal isolid iwastes i(management iand ihandling) irules, i2000 isuperseded iby
i„Solid iWaste iManagement iRules‟ i2016 ispecificies ithe idetailed imechanism ifor ithe
itime ibound imanagement iand iappropriate ihandling iof imunicipal isolid iwastes iand
ihave ienlarged iits ipurview ito iinclude ievery iurban ilocal ibody, iincluding ioutgrowths
iin iurban iareas, icensus itowns, iareas iunder iRailways iand iairports. iThe irules iencase
ithe iwaste igenerator ito isegregate ithe iwaste iinto i6 imain icategories.359

• Sanitary iWastes iunder iMunicipal isolid iwastes i(management iand ihandling)

irules, i2016 ihas ibeen ispecifically imentioned ias ione iof ithe imany iwastes iunder
iSection i3(46). iThereafter, iin iexercise iof ithe ipowers iconferred iby ithe iSection i14(i)
iof ithe isaid iRules, ithe iGovernment ihas iformulated ithe iguidelines ion isanitary iwaste
imanagement iso ias ito imake isure ithat ithe isanitary iwaste igets iproperly idisposed.
iThese irules ialong iwith ithe i2015 iand i2017 iguidelines ifor iMenstrual iHygiene
iManagement ipropagated iunder ithe iSwachh i Bharat iMission ioutlines ithe
iresponsibility iof ithe iuser ias iwell ias ithe imanufacturers ito iundertake ithe
iresponsibility iof isafe idisposal iof isanitary inapkins iand idiapers iwhich iare inon
ibiodegradable.360

• E-Waste iManagement iRules, i2011 ias istrengthened iby ithe i„E-Waste i(Management)
iRules, i2011‟ iputs ithe iduty ion ithe iproducer ifor ithe imanagement iof ithe ifinal istages
iof ithe ilife iof iits iproduct, iin ian ieco-friendly iway, iby icreating icertain inorms iin
itandem iwith istate ipollution icontrol iboards.361

The ipresent iRule istates ithat ievery iproducer iof ielectrical iand ielectronic iequipment
i(EEE) iand itheir iparts ior iconsumables ior iparts ior ispares ishall imake isure ithat i new
iEEE iand itheir iparts ior iconsumables ior iparts ior ispares ido inot icontain ipopular
icontaminants ilike ilead, imercury, icadmium, ihexavalent ichromium, ipolybrominated
ibiphenyls iand ipolybrominated idiphenyl iethers iapart ifrom iits imaximum iconcentration
ivalue. iEvery iproducer ishall ialso igive idetailed iinformation ion ithe icontainments iof
ithe iequipment iand itheir iparts ior iconsumables ior

358
iAvailable iat:http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/content/453336/the-bio-medical-waste-management-
amendment-rules-2018/(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).
359
iAvailable iat:https://indianexpress.com/article/what-is/solid-waste-management-rules-2016-how-well-they-
have-been-implemented-on-ground/(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).
360
Available iat:
83
ihttp://cpcb.nic.in/uploads/plasticwaste/Final_Sanitary_Waste_Guidelines_15.05.2018.pdf(Last iaccessed ion
i2018 iSep i04).
361
iAvailable iat:https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/what-about-e-
waste/article24193081.ece(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).

84
parts ior ispares, ialong iwith ia istatement iof iconformance ito ithe iRoHS i(Restriction i of
iHazardous iSubstances) iprovisions iin ithe iproduct iuser iinstruments.362

• The ibatteries i(management iand ihandling) irules i2001 ias inotified iin ithe iyear
i2001 iwith ithe ibasic iobjective iof igathering ithe iused ilead iacid ibatteries ifor
ienvironmentally isound irecycling. iThe iRules imandates iState iPollution iControl iBoards
ito iseek idata ion isale, iimport, igeneration, icollection iand irecycling iof iused ibatteries
ifrom imanufacture, iassembler, ire- iconditioners, iand iimporter, iauctioneers iand ibatteries
irecyclers ifor ikeeping itrack iof iused ibatteries. iDuties ihave ibeen ifixed ion
imanufacturers, iimporters, ire-conditioners i and iassemblers ito imake isure ithat iused
ibatteries iare igathered iback iand isent i to i registered irecyclers. i363

• Plastic iWaste i(Management i& iHandling) iRules, i2011 iThe iGovernment iof iIndia
idrafted ithe i„Plastic iWaste iManagement i(PWM) iRules, i2016‟ iby iamending i„Plastic
iWaste i(Management i& iHandling) iRules, i2011‟. iAs iper ithe iRule i„6(2)(d)‟ iof iPWM
iRules, i2016, i“processing iand idisposal iof inon-recyclable ifraction iof iplastic iwaste
ishall ibe iin iaccordance iwith ithe iGuidelines iissued iby ithe iCentral iPollution iControl
iBoard”.364

It ialso iprohibits ithe iuse iof iplastic imaterials iin imaking ipackets ifor istoring,
ipacking ior iselling igutkha, itobacco iand ipan imasala iand ispecifies ithat ino ifood
istuff ishould ibe icontained iin irecycled iplastics ior icompostable iplastics. iMoreover,
irecycled icarry ibags imust ihave ispecific iBIS istandards iand icolor ias idetailed iby ithe
iBureau iof iIndian iStandards i(BIS) ihaving iuniform ithickness iof inot iless ithan i40
imicrons iin icarry ibags ietc.365

2.2.1.3 Indian iEasements iAct, i1882

This iAct ilays idown ithe iright iof ia iriparian iowner i(i.e ia iperson iwho iowns ia
ipiece iof iland iadjacent ito ia iriver ior iwater istream) ito iuncontaminated iwaters. i“A
iriparian iowner ihas ia iright ito iuse ithe iwater iof ithe istream iwhich iflows ipast ihis
iland iequally iwith iother iriparian iowners, iand ito ihave ithe iwater icome ito ihim
iundiminished iin iflow, iquantity iand iquality iand ito igo ibeyond i his i land i without
i obstruction”. i Section i 7 i of i the i Easement i Act i provides i that i “every

362
iIbid.
363
iAvailable iat:http://cpcb.nic.in/uploads/hwmd/compliance_br_100417.pdf(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).
364
iSupra inote i135
85
 iAvailable iat:http://www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/plastic-waste-management-and-handling-rules-
365

2011(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).

86
riparian i owner i has i the i right i to i the i continued i flow i of i the i waters i of i a i natural
i stream i in i its inatural icondition iwithout idestruction ior iunreasonable ipollution”.366

2.2.1.4. iCoastal iRegulation iZone iNotification, i2011

Section i3 iof ithe i„Environment i(Protection) iAct‟, i1986 iunder iits isub-section i(1)
iand iclause i(v) iof isub-section i(2) iempowers ithe iCentre ito inotify icertain imarine
iareas ias iCoastal iRegulation iZones iin iorder ito imake isure ithat ithe ilivelihood iof ithe
ifisherman ias iwell ias iother ilocal iinhabitants iwho iare iresiding iin icoastal iareas iis
ipromoted, icoastal istretches iand ithe iunique imarine ienvironment iis iduly iconserved,
iprotected iand iscientifically ideveloped iin ia isustainable imanner iafter iduly iconsidering
ithe inatural ihazards ias ialso ithe ieffect iof iglobal iwarming. iThe icoastal istretches
inotified iby ithe icentre iare ifurther irestricted iand icontrolled iby ithe i„Hazardous
iSubstances i(Handling, iManagement iand iTransboundary iMovement) iRules‟, i2009 iwith
iregard ito ithe isetting iup iand iexpanding iof iany iindustry, ioperations ior iprocesses iin
iand iaround isuch icoastal izones ias ialso ithe imanufacture, ihandling, istorage ior idisposal
iof ihazardous isubstances.367

2.2.2 Sanitation ifacilities ifor iWorkers

A inumber iof ilaws ithat iaddress iwork iconditions iinclude ispecific iprovisions i on
iSanitation ias idetailed ihere iunder;

2.2.2.1 The iFactories iAct, i1948

This iPiecemeal isocial ienactment ihas ibeen idrafted ifor iensuring i“occupational
isafety, ihealth iand iwelfare iof iworkers iat iwork iplaces iand ito iprovide icongenial
iatmosphere, ihealthy iand iclean isurroundings ito ithe iworkers iduring ithe iworking ihours
iand ifor ithe iimprovement iof iindustrial iefficiency”.

Section i11 iof ithe iAct ilays idown ithat ithe ifactory iand iits isurrounding imust ibe
ikept iclean iat iall itimes iand iall isteps imust ibe itaken ito imake iit ifree iof iany
icontaminants iarising ifrom iany iopen idrain ior iother itypes iof inuisance. iSection i12
ifurther ienlarges ithe iscope iof icleanliness iin

366
Available
at:http://www.academia.edu/23567468/Law_of_Easements_A_Brief_Overview_of_the_Indian_Easements_Ac
it_1882(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).
87
 iAvailable iat:http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/CRZ-Notification-2011.pdf(Last
367

accessed ion i2018 iSep i04).

88
factories iby iproviding isuitable iarrangements ifor ithe itreatment iof iwastes igenerated iby
iits ivarious imanufacturing iprocesses.

In iorder ito iensure ithat ithe iwork iareas iof ithe iworkers iare icompletely idevoid iof
iany idust iand ifumes iwhich icould ibe iinjurious ito ithe ihealth iof iworkers, ieffective
imeasures ihave ibeen iprovided iunder iSection i14 iof ithe iAct. iThe isection ieven
iprohibits ithe iuse iof iinternal icombustion iengine iso ias ito iprevent ithe iaccumulation
iof idangerous ifumes iin ithe iwork irooms. iApart ifrom ithis, ithe iSection ilays ispecial
iemphasis ion ithe iavailability iof i safe idrinking iwater iat iconvenient ipoints iand ithat
itoo iaway ifrom iany iwashing iplace,washrooms, ispitting iareas ior iopen idrains iwhere
ithe iwaste iwaster iis iusually idisposed.

Thereafter, iSection i19 iensures ithe iprovision iof iadequate inumber iof ihealthy iand
isafe isanitation ifacilities, ipreferably iseparate ifor imale iand ifemale iworkers, iwhich iare
iadequately ilighted iand iventilated ias ialso ispittoons iwithin ifavorable idistance. i 368

2.2.2.2 The iMines iAct, i1952

This i Act i tries i to i enhance i the i condition i of i working i environment i in

i mines i by i laying idown ithe irequisite isteps ifor iensuring ithe isafety iand isecurity iof
iemployees iworking itherein isuch ias idrinking iwater, iconservancy, iand imedical
iappliances. iFurther, ithe iAct ieven iempowers ithe iCentral iGovernment ito iappoint
iChief iInspector iand ivarious iother iInspectors iwhose ifunctions ihave ibeen ispecified
iunder ithe iact iso ithat iall ithe iprovisions iof ithe iact iare iproperly iimplemented. i369

2.2.2.3 The iPlantation iLabor iAct, i1951

The ipurpose iof ithe iAct iis i“to iprovide ifor ithe iwelfare iof ilabor iand ito iregulate
ithe iconditions iof iwork iin iplantation iwhich iincludes iany iland iwhich iis iused i or
iintended ito ibe iused ifor igrowing itea, icoffee, irubber iand iother iplants iand iincludes
ioffices ihospitals, idispensaries, ischools iand iany iother ipremises iused ifor iany ipurpose
iconnected iwith isuch iplantation”. iThe iAct idetails ispecific iprovisions iwith iregard ito
ifacilities ifor idrinking iwater, imedical, irecreational, ieducational ias iwell ias ihousing
ineeds iof ithe ilabors.

368
iAvailable iat:https://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/TheFactoriesAct1948.pdf
89
369
iAvailable iat:https://paycheck.in/career-tips/women-paycheck/women-legislation/mines-act-1952

90
2.2.2.4. iContract iLabor i(Regulation iand iAbolition) iAct, i1970

Chapter iV iof ithe iAct idealing iwith i„Welfare iand iHealth iof iContract iLabor‟
iimposes iunder iSection i18 ia ibounden iduty ion ievery icontractor iwho iemploys
ivarious ilabors ifor icarrying iout icontractual ijob iin ihis iestablishment ito imake
iprovisions ifor iadequate inumber iof isanitation ifacilities ithat iare iconvenient iand ieasily
iavailable ito iall ithe iworkers.

2.2.3 Sanitation ifacilities iin iSchools

School iSanitation ihas ibeen ian iissue iof iincreasing iconcern iparticularly ibecause
iaccess ito itoilets iat ischool iis iclearly ilinked iwith ithe iabsenteeism iand idropping iout
iof ischool.370Apart ifrom ibeing irecognized iin iinternational idocuments iand ivarious
isanitation irelated iregional iinstruments, ithis iaspect iwas ispecifically ifocused iin ithe
i„Right iof iChildren ito iFree iand iCompulsory iEducation iAct, i2009’ iwhich iunder
iSection i19 iread iwith ithe iSchedule iof ithe iAct ihas ilaid idown ithat inorms iand
istandards ifor ia ischool imust ibe ifulfilled iwhich iconsists iof iseparate itoilets ifor iboys
iand igirls. i371

Included iwithin iits iambit iis ithe iflagship iprogramme iSarva iShiksha iAbhiyan,
iwhereby iall inew ischool ibuildings iare iapproved ias icomposite ibuildings icomprising
iof itoilets ifor igirls iand iboys, idrinking iwater ifacilities iand ielectrification. iFor ialready
iexisting irural ischools, idrinking iwater iand itoilet ifacilities iare iprovided iin
iconvergence iwith ischemes iof iMinistry iof iDrinking iWater i& iSanitation.372

2.2.4 Food iSanitation

Various ilaws ithat idealing iwith ithis iaspect iof isanitation ihave ibeen ienacted iby
ithe iLegislature.373 iFood iSanitation ilaws iinclude iwithin iits iambit:

2.2.4.1 ‘The iInfant iMilk iSubstitutes, iFeeding iBottles iand i Infant iFoods
i(Regulation i of iProduction, iSupply iand iDistribution) iAct’, i1992

This iAct isets iout ithe icontrol iand iregulatory imechanism iso ias ito iprohibit ithe
iproduction, isale i or i distribution i of i milk i substitutes/food i used i by i infants i as
i also i their i feeding i bottles

370
iSupra inote i241 iat i464
371
iAvailable iat:http://vikaspedia.in/education/policies-and-schemes/right-to-education/right-to-education-
86
act?content=normal(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).
372
iAvailable iat:http://righttoeducation.in/basic-facilities-schools(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).
373
iAvailable iat:https://definedterm.com/food_sanitation(Last iaccessed ion i2018 iSep i04).

CHAPTER-4

ROLE iOF iJUDICIARY iIN iTHE iREALIZATION iOF iTHE iRIGHT iTO
iSANITATION iAND iPUBLIC iHEALTH

“The ijudicial isystem iis ithe imost iexpensive imachine iever iinvented ifor ifinding
iout iwhat ihappened iand iwhat ito ido iabout iit”

- iIrving iR.
iKaufman419

1. Introduction-Progressive iJudiciary

The iburgeoning icrisis iis iavoidable. iPolitical iWill ito iprioritize ithe iprovision iof
isafe idrinking iwater iand isanitation ifacilities ito ione iand iall iis ithe ionly imissing ilink
iin ifulfilling ithe icommitment imade iunder ithe irealm iof iHuman iRights. iNo idoubt, ithe
iStates iare ithe iprimary iduty ibearers iin iexecuting ithe i„right ito iwater iand isanitation‟
iwithin iits ilegislative iframework ibut ithe iintervention iof ijudiciary iensuring iproper
i implementation iof iboth ithese ibasic irights ihas ialso iplayed ia isignificant irole iin
irealising ithem.420

Fair iand iactive ijudiciary ithat istrongly iprotects iand ipromotes ithe iconnection
ibetween ivarious ihuman irights ihas ibeen ia ivaluable imechanism iin ithe iadvancement
i and idevelopment iof ithe irights iin iquestion. iFurthermore, ithe irole iplayed iby ithe
ijudiciary iin icasting iobligations ion ithe iStates iand ilevying ipenalties ion ithe ifaulters
ihas ibeen iworth ia iwatch. iThis icompilation iof ijudgments ishows ithat iin ipresent
itimes, ijudges iare iadamant iin iensuring ithe iproper iimplementation iof ihuman irights ito
iwater iand isanitation, ieven iif, iin iexplicit iterms421.

2. ‘Right ito iLife’ iincludes i‘Right ito iSanitation’- iJudicial iIntervention

Indian iJudiciary ihas ibeen ian iactive iprotector iand ipromoter iof ifundamental
irights. iIt ihas ibeen iinstrumental iin igiving ishape ito icertain iareas, ione ibeing
iSanitation, iwhich iwere inot iexplicitly i dealt i within i the i existing i legal
i framework. i Catalyzing i the i development i of i the

87
419
iAvailable iat: ihttps://www.brainyquote.com/topics/judiciary(Last iaccessed ion i15 iSept, i2018).

420
Available iat:
ihttp://re.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/Righttowaterandsanitation_march252009_draft.pdf(Last i i
i accessed ion i15 iSept, i2018)

421 i
Id.

88
„Right ito iSanitation‟ iby ienlarging ithe iambit iof i„Right ito iLife,‟ ithe iJudiciary ihas
icertainly ifulfilled iits icommitment ito ithe ipeople iof iIndia. iThe igrowth ihas ibeen islow,
iyet isignificant.422

2.1 Right ito iSanitation: iA icomponent iof iRight ito iLive iwith iHuman
iDignity/Right ito ilive iin iClean iand ihealthy iEnvironment

The iforemost ijurisprudential irecognition ito ithe ibasic iright ito iSanitation i was
iguaranteed iby ithe iApex iCourt iin ithe icase iof i‟Sunil iBatra iv. iDelhi
iAdministration‟423, iwhereby iit iwas ideclared ithat,
“Right ito ilife iis isomething imore ithan ijust isurvival ior ianimal iexistence iand
i it iincludes i the i right i to i live i with i human i dignity. i In i fact, i right i to i life
i enshrined i in iArticle i21 iincludes iall ithose ifacets iof ilife iwhich imake ihuman ilife
imeaningful, icomplete iand iworth iliving iin ia icivilized isociety, itherefore, iit iinherently
iincludes ithe iright ito ifood, iwater, idecent ienvironment, ieducation, imedical icare iand
ishelter”.

The iconcept iof i„Right ito ilife‟ ihas ibeen ifurther ideveloped iin ithe icase iof
iBandhua iMukti iMorcha iv. iUnion iof iIndia.424 iIn ithis icase iSupreme iCourt ihas
iwidely iinterpreted ithe ifundamental iright ito ilife iand ihas iclearly iheld ithat ithe iright
ito ilife iincludes ithe iright ito ilive iwith idignity iin ithe ifollowing iterms,
“This iright ito ilive iwith ihuman idignity ienshrined iin iArticle i21 iderives iits ilife
ibreath ifrom ithe iDirective iPrinciples iof iState iPolicy iand iparticularly iclauses i(e) iand
i(f) iof iArticle i39 iand iArticles i41 iand i42 iand iat ithe ileast, itherefore, iit imust iinclude
iprotection iof ithe ihealth iand istrength iof ithe iworkers, imen iand iwomen, iand iof ithe
itender iage iof ichildren iagainst iabuse, iopportunities iand ifacilities ifor ichildren ito
idevelop iin ia ihealthy imanner iand iin iconditions iof ifreedom iand idignity, ieducational
ifacilities, ijust iand ihumane iconditions iof iwork i and imaternity irelief. iThese iare ithe
iminimum irequirements iwhich imust iexist iin iorder ito ienable ia iperson ito ilive iwith
ihuman idignity iand ino iState ineither ithe iCentral iGovernment inor iany iState
iGovernment ihas ithe iright ito itake iany iaction iwhich iwill ideprive ia iperson iof ithe
ienjoyment iof ithese ibasic iessentials.”

89
422
Available iat:
ihttp://www.academia.edu/10017066/The_role_of_the_judiciary_in_the_promotion_and_protection_of_human_
irights(Last iaccessed ion i15 iSept, i2018)

423
iAIR i1978 iSC i1675
424
iAIR1984SC802

90
 Similarly, iin ithe ilandmark ijudgment iof iOlga iTellis iv. iBombay iMunicipal
iCorporation425, ithe iHon‟ble iApex iCourt iexpanded ithe ipurview iof ithe iRight ito ilife
ito imean i“the iright ito ilive iwith ihuman idignity iwhich ifurther iincludes iwithin iits
iambit, isome iof ithe ifiner ifacets iof ihuman icivilization iwhich imakes ilife iworth
iliving.”

Subsequently, iin iState iof iH.P. iv. iUmed iRam iSharma426, iSupreme iCourt ihas
ivery icategorically iremarked ithat, i“the ibasic iright ito ilife iis idetermined iby ithe
iquality iof ilife ias iunderstood iin iits irichness iand ifullness iby ithe iambit iof ithe
iconstitution”.

In iVirendra i Gaur iand iOrs. iV. iState iof iHaryana iand iOrs.427, ithe iHon‟ble
iSupreme iCourt ihas icategorically iheld ithat ithe ifundamental iright ito ilife iinter ialia
iencompasses isanitation iwithin iits iscope iwithout iwhich iit iwould inot ibe ipossible ito
ilive iwith ihuman idignity ias iunder:-
“ i The i word i 'environment' i as i mentioned i under i Articles i 47 i and i 48-A
i of i the i Indian
„Constitution‟ icovers iwithin iits iwider iscope i"hygienic iatmosphere iand iecological
ibalance" ias iwell. iA ibounden iduty iis iimposed ion ithe iStates ias iwell ias ithe
iinhabitants iof ithe icountry ito imake ifull iefforts ito imaintaiin ihygienic ienvironment.
iSimilarly, iArticle i21 ihas ialso iincluded iwithin iits iambit, ithe iright ito ilive iwith
ihuman idignity iencompassing isafe iand iunpolluted iair iwater iand isanitation ifacilities
iwhich imakes ithe ienjoyment iof ilife ipossible. iGiving iadequate iattention ito iboth
inatural iand iman imade ienvironment ias ialso imaintaining iit iwith iutmost icare iis ia
inecessary iconstitutional iduty ithat ihas ibeen iimposed ion ithe iState iGovernment iand
ithe imunicipalities.”

Recognizing ithat i„social isecurity, ijust iand ihumane iconditions iof iwork iand
ileisure ito iworkman iare imeaningful ito iright ito ilife, ito iachieve iself iexpression iof ihis
ipersonality iand ito ienjoy ithe ilife iwith idignity‟, iDivision iBench iof ithe iHon‟ble
iApex iCourt iin icase, iConsumer iEducation iand iResearch iCentre iand iOrs iV. iUnion
iof iIndia iand iOrs,428 iheld,

“24. iThe iexpression i'life' iassured iin iArt.21 iof ithe iConstitution idoes inot
iconnote imere ianimal iexistence ior icontinued idrudgery ithrough ilife. iIt ihas ia imuch
iwider imeaning iwhich iincludes iright ito ilivelihood, ibetter istandard iof ilife, ihygienic
iconditions iin iwork iplace iand ileisure.”
91
425
i1985(3) iSCC i545
426
i(1986)2 iSCC i68
427
i(1995) i2 iSCC577
428
Supra inote i104.

92
 Developing ithe iambit iand iscope iof iArticle i21, iHon‟ble iKarnataka iHigh iCourt
iin icase,
D.N. iVenkatesh iReddy iv. iThe iChief iEngineer, iB.W.S.S.B., iBangalore iand iothers429,
iheld ithat
„the idenial ito iprovide isanitary iconnection iamounts ito idenial iof ibasic iamenity ifor ia
idignified iliving‟, iin ithe ifollowing iterms;

“9. iIt iis inot inecessary ifor ithis iCourt ito iexamine ias ito iwhether ithe ipetitioner
iin ifact ihas icommitted iviolation iby igetting iconnection ito ithe isanitary ipipe
iunauthorized ior ihas iput iup iunauthorized iconstruction iin igross iviolation iof ithe
isanctioned iplan. iIt iis ifor ithe istatutory iauthorities ito ilook iinto ithese iaspects iand ito
itake iproper iaction iin iaccordance iwith ilaw. iWhat ithis iCourt iis iconcerned iabout iis
ithat ithe ipremises iin irespect iof iwhich ithe ifacility iparticularly iof isanitary iconnection
iis inow icut ioff ito ithe ipremises iin iwhich imany ipersons iare icarrying ion itheir iday ito
iday iactivities. iIt iis isubmitted ithat ithere iare iabout i40 ito i50 iinmates iin ithe ibuilding
iwho iare icarrying ion iseveral icommercial iactivities; ithat ifor ia ibuilding iof ithis
imagnitude iand isize, isanitary iconnection iis ia ibasic ifacility iand idenial iof isuch
isanitary ifacility ivirtually iamounts ito i denial iof ia ibasic iamenity ifor ia idignified
iliving iand iassuming ithat ithere i are icertain iviolations iand ideviations, iwhile iaction ias
ipermitted iin ilaw ican idefinitely ibe itaken, ieven iduring ithe ipendency iof ipursuing
isuch iaction, ipersons iwho ihad ibeen iliving iin ithe ipremises ifor imany inumber iof
iyears ishould inot ibe ideprived iof isuch ia ibasic iamenity. iDenial iof ieven ibasic
iamenities ito icitizens iby ipublic iauthorities ithemselves iamounts ito i the iauthorities
idriving ithe icitizens ito ilead ian iundignified ilife, iputting ithe icitizens ito iavoidable
isufferings iand ican ionly iamount ito iinflicting ipunishment ion isuch ipersons. iCourts
ihave itime iand iagain iheld iright ito ilead ia idignified ilife iis ipart iof ifundamental iright
iof icitizens iembedded iin iArticle i21 iof ithe iConstitution iof iIndia. iWhile ipublic
iauthorities iare ialways irequired ito iimplement ithe istatutory iprovisions iin iaccordance
iwith ithose iprovisions iand itheir iexistence iitself ibeing ifor isuch ipurpose, iin ithe
icourse iof isuch iimplementation, ithey ishould inot itrample iupon ithe irights iof icitizens
iparticularly idriving ithem ito idemean ithemselves ior idenying ithem ithe iright ito ilead ia
idignified ilife.”

Subsequently, iwhile idealing iwith ithe imenace icaused iby ithe iroaming iof
istray icattles iand iother ianimals iin icity ias ialso ithe iunhygienic iconditions icaused
iby itheir idirt iand irefuge, ithe iHon‟ble iApex iCourt iin icase iMilkmen iColony iVikas

93
iSamiti iv. iState iof iRajasthan iand iors.430, iobserved ithat ithe irelocation iof ithe imilk
idairies iwas iproper iby iholding,

429
iAIR2004Kar494
430
iAIR2007SC843

94
 “While iit iis itrue ithat ithe iHigh iCourt ihas idirected ithe irelocation iof ithe imilk
idairies ifrom ithe icity iof iJodhpur ion ithe igrounds imentioned iabove iand ithe isame
imay icause isome iinconvenience ito ia iset iof ipeople iof ithe iSociety ibut ithe isole iaim,
iobject iand ispirit iof ithe iorder iwas ito imeet ithe icommunity ineed. iClean isurroundings
ilead ito ihealthy ibody iand ihealthy imind. iThe ipublic iinterest ihas ito ibe iunderstood
iand iinterpreted iin ithe ilight iof ithe ientire ischeme, ipurpose iand iobject iof ithe
ienactment. iThe ihazard ito ihealth iand ienvironment iof inot ionly ithe ipersons iresiding
iin ithe iillegal icolonization iarea ibut iof ithe ientire itown ias iwell i as i the iprovision
iand ischeme iof ithe iAct ihave ito ibe itaken iinto iconsideration”

2.2 Right ito iSanitation: iDuty iof iMunicipal/Local iAuthorities

Following isuit, iin ithe icase iof i„Ratlam iMunicipal iCouncil iv. iShri iVardhichand
i& iOthers‟,431 iHon‟ble i„Justice iKrishna iIyer‟, iwhile istrictly idealing iwith ithe ipublic
inuisance icaused iby ithe ifactories iaddressed ithe iissue ias ito iwhether ia istatutory ibody
ican ibe iforced ito iperform iits iduty ito ithe isociety iby iconstructing isanitation ifacilities,
iobserved,
“Public inuisance, ibecause iof ipollutants ibeing idischarged iby ibig ifactories ito
ithe idetriment iof ithe ipoorer isections, iis ia ichallenge ito ithe isocial ijustice icomponent
iof ithe irule iof ilaw. iLikewise, ithe igrievous ifailure iof ilocal iauthorities ito iprovide ithe
ibasic iamenity iof ipublic iconveniences idrives ithe imiserable islum-dwellers ito iease iin
ithe istreets, ion ithe isly ifor ia itime, iand iopenly ithereafter, ibecause iunder iNature‟s
ipressure, ibashfulness ibecomes ia iluxury iand idignity ia idifficult iart. iA iresponsible
imunicipal icouncil iconstituted ifor ithe iprecise ipurpose iof ipreserving ipublic ihealth iand
iproviding ibetter ifinances icannot irun iaway ifrom iits iprincipal iduty iby ipleading
ifinancial iinability. iDecency iand idignity iare inon-negotiable ifacets iof ihuman irights
iand iare ia ifirst icharge ion ilocal iself-governing ibodies. iSimilarly, iproviding idrainage
isystems- inot ipompous iand iattractive, ibut iin iworking icondition iand isufficient ito
imeet ithe ineeds iof ithe ipeople-cannot ibe ievaded iif ithe imunicipality iis ito ijustify iits
iexistence. iA ibare istudy iof ithe istatutory iprovisions imakes ithis iposition iclear.”

Similarly, iin iL.K. iKoolwal iv. iState iof iRajasthan,432 ithe iHigh iCourt ivery
icategorically iheld ithat ithe iJaipur iMunicipality ihad iviolated iresident‟s iright ito ilife
431
iSupra inote
i51.
432
iSupra inote

95
iby ifailing ito iimplement iadequate i sanitation i measures i and i directed i the
i municipality i to i remove i the i dirt, i filth i etc. iwithin ia iperiod isix imonths. iThe
iCourt idirected,

431
iSupra inote
i51.
432
iSupra inote

96
 “6. iIt iwill inot ibe iout iof iplace ihere ito imention ithat iChapter iVI ideals iwith
ithree iof iduties iof ithe iMunicipality inamely, iprimary iduty, isecondary ifunctions iand
ispecial iduty. iCleaning ipublic istreets, iplaces iand isewers, iand iall ispaces, inot ibeing
iprivate iproperty iwhich iis iopen ito ithe ienjoyment iof ithe ipublic, iwhether isuch ispaces
iare ivested iin ithe iBoard ior inot, iremoving inoxious ivegetation iand iall ipublic
inuisances iare ithe iprimary iduties iof ithe iMunicipality. iFurthermore, iit iprovides ithat iit
iis ithe iprimary iduty iof ithe iMunicipal iCouncil ito iremove ifilth, irubbish, inight-soil,
iodor ior iany iother inoxious ior ioffensive imatter. iThe iprimary iduties iwill ihave ito ibe
iperformed iby ithe iMunicipal iBoard iand ithere i cannot ibe i any iplea iwhether ithe
ifunds iare iavailable ior inot; iwhether ithe istaff iis iavailable ior inot. iIt iis ifor ithe
iMunicipality ito isee ihow ito iperform ithe iprimary iduties iand ihow ito iraise iresources
ifor ithe iperformance iof ithat iduty. iIn ithe iperformance iof iprimary iduty ino iexcuse
ican ibe itaken iand ican ibe idirected ialso ias iit iis iprimary, imandatory iand iobligatory
iduty ito iperform ithe isame.”

Hon‟ble iJustice iJ.L. iGupta iin icase, iAmbala iUrban iEstate iWelfare iSociety iv.
iHaryana iUrban iDevelopment iAuthority iand iAnother433 idirected ithe iauthority ito
iprovide ibasic iamenities ilike idrainage, isewerage ietc. iso ithat ithe i„right ito ilife idoes
inot ibecome iillusory‟ iby iholding,
“Where ithe iurban idevelopment iauthority ihad isold iplots iin ia iSector iwith
ipromise ithat ithe ipurchasers iwould ibe iprovided iwith iall imodern iamenities iand ithe
iprice iof ithe iplots iwas ialso ifixed iafter itaking iinto iconsideration ithe icosts ifor
iproviding ithe iamenities, ithe iresidents iof ilocality iwho ihave iapproached ithe iHigh
iCourt ifor icompelling ithe irespondent- iauthority ito ihonor iits ipromise iof iproviding
imodern iamenities, icannot ibe idenied ithe irelief ion ithe ibasis iof iany itechnical
iobjection. iThis iis iall ithe imore iso iwhen iit ihas ibeen iclearly iestablished ion ithe
irecord ithat ithe iauthority ihas ifailed ito iprovide iproper iroads, isewerage, icommunity
ibuildings iand ihygienic iconditions. iThese ican ihardly ibe iconsidered ito ibe imodern
iamenities. iThese iare ibasic ifor ithe ilife iand ihealth iof ithe iresidents iof ithe ilocality.”

Again idealing iwith ithe iserious iissue iof ispread iof iepidemic iof icholera iresulting
iin ideaths iof i12 ichildren iin ithe ilocality iof iParda iMohalla idue ito ineglect iof ithe
iMunicipal iCorporation, iGwalior iand iPublic iHealth iand iEngineering iDepartments iin
ithe icase iDr. iKC iMalhotra iv. iState iof iMadhya iPradesh iand iOrs.434 ithe icourt iheld,

91
433
iAIR i1994 iP&H i288
434
iAIR1994MP48.

91
 “We iare iof ithe iopinion ithat iinhabitants iof ithe ilocality imay ibe iof ibackward
iclass ior iweaker isections iof ithe i society i or i community i at i large i have i got i a
i fundamental i right iunder iArticle i21 iof ithe iConstitution ientitling ithem ito ilive ias
ihuman ibeings iin ithe iarea iwhich iis iin ithe ilimits iof ithe iMunicipal iCorporation.
iThere imust ibe ia iseparate isewage iline ifrom iwhich ithe ifilthy iwater imay iflow iout.
iThe inalla imust ibe icovered iand ithere ishould ibe iproper ilavatories ifor ipublic
iconservancy iwhich ishould ibe iregularly icleaned. iPublic ihealth iand isafety icannot
isuffer ion iany icount iand iall isteps iare ito ibe itaken ias iArticle i47 imakes iit ia
iparamount iprinciple iof iGovernment ithat isteps iare itaken i"for ithe iimprovement iof
ipublic ihealth ias iamong iits iprimary iduties".

The iirresponsible ibehavior iof ithe imunicipal icorporation iof iDelhi iin icollecting
ithe igarbage, iuntreated isewage iand iindustrial iwaste iinfuriated ithe iHon‟ble iCourt iin
icase iB.L. iWadehra iv. iUnion iof iIndia435 iwherein ithe iCourt idirected,

“Sections i11, i12, i53, i261, i263, i264, i265, i266, i267 i& i375 iare isome iof ithe
iprovisions iof ithe iNew iDelhi iAct iwhich iare ipari imateria ito ithe irelevant iprovisions
iof ithe iDelhi iAct. iIt iis iclear ifrom ivarious iprovisions iof ithe iDelhi iAct iand ithe iNew
iDelhi iAct ithat ithe iMCD iand ithe iNDMC iare iunder ia istatutory iobligation ito
iscavenge iand iclean ithe icity iof iDelhi. iIt iis imandatory ifor ithese iauthorities ito
icollect iand idispose iof ithe igarbage/waste igenerated ifrom ivarious isources iin ithe icity.
iWe ihave ino ihesitation iin iobserving ithat ithe iMCD iand ithe iNDMC ihave ibeen
iwholly iremiss iin ithe iperformance iof itheir istatutory iduties. iApart ifrom ithe irights
iguaranteed iunder ithe iConstitution ithe iresidents iof iDelhi ihave ia istatutory iright ito
ilive iin ia iclean icity. iThe icourts iare ijustified iin idirecting ithe iMCD iand iNDMC ito
iperform itheir iduties iunder ithe ilaw. iNon iavailability iof ifunds, iinadequacy ior
iinefficiency iof ithe i staff, iinsufficiency iof imachinery ietc. icannot ibe ipleaded ias
igrounds ifor inon-performance iof itheir istatutory iobligations.”

Even iMadhya iPradesh iHigh iCourt iin ithe icase iCitizen iand iInhabitants iof
iMunicipal iWard iNo.15, iGwalior iv. iMunicipal iCorporation, iGwalior iand iOrs436 iheld
ithat, i“Public iat ilarge iand iresidents iof ilocality iin iparticular, icannot ibe iallowed ito
isuffer ithe iinsanitary iconditions iindefinitely idue ito ithe ifailure iof iSociety ito imaintain
ithe ilocality.”

92
435
iAIR1996SC2969
436
iAIR1997(M.P.)33

93
 Following iKarnataka iHigh iCourt, iHon‟ble iHigh iCourt iof iPunjab iand iHaryana
iin icase iViresh iShandilya iv. iState iof iHaryana iand iors437 iwhereby idirections iwere
isought ito itake iinstant iremedial imeasures ito iprevent iand itreat idreaded idisease iof
idengue ifever idue ito iunhygienic iconditions, inoted,

“Lack iof icoordination ibetween idifferent igovernment iagencies, ilack iof imissionary
izeal, idirectionless ileadership iand iadhoc ivision, iabsence iof ilong iterm iplan ito itackle
ihealth irelated idiseases, ileast ipriority ito iclean iand ihealthy ienvironment ias ialso inon-
cooperational iattitude iof igeneral ipublic, iall isuch ifactors ihad icumulatively icontributed
itowards i bringing i this idespairing isituation” iand iissued idetailed iinstructions ito ithe
iStates iof iPunjab, iHaryana, iU.T. iChandigarh ifor itaking iimmediate isteps ion ithe
igruesome isituation.

Recently, iin icase iAnandi iDevi iand iothers iv. iState iof iPunjab iand iors.438
iHon‟ble iPunjab iand iHaryana iHigh iCourt iwhile isetting iaside ithe iimpugned iorder
iof iinclusion iof ivillage iarea iin inotified iarea iheld ithat ithe iapproach iof iPanchayat
iauthorities ihas icertainly inot ibeen icoherent iand iconsistent ias ibefore itaking ithis
idecision, ithey ishould ihave iperceived ithe ientire isituation iand ishould ihave itaken
iprecautionary imeasures iin iadvance iowing ito iphenomenal iincrease iin ipopulation. iThe
icourt ifurther iheld ithat i“providing iof iamenities ilike isanitation i, isewerage, idrinking
iwater, iconsumer ielectricity, iclean ienvironment ifree ifrom ihealth ihazards iis imost
iimportant iaspect iand iin iabsence iof isuch ifacilities ilikelihood iof ilittering iin iopen
iarea iis iinevitable”.

2.3 Sanitation iand iPublic iTrust iDoctrine

The iCommon iLaw iprinciple iof iPublic iTrust iDoctrine iwas irecognized ifor ithe ifirst
itime iin ithe icase iof iM.C. iMehta iv. iKamalnath iand iOrs,439 iwhich iis ibased ion ithe
ipremise ithat i“some iresources ilike iair, isea, iwaters iand iforests ihold igreat iimportance
ito ithe ipeople ias ia iwhole iand ithat iit iwould ibe iunjustified ito imake ithem ia isubject
iof iprivate iownership. iThe isaid iresources ibeing ia igift iof inature ishould ibe imade
ifreely iavailable ito ieveryone iirrespective iof itheir istatus iin ilife. iThe idoctrine ienjoins
iupon ithe iGovernment ito iprotect ithe iresources ifor ithe ienjoyment iof ithe igeneral
ipublic irather ithan ito ipermit itheir iuse ifor iprivate iownership ior icommercial
ipurposes.”

94
437
i2009(2)ILR(Punjab)400
438
i2018(3) iRCR(Civil) i771
439
i(1997)1SCC388

95
 As iper ithis idoctrine, i“public iat ilarge iis ithe ibeneficiary iof ithe iresources iand ithe
iState ias ia itrustee iis iunder ia ilegal iduty ito iprotect ithe isame.” iFor irealizing ithe iright
ito iclean iand ihealthy ienvironment ibeing ia icrucial iaspect iof iRight ito iSanitation,
ioften ithis idoctrine iis iinvoked iby ithe iCourts iin iorder ito ifulfill iits iduty itowards iits
icitizens.

2.4 Sanitation iand iPrecautionary/Polluter iPays iPrinciple

Both ithese iprinciples ihave ibeen iaccepted ias ia ipart iof ithe iConstitutional iand
iEnvironmental ilegal iregime iof iour icountry. iThe i„precautionary iprinciple‟ iwas
ienunciated iby ithe iHon‟ble iSupreme iCourt iin icase, iVellore iCitizens iWelfare iForum
iv. iUnion iof iIndia iand iothers440 ias;

“The i"Precautionary iPrinciple" i- iin ithe icontext iof ithe imunicipal ilaw i- imeans.

(i) Environment imeasures i- iby ithe iState iGovernment iand ithe istatutory iAuthorities
imust ianticipate, iprevent' iand iattack ithe icauses iof ienvironmental idegradation.

(ii) Where ithere iare ithreats iof iserious iand iirreversible idamage ilack iof iscientific
icertainly ishould inot ibe iused ias ithe ireason ifor ipostponing, imeasures ito iprevent
ienvironmental idepredation.

(iii)The i"Onus iof iproof" iis ion ithe iactor ior ithe ideveloper/industrial ito ishow ithat
ihis iaction iis ienvironmentally ibenign”

Similarly, iin ithe icase iof iIndian iCouncil ifor iEnviro- iLegal iAction ivs. iUnion iof
iIndia,441 ithe i„Polluter iPays iprinciple‟ iwas iinterpreted iby ithis iCourt ito imean ithat
i“the iabsolute iliability ifor iharm ito ithe ienvironment iextends inot ionly ito icompensate
ithe ivictims iof ipollution ibut ialso ithe icost iof irestoring ithe ienvironmental
idegradation.”

3. Role iof iJudiciary iin iputting ian iend ito iopen iDefecation

Access ito itoilets iand iimproved isanitation ifacilities ihas inow ibeen irecognized
ias ia ibasic iright ito iSanitation. iThe ijudicial iintervention ihas ialso iplayed ia icrucial
irole iis ideveloping ithis ifundamental iright iand iin isomehow iensuring ithat iIndia iattains
ithe istatus iof iOpen idefecation iFree.

440
i(1996)5SCC647
96
441
iJ.T. i1996 i(2) i196.

97
 In ithe isignificant icase iof iBhagwati iFoundation iand iOrs. ivs iCommissioner iOf
iMcd iAnd iOrs442 iwherein ithe iMunicipal iCorporation iof iDelhi isought ito itransfer iall
iCommunity iToilet iComplexes iconstructed iby iit iand iunder iits ijurisdiction ifor
ioperation iand imaintenance ito ithe iSulabh iInternational iSocial iService iOrganizations
iafter icancellation iof ithe iagreements iwith ithe ipetitioners iand iother iNon-Governmental
iAgencies ito iwhom ithey iwere ihanded iover ifor ioperation iand imaintenance‟, ithe icourt
iextensively idealt iwith ithe iaspect iof iSanitation iand iheld;
“2. iSanitation iis iundoubtedly ia ibasic iservice iwhich iis ia iright iwhich imust ibe
iensured ito ievery icitizen, ibe iit ian iadult ior ia ichild. iSanitation iis ia ifelt ineed iwhile
ihygiene iis iimportant ito ihealth. iThis iis ia iservice iwhich ineeds ito ibe iimperatively
imaintained iat ithe icommunity ilevel. iWhile ithose iwho iare ipoor icannot ipay ifor ithe
iprovision iand imaintenance iof ithe ibasic iservice iprovided ito ithem, ia icompletely ifree
iservice iruns ithe irisk iof ithe iservice inot ibeing ivalued iat iall iand ieven ibe imisused.
iCommunity iparticipation iin iplanning, iconstruction iand imaintenance iof isuch ilike
iservices iensures ithat ithe icommunity ivalues iit iand iwill iuse iit. iContribution ito
icreation iof isuch ifacilities imay ibe iby idispensation iof ifinance, ireal iestate, ilabor ior
iservice. iWhen ipeople ido inot ihave ithe itime ito icontribute ilabor ior iotherwise ito ithe
iconstruction, ioperation iand imaintenance, ithey iare irequired ito ipay ia icharge ifor ithe
iservice. iA ismall icontribution, ino imatter ihow ismall, iis ioften ia iconfirmation iof ithe
ivalue iof ia iservice ito ithe ipeople iand itheir iwillingness ito imaintain iit. iIn ideveloping
inations, ithe iproblem iis imore iaggravated, iinasmuch ias iit iis inecessary ieven ito
ieducate iand iinculcate ithe ihabit iof iusing ia itoilet iin ipeople iwho ihave inever iseen ithe
ifacility. iThis ilack iof iinformation iand iknowledge ihowever iexacerbates ithe iproblems
iwhich iare ifaced iby imetropolitan icities ito iwhich ipeople ifrom iremote icorners iof ithe
icountry imigrate iwithout iany iidea iof isanitation ifacilities ior ibasic ihygiene.”

Similarly, idealing iwith ithe iissue iof ilack iof itoilets iin ischools, ithe iCourt iin
icase, iEnvironment i& iConsumer iProtection iFoundation iVersus iDelhi iAdministration
i& iOrs443 iwhereby ithe ipetitioner, ia iregistered icharitable isociety, ihas iapproached ithe
iHon‟ble iCourt ifor iseeking ivarious iimperatives ito iimprove ithe ideplorable iconditions
iof iGovernment iand iaided ischools iso ias ito ifulfill ithe iconstitutional iaim iof iproviding
i„free iand icompulsory ieducation‟ iunder iArticle i21A iof ithe iConstitution iof iIndia, ithe
iHon‟ble iCourt idisposed ioff ithe ipetition iin ithe ifollowing iterms;
442
iDecided ion i31st iOctober,2006
443
iCWP iNo. i631 iof i2004 idecided ion i3 iOctober, i2012

98
 “ i9. iWe iare, iinclined ito idispose iof ithis iWrit iPetition iwith ia idirection ito iall
ithe iStates ito igive ieffect ito ithe ivarious idirections ialready igiven iby ithis iCourt ilike
iproviding itoilet ifacilities ifor iboys iand igirls, idrinking iwater ifacilities, isufficient iclass
irooms, iappointment iof iteaching iand inon- iteaching istaff ietc., iif inot ialready iprovided,
iwithin isix imonths ifrom itoday. iWe imake iit iclear ithat ithese idirections iare iapplicable
ito iall ithe ischools, iwhether iState iowned i or iprivately iowned, iaided ior iunaided,
iminority ior inon- iminority. iAs ithe iwrit ipetition iis idisposed iof, ino iorders iare
irequired ito ibe ipassed ion iapplications ifor iintervention iand iimpleadment iand ithe
isame iare idisposed iof.”

Recently, iin ithe imonth iof iMay, i2018444 ias iwell, iby iholding ithat iprovision ifor
iseparate itoilet ifor igirls iand iboys iis iintegral ito iRight iof iChildren ito iFree iand
iCompulsory iEducation i(RTE) iAct, i2009 ithe icourt idirected,
"Separate itoilets ifor igirls iand iboys ias iwell ias iavailability iof iwater iare iessential
ifor ibasic ihuman irights ithat ienhance ithe iatmosphere iwhere ithe ieducation iis iimparted.
iIt ican ialso ibe iput iin ithe icompartment iof ibasic ineeds iand irequirements iin ischools."

Knocking ithe idoors iof ithe icourt iin icase iMilun iSaryajani iv. i Pune i Municipal
iCorporation iand iOthers.445, iwhile iraising ithe iissue iof irights iof iwomen ito ihave
ipublic itoilets iat ivarious iplaces iin ia iclean iand ihygienic icondition, ithe iBombay iHigh
iCourt iaccepted ithe imedical iscience ilinking ithese iconditions ito ithe ideferring iof
iurination iand iacknowledged ithat i“Toilet iissues iaffect iall i„users‟, ibut imore
iparticularly iwomen.” iThe iCourt ithen iproceeded ito ihold ithat i“clean ipublic itoilets
icontribute ito ithe ihealth iand iwell ibeing iof ithe isociety‟. i It istated:

“Women ineed ithese ifacilities iat ipublic iplaces ilike iRailway iStations, iBus iStands,
iBanks, iand iPublic iOffices ilike iState iGovernment iOffices/Municipal iOffices. iPublic
ihealth iis iof iparamount iimportance iand ithat iit iis ithe iduty iof ithe iState iand ithe
iCorporations ito iensure ithat ipublic ilatrines, iurinals iand isimilar iconveniences iare
iconstructed, imaintained iand ikept iin ia ihygienic icondition. iThe ineed ifor itoilets iis ifelt
ieven imore iacutely, iduring imenstruation.”

444
iAvailable iat: ihttps://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/all-schools-must-have-separate-toilets-for-girls-and-
iboys--supreme-court-44324(Last iaccessed ion i15 iSept, i2018)

99
445
iPIL iNo. i98 iof i2011 idecided ion i23.12.2015

10
0
 Similarly, ia iDivision iBench iof iBombay iHigh iCourt iin iMilun iThrough iEditor
ivs. iPune iMunicipal iCommissioner446 ipassed ia idetailed iorder ias iunder,
“The iState ishall iformulate ia icomprehensive ischeme ithat iwill ilook iinto ithe
iidentification iof ithe ispot ifor iconstruction iof itoilets. iThe iorder iread, i“The iemphasis
ishould inot ibe ion iproviding inumber iof itoilets ion ithe ibasis iof iproportion iof iwomen
ipopulation, irather ion iproviding iproper ifacilities iat ithe iright iplaces iwhere ithey iare
ineeded ithe imost.”

Recently, iHimachal iPradesh iHigh iCourt447, iwhile idealing iwith ithe iissue iof
inon iavailability iof ipublic iconveniences ion iNational iHighways ipassed ia idetailed
iorder igiving idirections ito ithe iauthorities ias iunder,
“23. iNow, ithe iquestion iremains iat ihow iaforesaid ipublic icause, iwhereby iright ito
isanitation ias istands igranted ito ithe icitizens iof ithe iState iwhich irealized ithe icritical
ifactors iinvolved iin ithe irealization iof ithis irights iare: i“ iAvailability, iaccessibility,
iquality/ isafety, iaffordability, iacceptability iand icross-cutting icriteria ias i“
iparticipation, iaccountability, iimpact, isustainability, iawareness, icapacity ibuilding,
imonitoring iand ilitigation, iwherein iprocess iof iimproving isanitation ican ibe ia iroot ito
iimproving ihealth, irestoring idignity iand ienhancing ieconomic iprospects. iNeedless ito
isay, iSanitation imust ibe isafe, iphysically iassessable, iaffordable iand iculturally
iacceptable iand iin ithis iregard ithis iCourt iintends ito imake icertain isuggestions, iwhich
imay ibe ihelpful ifor ithe iauthorities iwhile ipreparing iblue iprint ifor irealization iof
iaforesaid irights iof isanitation, iespecially ion ihighways i:-
i) Adequate inumber iof ipublic itoilets imust ibe iconstructed iat iconvenient iand isafe
iplaces iwith iproper iand iduly ivisible isignag;.
ii) No icharges ishould ibe icollected ifor ithe iuse iof ishared itoilets iand iappropriate
istaff ishould ibe iappointed ito imaintain ithem;
iii) Easily iaccessability iand iavailability iof itoilets, iespecially ifor ithe iladies ineeds ito
ibe itaken icare iof;
iv) The itoilets imust ihave isuitable iarrangements ifor ithe idisposal iof isanitary inapkins;
v) Safety iand isecurity iof iwomen imust ibe iensured iat iall itimes iand inecessary ilegal
iaction imust ibe iinitiated iagainst imale imembers iwho itry ito ihinder ithe isame;
vi) Authorities i must i make i sure i that i the i licence/ i business i permit i should i only
i be i given i to ithose iDhabas/ ieating ijoints iwho imake ithe iprovisions ifor isafe iand
iclean isanitation ifacilities;

10
1
446
iAIR2016(NOC) i261 iBom. i1
447
iCWPIL iNo.6 iof i2017 idecided ion i19.05.2017

10
2
vii) Apart ifrom iproviding isanitation ifacilities, inecessary isteps imust ibe itaken ito
iprovide itimely iand iadequate imedical ihelp iat ithe itime iof iemergency ior iaccident iat
iall ithe ihighways; iVii)i i The i public i Authorities i can i also i propagate i this i idea i of
i using i sanitation i facilities i by iincluding iDriver/ iConductor iwho iare idriving itheir
ivehicles ion ithese ihighways;
xi) iAuthorities ican ialso itake ihelp ifrom iPSU‟S ior iprivate ioperators iwho iare
iwilling ito ihelp ithe igeneral ipublic;
x) i Authorities i can i also i include i NGO‟s i and i certain i private i individuals i who
i can i help i in ipropagating ithis icampaign.
24 iThis iCourt icannot ilose isight iof ithe ifact ithat idue ito ilack iof igood itoilet
ifacilities, iespecially ifor iwomen iin i public iplaces, iwho iare iunable ito ivoid iurine iin
itime iwhen ithey iget iout iof ithe ihouse, ias ia iresult iof iwhich, ithere iare iincreased
ichances iof iwomen igetting iurinary itract iinfection idue ito iundue iprolonged istorage iof
iurine iin ithe ibladder iand ias isuch ineedful iis irequired ito ibe idone iwithout ifurther
idelay. iThis iCourt iis icautious iof ithe ifact ithat iaforesaid ipublic icause icannot ibe
imaterialized iwithout ithe ihelp iof ipublic iat ilarge iand ias isuch imassive icampaign iis
irequired ito ibe ifounded/made iby iway iof ilocal inewspaper, iT.V. iChannel, iso ithat
ithere iis ibehavioral ichange iin ithe imind iset iof ipeople iand iin ithis iregard ieducational
imessages iabout ihealth iand ihygiene ican ibe iprovided iso ithat icommon iman iis
ibenefited.”
4. Challenge iof iManual iScavenging

The i age i old i problem i of i manual i scavenging i is i still i a i reality iand i while
i dealing i sterrnly iwith ithe iissue iin ithe icase iof iDelhi iJal iBoard iv. iNational
iCampaign ifor iDignity iand iRights iof iSewerage iand iallied iWorkers iand iors448 ithe
iHon‟ble iApex iCourt ienhanced ithe iamount iof icompensation iand icategorically iheld,

“It iis ithe iduty iof ithe ijudicial iconstituent iof ithe iState ilike iits ipolitical iand
iexecutive iconstituents ito iprotect ithe irights iof ievery icitizen iand ievery iindividual iand
iensure ithat ieveryone iis iable ito ilive iwith idignity. iGiven ithe ioption, ino ione iwould
ilike ito ienter ithe imanhole iof isewage isystem ifor icleaning ipurposes, ibut ithere iare
ipeople iwho iare iforced ito iundertake isuch ihazardous ijobs iwith ithe ihope ithat iat ithe
iend iof ithe iday ithey iwill ibe iable ito imake isome imoney iand ifeed itheir ifamily. iThey
irisk itheir ilives ifor ithe icomfort iof iothers. iUnfortunately, ifor ilast ifew idecades, ia
isubstantial isegment iof ithe iurban isociety ihas ibecome iinsensitive i to i the i plight i of
10
3
i the i poor i and i downtrodden i including ithose, i who, i on i account i of

448
i2011(2)SCC375

10
4
sheer ieconomic icompulsions, iundertake ijobs/works iwhich iare iinherently idangerous ito
ilife. iPeople ibelonging ito ithis isegment ido inot iwant ito iunderstand iwhy ia iperson iis
imade ito ienter imanhole i without i safety i gears i and i proper i equipments. i They i look
i the i other i way i when i the ibody iof ia iworker iwho idies iin ithe imanhole iis itaken iout
iwith ithe ihelp iof iropes iand icranes. iIn ithis iscenario, ithe iCourts iare inot ionly ientitled
ibut iare iunder iconstitutional iobligation ito itake icognizance iof ithe iissues irelating ito
ithe ilives iof ithe ipeople iwho iare iforced ito iundertake ijobs iwhich iare ihazardous iand
idangerous ito ilife. iIt iwill ibe ia itragic iand isad iday iwhen ithe isuperior iCourts iwill
ishut itheir idoors ifor ithose, iwho iwithout iany imotive ifor ipersonal igain ior iother
iextraneous ireasons, icome iforward ito iseek iprotection iand ienforcement iof ithe ilegal
iand iconstitutional irights iof ithe ipoor, idowntrodden iand idisadvantaged isections iof ithe
isociety. i”

Thereafter, iin ithe ilandmark ijudgment iof iSafai iKaramchari iAndolan iV. iUnion
iof iIndia449, ithe i„Apex iCourt itook ia istrong inote iof ithe ifact ithat idespite ithe ifact ithat
ithe i1993 iact iis iin iforce ifor ithe ilast i20 iyears, istill ithe idry ilatrines icontinue ito iexist
ias ialso ithe ipractice iof imanual iscavenging‟ iand iissued ifollowing iexhaustive
idirections ifor irehabilitation iof imanual iscavengers,

“14) iWe ihave ialready inoted ivarious iprovisions iof ithe i2013 iAct iand ialso iin ithe
ilight iof ivarious iorders iof ithis iCourt, iwe iissue ithe ifollowing idirections:-

(i) The ipersons iincluded iin ithe ifinal ilist iof imanual iscavengers iunder iSections i11
iand i12 iof ithe i2013 iAct, ishall ibe irehabilitated ias iper ithe iprovisions iof iPart iIV iof
ithe i2013 iAct, iin ithe ifollowing imanner, inamely:-

(a) such iinitial, ione itime, icash iassistance, ias imay ibe iprescribed;

(b) their ichildren ishall ibe ientitled ito ischolarship ias iper ithe irelevant
ischeme iof ithe iCentral iGovernment ior ithe iState iGovernment ior ithe
ilocal iauthorities, ias ithe icase imay ibe;

(c) they ishall ibe iallotted ia iresidential iplot iand ifinancial iassistance ifor
ihouse iconstruction, ior ia iready-built ihouse iwith ifinancial iassistance,
isubject ito ieligibility iand iwillingness iof ithe imanual iscavenger ias iper
ithe iprovisions i of ithe irelevant ischeme;

105
449
iSupra inote i105.

106
 (d) at ileast ione imember iof itheir ifamily, ishall ibe igiven, isubject ito
ieligibility iand iwillingness, itraining iin ilivelihood iskill iand ishall ibe
ipaid ia i monthly istipend iduring isuch iperiod;

(e) at ileast ione iadult imember iof itheir ifamily, ishall ibe igiven, isubject
ito ieligibility iand iwillingness, isubsidy iand iconcessional iloan ifor itaking
iup ian ialternative ioccupation ion isustainable ibasis, ias iper ithe iprovisions
iof ithe irelevant ischeme;

(f) shall ibe iprovided isuch iother ilegal iand iprogrammatic iassistance, ias
ithe iCentral iGovernment ior iState iGovernment imay inotify iin ithis
ibehalf.

(ii) If ithe ipractice iof imanual iscavenging ihas ito ibe ibrought ito ia iclose iand ialso ito
iprevent ifuture igenerations ifrom ithe iinhuman ipractice iof imanual iscavenging,
irehabilitation iof imanual iscavengers iwill ineed ito iinclude:-

(a) Sewer ideaths i– ientering isewer ilines iwithout isafety igears ishould ibe
imade ia icrime ieven iin iemergency isituations. iFor ieach isuch ideath,
icompensation iof iRs. i10 ilakhs ishould ibe igiven ito ithe ifamily iof ithe
ideceased.

(b) Railways i– ishould itake itime ibound istrategy ito iend imanual
iscavenging ion ithe itracks.

(c) Persons ireleased ifrom imanual iscavenging ishould inot ihave ito icross
ihurdles ito ireceive iwhat iis itheir ilegitimate idue iunder ithe ilaw.

(d) Provide isupport ifor idignified ilivelihood ito isafai ikaramchari iwomen
iin iaccordance iwith itheir ichoice iof ilivelihood ischemes.

(iii) Identify ithe ifamilies iof iall ipersons iwho ihave idied iin isewerage iwork i(manholes,
iseptic itanks) isince i1993 iand iaward icompensation iof iRs.10 ilakhs ifor ieach isuch
ideath ito ithe ifamily imembers idepending ion ithem.

(iv) Rehabilitation imust ibe ibased ion ithe iprinciples iof ijustice iand itransformation.”

107
 Similar iview iwas irecently itaken iby ithe iHon‟ble iMadras iHigh iCourt iin icase
iChange iIndia ivs iGovernment iOf iTamilnadu i450 iwherein iwhile idetermining ithe
iauthority iresponsible ifor ipayment iof icompensation ito ithe ifamily iof ideceased
iscavenger, ithe icourt iheld,

“8.The iState iis iunder ia ibounden iduty ito iprohibit imanual iscavenging iand iit
icannot iavoid iits iliability ito icompensate imanual iscavengers iwho ilose itheir ilives iin
icourse iof imanual iscavenging, iby ireason iof ithe iinability iof ithe iState ito istop imanual
iscavenging.”

5. Judicial iActivism iand iWaste iManagement

Considering ithe igravity iof ithe isituation, iPrincipal iBench iof iNational iGreen
i Tribunal idealt iwith ithe iissue iof iimpact iof ibio-medical iwaste iin icase iHaat iSupreme
iWastech iPvt. iLtd. iOrs ivs iState iOf iHaryana iOrs.451and iheld,

“The ibio-medical iwaste i is ione iof ithe imore iserious iand ihazardous ipollutants
iand iit ican iproduce ilarge inumber iof iinfectious idiseases iwhich iwould ibe ivery
iharmful ito ithe ihumanity iat ilarge. iTheir iimpact ion ipublic ihealth ican ibe ivery
iadverse iand iit iis inot ionly iexpected ibut iis imandatory ithat isuch ibio-medical iwaste iis
idealt iwith istrictly iin iaccordance iwith iRules iof i1998 ito iensure ithat ibio-medical
iwaste idoes inot icause iany iinjury ito ipublic ihealth iand ienvironment. iFor ithis ipurpose
iand iwith ithis iobject iit iis iimportant ito igive iwide iinterpretation ito ithe irelevant
ientries ito iensure iappropriate ichecks iin iregard ito idealing iand idisposal iof ibio-medical
iwaste. iThus, ian iinterpretation iwhich iwould iput igreater ichecks iand ibalances iover
ithis iprocess iwould ibe iin iline iwith ieven ithe iobject iof ithe iAct iof i1986.”

Recognizing ithe igruesome istate iof igarbage iproblem, iSupreme iCourt ialso
inoted iin irecent icase iRe: iOutrage ias iParents iEnd iLife iAfter iChild‟s iDengue
iDeath452, ithat, i“Solid iwaste i management i is i a i huge i problem i being i faced i by i the
i country i at i this i stage. i It i is i quite iclear ithat ithere iis iabsolutely ino ishortage iof
ifunds, ibut ithere iis ionly iabsence iof iany iinitiative ior ilack iof iany iwillingness ito itake
iany ipositive isteps ifor isolid iwaste imanagement.”

450
iW.P.No.25726 iof i2017 idecided ion i4 iJune, i2018.

451
iAppeal ino. i63 iOF i2012 idecided ion i28.11.2013.
108
 iDecided ion i16th idec i2017. iAvailable iat: ihttps://www.livelaw.in/sc-pulls-states-not-serious-solid-waste-
452

imanagement-read-order/(Last iaccessed ion i15 iSept, i2018).

109
 Further, itaking inote iof ialarming isituation icreated iby ithe ilarge iscale igeneration iof
iplastic iwaste, ithe iSupreme iCourt iin icase, iKaruna iSociety ifor iAnimals iand iNature iand iors
iv. iUnion iof iIndia iand iors,453held,

“The iuse iof iplastic iby ithe iresidents, iwhich iis ioften iconsumed iby ithe ianimals
iadversely iaffects itheir idigestive itract iresulting iin itheir ideath iand ipost-mortem iof isuch idead
ianimals iwill ibe iconducted iultimately ipolluting ithe iwhole iof ithe iareas iwhere ithe ipublic
iresidents iare iresiding ithereby ithe ipublic iresidents iwould isuffer ion iaccount iof iunhygienic
iconditions ithat iwould iprevail iin ithe iarea. iThe icourt ialso idirected ithe iGovernments ito itake
iall inecessary isteps iin ithe imatter, iby iconstituting icommittees iconsisting iof icompetent ipersons
iwho ihave igot isufficient iknowledge ion ithe isubject imatter iand ialso ito iset iup ian iappropriate
imonitoring imechanism iin ithe imatter.”

Further idealing iwith ithe ineglected iissue iof ie-waste iin iNagrik iUpbhokta iMargdarshak
iManch ivs. iState iof iMP i& iOrs.454 ithe iBhopal ibench iof iGreen iTribunal ihas iheld ithe
ifollowing:

“That iproducers iare irequired ito iachieve i100% icollection iand ichannelization iat i the iend
iof ithe ilife iof ithe iequipment iand ifor ithe ipurpose iof imonitoring ithe iimplementation iof
itargets ibased ion ithe ilife iof ithe iproduct, ithe itype iof ithe iproduct idepending iupon ithe iusage
iand iconsumption ipatterns. iThis iis iapplicable ifor iall ithe ithree istates iincluding-MP, iRajasthan
iand iChattisgarh.”

6. Conclusion

Thus, ithe ijudiciary ihas ivery isignificantly iand i categorically ifilled ithe igrey iarea iof
iour iexisting ilegal isystem iby iwidening ithe iambit iof iRight ito ilife. iIts iefforts ihave icertainly
ibeen isuccessful iin ideveloping ithis irelatively inew iright iof iSanitation.

Now iwith ithis iinter ilinkage iof ilegislature-executive-judiciary, ihopefully, ithe ivaluable
iand ipiecemeal iright iof isanitation iwhich iis inecessary ifor iexercising iother ihuman irights ias
iwell, iwould ibe iprovided iand ithe icommitment i made iby ithe iConstitution imakers ito iits
icitizens iwould ibe ifulfilled. i455

453
iCWP iNO i154 iOF i2012 idecided ion i15.07.2016 i.
454
iOriginal iApplication iNo. i143 iof i2013 idecided ion15.1.2015.
455
Available at:https://lexpress.in/environment/right-clean-healthy-environment-fundamental-right-india(Last iaccessed ion
i15 iSept, i2018)

103
104
 CHAPTER i5

SANITATION iLAWS iAND iPUBLIC iHEALTH iIN iINDIA

AN iEMPIRICAL
iSTUDY

1. Research i Methodology

The ipresent iresearch iwork irequired idoctrinal ias iwell ias inon i-
idoctrinal/empirical istudy. iThe idoctrinal iwork idealt iwith ianalytical i
iapproach iwhere itools iof iresearch isuch ias ireview iof iliterature iavailable iin
ivarious iinternational iconventions/treaties, inational
ilaws/rules/regulations/policies, itext ibooks, ilegal icommentaries, ilegal ijournals,
ireporters, ijudgments, ireports iof iPlanning iCommission iof iIndia iand iLaw iCommision,
iarticles iin ithe inewspapers/ imagazines/internet isources, idigests, ipublished istatistics
ietc. ion i the iright i ito i sanitation iwere ireviewed ifor ithe i purpose i of
i collecting i literature i and i data i for i the i study.

The i empirical i work i comprised i of i questionnaire i and i data i collection

i in i order ito ifind iout ithe ilevel iof iimportance iof isanitation iand iawareness
iregardin ig i its ilinkage iwith iother ihuman irights iamong ivarious isectors iof
isociety. iThe iquestionnaire iwas ipurposely iprepared ito i analyse i ithe i
iawareness i iin i general ipublic, isanitation iworkers, imedia iagencies,
iteachers, ilawyers iand istudents. iThe iwhole idata ihas ibeen ianalysed iby
iapplying ithe iStatistical iPackage ifor iSocial iSciences i (SPSS) i software.

2. Universe iof iStudy:

The iempirical istudy iwas iconducted iin iand iaround ithe iperiphery iof iUnion
iTerritory iof iChandigarh, ionce i„The iCity iBeautiful‟, iwhere iat ipresent ihundreds iof
ithousands iare ibeing iaffected idue ito ipreventable iconditions ieach iyear ibecause iof ithe
idemons i of ipoor isanitation iand ihealth iissues iarising iout iof ithe isame, iso ias ito ilist
iout isome iof ithe isteps iwhich iwould ihelp ito iraise ithe icondition iof isanitation iand ias
ia iconsequence ithe iliving istandards iof ithe ipeople. iResearcher ihas idistributed
iquestionnaire ito i200 irespondents ihowever, itotal i174 irespondents ifrom ivarious istrata
iof isociety ii.e. iGeneral iPublic, iSanitation iworkers, imedia ipersons, iTeachers,
iAdvocates, iand iStudents ihave isuccessfully ianswered ithe iqueries iof ithe iresearcher.

105
106
3. Study iDesign

A iwell- idesigned iquestionnaire iwas iprepared iand iused ifor icollecting idata ifrom
iGeneral iPublic, iSanitation iworkers, imedia ipersons, iTeachers, iAdvocates, iand
iStudents. iThese iquestionnaires iwere igiven iand icollected ifrom ithe irespondents
ipersonally.

4. Data iAnalysis

Following iis ithe idata ianalysis iof ithe iquestionnaire i:

It ican ibe iseen ithat iout iof i174 irespondents, i76% iwere imales iand i24%

iwere ifemales. iTable i1: iRespondents ion ithe ibasis iof iSex.

SEX

Frequency Percent
Valid Males
133 76.4

Females
41 23.6

Total
174 100.0

107
 Females i24%

Males i76%

Respondents icomprised iof i22% irural ipopulation iand i78% iurban ipopulation.

Table i2: iAnalysis ion ithe ibasis iof iarea.

Frequency Percent
Valid Rural
38 21.8

Urban
136 78.2

Total
174 100.0

108
 Rural i22%

Urban i78%

Research iwas iconducted ifrom ithe irespondents ibelonging ito idifferent iage igroups iso
ias ito iaccess itheir ilevel iof iawareness iregarding iright ito isanitation.39% ipeople
ibelonged ito ithe iage igroup iof i18-30 iyears, i31% ifrom i31-40 iyears, i18% ifrom i41-50
iyears, i9% ifrom i51-60 iyears iand iaround i3% irespondents iwere iabove i60 iyears iof
iage.

Table i3: iAnalysis ion ithe ibasis iof iage

Frequency Percent
Valid 18-30 iYrs 68 39.1

31-40 iYrs 53 30.5

41-50 iYrs 31 17.8

51-60 iYrs 16 9.2

> i60 iYrs 6 3.4

Total 174 100.0

109
 > i60
iYrs
3%

51-60
iYrs
9%

18-30
41-50 iYrs
iYrs 39%
18%

31-40
iYrs
31%

Following iis ithe idata ianalysis iof ivarious iquestions iof iquestionnaire i:

Q. iDo iyou iknow iwhat iis iSanitation?

Sanitation igenerally irefers ito ithe iprovision iof ifacilities iand iservices ifor ithe isafe
idisposal iof ihuman iurine iand ifeces. iThe iterm isanitation ialso irefers ito ithe
imaintenance iof ihygienic iconditions, ithrough iservices isuch ias igarbage icollection iand
iwastewater idisposal.

It ican ibe iseen ifrom ithe iTable ino. i4 ithat iout iof iall i174 irespondents ibelonging
ito isix idifferent icategories ii.e. igeneral ipublic, isanitation iworkers, imedia
ipersons, istudents, ilawyers iand iteachers, i73% ipeople iare inot ionly ifamiliar
iwith iterm iSanitation i but i even i know i the i benefits i related i to i its i access.

This imade iresearcher imore icomfortable ias irespondents ibeing iaware iwere
ieasily iable ito ianswer ithis iquestion irelated ito i the itopic. iAll ithe imore iit
i is i important ito ihave ia ilaw ion ithe isubject ibecause isuch iawareness iin
igeneral ipublic, isanitation iworkers, imedia ipersons, istudents, ilawyers iand i
iteachers idepi icts i iconsciousness iand i much i expectation i from i the i research.

110
 Table i4: iAwareness ilevel iof ithe irespondents itowards ithe iterm iSanitation.

Do iyou iknow iwhat iis iSanitation?

Frequency Percent
Valid Yes 127 73.0

No 38 21.9

To ia iLimited iExtent
9 5.2

Do iyou iknow iwhat iis

iSanitation?

TO iA iLIMITED
iEXTENT 9

NO
38

YES
127

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

111
Q. iDo iyou ihave iaccess ito iclean idrinking iwater iand itoilet ifacility iat iyour ihome?

It ican ibe iseen ifrom iTable ino.5 ithat i90% iof ithe ipeople ihave iaccess ito ithe ibasic
iright iof iclean/safe idrinking iwater iand ifacilities ifor isanitation. iHowever, istill i6.3%
irespondents ilack ithe iaccess ito iboth ithese ifundamental irights iwithout iwhich
ienjoyment iof iother ihuman irights iis ialso igreatly iaffected. iThe iresponses ireceived
ifrom ithe isubjects ion ithe irelevant iquestion ishow ithe iinterest iand iawareness iof
igeneral ipublic iin ithis isubject. iThis ientails ithat ithere iis ia ineed iof iappropriate
iutilisation iof iresearch ifor iensuring ithe iprovision iof ithese iamenities ito ithe isociety iat
ilarge iand ifor iadoption iof isturdy iregulatory/ ilegislative imeasures iso ithat ithe istream
ican ibe ichannelized.

Table i5: iAccessibility iof iDrinking iWater iand iToilets

Do iyou ihave iaccess ito iclean idrinking iwater iand itoilet ifacility iat iyour ihome?

Frequency Percent
Valid Yes 157 90.2

No 11 6.3

To ia iLimited iExtent
6 3.5

112
 To ia iLimited iExtent i4%

No i6%

Yes i90%

Q. i If ino, ido iyou imake iuse iof ishared/community/public itoilets?

The idata ianalysis ireveals ithat i4.6 i% iout iof itotal irespondents imake iuse iof
ishared/public itoilets, i0.6 i% irespondents iuse ithe icommunity itoilets ito ia ilimited
iextent iand i93.7% irespondents igave ino iresponse ito ithe iquestion iwhich ialso
isomehow iimplies ithat ithey ido ihave itoilets iat itheir ihomes. iHowever, ithe i1.1% iof
ithe irespondents iwho ido inot ihave itoilets iat itheir ihomes iand ieven ido inot imake iuse
iof ishared itoilets imust ibe imade iaware iabout ithe ibenefits iof iaccessing ia itoilet, ieven
iif iits iis ia ishared ione.

113
Table i6: iInformation iregarding iusage iof ishared itoilets:

If ino, ido iyou imake iuse iof ishared/community/public itoilets?

Frequency Percent
Valid Yes 8 4.6
No 2 1.1
To ia iLimited iExtent
1 0.6

Total 11 6.3
Not answered/applicable 163 93.7
Total 174 100.0

Usage iof iShared

180 iToilet
160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
yes no to ia ilimited not
iextent iapplicable
Column1Column2

114
Q. iIf iyes, iis iwater iavailable ifor iuse iin isuch itoilets?

Researcher i has i found i that i 68.4% i respondents i have i full i time i availability i of
i water i in i the itoilets iwhether iprivate ior ipublic, iused iby ithem ion idaily ibasis iand
i11.5% irespondents ihave iprovision iof ithis iamenity ito ia ilimited iextent. iHowever,
iaround i11.5 i% irespondents istill ilack ithis ifacility. iTherefore, iit iis irequired ithat
iappropriate isteps imust ibe itaken ito iensure ithe iavailability iof iwater isupply iin iall ithe
itoilets iwhether iprivate/public ifor i maintaining ihealth iand ihygiene.

Table i7: iAvailability iof iWater iin iToilets:

If iyes, iis iwater iavailable ifor iuse iin isuch itoilets?

Frequency Percent
Valid Yes 119 68.4
No 20 11.5
To ia iLimited iExtent
18 10.3

Total 157 90.2

Not answered/applicable 17 9.8
Total 174 100.0

115
 water isupply iin itoilets

yesnoto ilimited iextentnot ianswered

Q. i If ino, idoes iany imember iof iyour ihousehold idefecate iin ithe iopen?

Table i8 ireveals ithat iin ithe imost ibeautiful icity iof ithe icountry, i1.1% iof ithe
irespondents iare istill iforced ito isquat ioutdoors ito irelieve ithemselves iduring ithe iwee
ihours iof ithe iday. iNo idoubt, ithe imajority iof ithe irespondents iare ihaving iaccess ito
ithis ibasic iamenity ibut ithe ipublic iauthorities imust iensure ithat ithe ineeds iof ithe
iremaining i1.1% irespondents iare ialso iduly icatered.

Table i8: iRespondents ipracticing iopen idefecation

If ino, idoes iany imember iof iyour ihousehold idefecate iin ithe iopen?
Frequency Percent
Valid Yes 2 1.1
No 0 0.0
To ia iLimited iExtent 0 0.0
Total 2 1.1
Not answered/applicable 174 99.9
Total 174 100.0

116
 OPEN
120 iDEFECATION
100

80

60

40

20

YES NO LIMITED NOT

iEXTENT iAPPLICABLE
Series
i1

Q. i Do iyou iknow ithat iopen idefecation iresults iin ispread iof idiseases?

89.1% i of i the i respondents i were i aware i of i the i benefits i of i having i access

i to i facilities i for isanitation iwhereas, iaround i6% iof ithe irespondents iwere istill
idevoid iof ithis ibasic iknowledge. i5.7% iof ithe irespondents ishowed ia imixed iresponse
ito ithis iquery. iThis imeans ithat ithe iawareness igeneration icampaigns imust iinvolve ithe
ivarious iagencies iof igovernment ias iwell ias iprivate iinstitutions iso ithat ithis igoal
icould ibe iachieved iin itotality.

Table i9: iSpread iof iDiseases iwith iOpen iDefecation.

Do iyou iknow ithat iopen idefecation iresults iin ispread iof idiseases?

Frequency Percent
Valid Yes 155 89.1
No 9 5.1
To ia iLimited iExtent
10 5.7

Total 174 100.0

117
 To ia iLimited iExtent i6%

No i5%

Yes i89%

Q. i Do iyou ihave iaccess ito iclean idrinking iwater iand itoilet iat iyour iworkplace?

Researcher i has i found i that i 73.6 i % i of i respondents i replied i in i favour i of i the

i availability i of itoilets iat iworkplace. iMeaning ithereby, ithe iemployers iare iaware iof
itheir iduty ito iprovide ithe ibasic iamenities iof iclean idrinking iwater iand isanitation iand
ithe iemployees iare iaware iof ithe ihealth ibenefits iassociated iwith ithe iuse iof itoiltes.
iHowever, iIt iis iseen ithat i13.2 i% iof irespondents istill ilack iaccess ito ithese ibasic
ifacilities ifor iwhich iexecutive imachinery ineeds ito iensure ithe iproper iimplementation
iof ivarious iLabor ilaws.

Table i10: iAccess ito idrinking iwater iand itoilets iat iWorkplace

Do iyou ihave iaccess ito iclean idrinking iwater iand itoilet iat iyour iworkplace?
Frequency Percent
Valid Yes 128 73.6
No 23 13.2
To ia iLimited iExtent 23 13.2
Total 174 100.0

118
 To ia iLimited iExtent i13%

No i13%

Yes i74%

Q. i If ia istudent, iwhether iyour ischool/college ihas iseparate itoilets ifor iboys/girls?

Research iresults ishow ithat ithe ieducational iinstitutions iof iaround i53.4 i% iof
irespondents ihave iseparate itoilet ifacilities ifor iboys iand igirls iwhereas, i6.9 i%
irespondents imake iuse iof ishared ifacility iwhich idefinitely igoes iagainst ithe iprovisions
iof ithe iRight ito iEducation iAct ias ialso ithe idirectives iissued iby ithe iHon‟ble iApex
iCourt. i37.9% iof ithe irespondents ihave inot igiven iany ianswer ito ithis iquery iso iit
icould ibe iimplied ithat ithey iare inot istudying iin iany ieducational iinstitution.

119
 Table i11: iSeparate iToilet iFacility ifor iGirls/Boys iin iSchools/ iColleges

If ia istudent, iwhether iyour ischool/college ihas iseparate itoilets ifor iboys/girls?

Frequency Percent
Valid Yes 93 53.4
No 12 6.9
To ia iLimited iExtent
3 1.7

Total 108 62.1

Not answered/applicable 66 37.9
Total 174 100.0

SEPARATE iTOILETS iFOR iGIRLS/BOYS

yesnolimited iextentnot ianswered

120
Q. i Whether i the i toilet i facility i that i you i use i at i home/workplace/educational
i institution, iregularly icleaned?

Research ireveals ithat i71.3% irespondents ibelonging ito i6 idifferent icategories ihave
iaccess ito ia ihygienic isanitation ifacility ias ithe ifacility iused iby ithem iis iregularly
icleaned iby ithe isafai ikaramcharis. iHowever, iclean iand iimproved isanitation ifacilities
iare istill ibeyond ithe ireach iof irest iof ithe irespondents ifor iwhich ithe iemployees ias
iwell ias iadministrative iauthorities iof ischools iand icollege ineed ito itighten itheir igrip.

Table i12: iViews ion icleaning iof ithe itoilet ifacility

Whether i the i toilet i facility i that i you i use i at i home/workplace/educational

i institution, iregularly icleaned?
Frequency Percent
Valid Yes 124 71.3
No 23 13.3
To ia iLimited iExtent 27 15.5
Total 174 100.0

To ia iLimited iExtent i16%

No i13%

Yes i71%

121
Q. i Whether ithe isewerage isystem iof iyour ilocality iproperly imaintained?

73% irespondents ihave iresponded iin iaffirmation iand i15.5% ihave iresponded iin
inegative iwhich ishows ithat ieven iin ia icity ilike iChandigarh, isanitation isyatem iis iin
iruins. iEven iduring imonsoons, ithe irampant ioverflowing iand iclogging iof ismelly
idrains iand isewerage isystems iis ia iregular ipicture ibecause iof ithe ipublic iin igeneral
iand imanual iscavengers iin iparticular iare ivery ibadly iaffected.

Table i13: i Maintenance iof iSewerage iSystems iin iLocality

Whether ithe isewerage isystem iof iyour ilocality iproperly imaintained?

Frequency Percent
Valid Yes 127 73.0

No 27 15.5

To ia iLimited iExtent
20 11.5

Total 174 100.0

To ia
Limited
iExtent
No i11%
16%

Yes
73%

122
Q. iIf iyes, iwhether ithat isewerage isystem iis imanually icleaned?

The istudy ishows ithat isewerage isystems iin ithe ilocality iof iarond i47.7 i% iof
irespondentsare ibeing imanually icleaned, iwhereas i8.6 i% irespondents iare iliving iin
itechnologicaly iand iinfrastructuraly isound isocieties/areas iwhere ithe iage iol ipractice iof
imanual icleaning iis icompletely iprohibited.

However, ino iresponse igiven iby i27% irespondents iand ilimited ione iby i16.7%
irespondents iwhose ilocalities iare ibeing imanually icleaned ito isome iextent ihave ifailed
ito igive ia iclear ipicture iregarding itheir ilocality iand ihence ihave iposed ia idifficulty iin
iaccessing ithe iexact iresult.

Table i14: iManual icleaning iof isewerage isystems.

If iyes, iwhether ithat isewerage isystem iis imanually icleaned?

Frequency Percent
Valid Yes 83 47.7
No 15 8.6
To ia iLimited iExtent
29 16.7

Total 127 73.0

Not answered/applicable 47 27.0
Total 174 100.0

123
 yesnolimited
Q. iDo iyou iknow ithat ithe ipractice iextentnot iapplicable
iof imanual iscavenging iis iprohibited iin iIndia?

The iresearch iconducted isuggests ithat iawareness ihas icertainly ibeen igenerated iamongst
ithe imasses iregarding ithe iprohibtion iof iage iold iinhuman iproblem iof imanual
iscavenging iin iIndia ibecause iof iwhich ithousands iof imanual iscavengers iare inot ionly
istigmatised iand itraumatised ibut iare ialso isubjected ito inumerous ideadly idiseases
iwhen ithey iare iforced ito ienter ithe isewers iand idrains iwithout iany ipreotective igears.
iHowever, i43% iof ithe irespondents iare istill iunaware iabout ithe iexistence iof ithis
idegrading ipractice ithat iresearchers iand igovernments imust icarefully iconsider.

124
Table i15: iProhibtion iof iManual iScavenging

Do iyou iknow ithat ithe ipractice iof imanual iscavenging iis iprohibited iin iIndia?

Frequency Percent
Valid Yes 92 52.9
No 75 43.1
To ia iLimited iExtent
7 4.0

Total 174 100.0

To ia iLimited
iExtent
4%

No
43% Yes
53%

125
Q. iWhether ienough idustbins iare iavailable iin/around iyour ilocality? iIf iyes, ido
iyou imake iproper iuse iof ithem?

Research i conducted i says i that i 56.3 i % i respondents i have i sufficient i dustbins i to

i dispose i off itheir ihousehold iwaste iin itheir ilocality iwhereas ithe ilocalities iof i29.9%
irespondents iare istill idevoid iof iavailability iof idustbins ibecause iof iwhich ilitter iand
irefuge imust ibe ispreading iin iand iaround ithe ilocality ithereby iposing ia irisk iof
idiseases ias iwell.

However, iavailability iof idustbins iis ione ithing iand imaking iuse iof ithem ianother ifor
iwhich iawareness imust ibe igenerated iand ibehavioral ichange imust ibe iinculcated.

Table i16: iAvailability iof idustbins iin ilocality

Whether ienough idustbins iare iavailable iin/around iyour ilocality? iIf iyes, ido iyou
imake iproper iuse iof ithem?

Frequency Percent
Valid Yes 98 56.3
No 52 29.9
To ia iLimited iExtent
24 13.8

Total 174 100.0

126
 To ia
Limited
iExtent
i14%

No
Yes
30%
56%

Q. iWhether ithose idustbins iare iregularly icleaned iby ithe isafai ikaramcharis iof
ithe imunicipal icorporation?

Researcher ihas ifound ifrom ithe iTable ino.17 ithat idustbins iof ia ihuge iportion iof
i respondents
i.e. i37.9 i% iof itotal irespondents, iare inot ibeing iregularly icleaned iby ithe isafai
ikaramcharis iof ithe imunicipal icorporation iand iafter ithat i21.3% iof ithe irespondents
ihave ianswered iin ithe icategory iof ito ilimited iextent. iThus, ithe idata iclearly iimplies
ithat ia ilarge ichunk iof ipopulation iis imade ito ilive iin iunhygienic ienvironment ijust
ibecause ithe imunicipal iauthorities ihave ifailed ito iperform itheir iduties iin ian ieffective
imanner.

Table ino.17: iCleaning iof iDustbins iby iSafai iKaramcharis

Whether i those i dustbins i are i regularly i cleaned i by i the i safai i karamcharis i of i the
i municipal icorporation?
Frequency Percent
Valid Yes 71 40.8
No 66 37.9
To ia iLimited iExtent 37 21.3
Total 174 100.0

127
 To ia iLimited
iExtent Yes
21% 41%

No
38%

Q. iHave iyou ikept iseparate idustbins ifor idisposing idry iand iwet igarbage iat iyour ihome?

Researcher ihas ifound ithat iin ithis istudy iconducted, i46.6 i% iout iof itotal irespondents
iaffirmed ithe iseparation iof idry iand iwet igarbage iat itheir ihomes. i44.3% iout iof
irespondents ichose ito ibe igive ia inegative iresponse. iHowever, i9.2 i% iout iof itotal
irespondents ireacted iin imixed iway iby isaying ito ilimited iextent iwhich iclearly ishows
ithat iSwachh iBharat iguidelines imust ibe ipromoted iand iadopted iwith imuch imore
ienthusiasm iand ifervor.

128
 Table i18: iSeparate idustbins ifor idry iand iwet igarbage

Have iyou ikept iseparate idustbins ifor idisposing idry iand iwet igarbage iat iyour
ihome?

Frequency Percent
Valid Yes 81 46.6
No 77 44.3
To ia iLimited iExtent
16 9.2

Total 174 100.0

To ia iLimited iExtent
9%

Yes i47%

No i44%

140
 CHAPTER
i6

CONCLUSIONS iAND iSUGGESTIONS

“Addressing iglobal isanitation ineeds irequires iinnovative iaction iand ibroad

icommitments ithat ican ibe itailored ito ilocal isituation ibased ion istrengths iand
icircumstances”456

1. Introduction

Of iall ithe icountries igrappling iwith ia isanitation iproblem, iIndia itops ithe ilist.457
iNo idoubt, ithe iinitiation iof ithe iSwachh iBharat iMission iin i2014 ihas igiven ia inew
icatalyst ito isanitation idevelopment iin iIndia, ihowever, isuccess iin ithis ifield ihas ibeen
iuneven iand iinequitable, iand imany ithreats iremain.458 iKey iareas ithat ihave ithe
icapability ito iderail ithe imost iwell iintentioned iresolutions iinclude, iwet iversus idry
isanitation; imale iversus ifemale irequirements; ishared iversus iprivate ifacilities; iand,
iprovision iversus iusage.

2. Conclusions idrawn iby ithe iResearcher

After ianalysing ithe idifferent iinternational ilaw iinstruments, inational ilegislative

iframework, ipolicy idecisions iand ivariety iof ijudgments irendered iby ithe iIndian iand
iForeign icourts, ithe iresearcher ihas iarrived iat ithe ifollowing iconclusion:

2.1 Hygiene, iSanitation, iand iWater: iTreated ias iSingle iSector

Traditionally, isanitation iand iwater, itogether iwith ihygiene, iwere itaken ias ia isingle
isector, ibut ithe ianalysis iof ithis isector‟s icomponent ihas ishowed inot ionly ithat ithey
ihave imuch iin icommon ibut ialso ithat imuch isets ithem iapart itoo.459 iThe ihealth isector
ihas ia isignificant istake iin iremedying ithis isituation iby imaking isure ithat ihygiene,
isanitation, iand iwater iget ithe iattention ithey ideserve460.

456
iAvailable iat:http://inweh.unu.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2015/05/Sanitation_as_a_Key_Global_Health.pdf(Last
accessed ion i27 iDec, i2018)
457
iAvailable iat:https://www.thehindu.com/features/homes-and-gardens/an-ideal-sanitation
solution/article5175525.eceLast iaccessed ion i27 iDec, i2018)
458
iAvailable iat:http://in.one.un.org/health-water-and-sanitation/(Last iaccessed ion i27 iDec, i2018)
459
iCairncross iS, iBartram iJ, iCumming iO, iBrocklehurst iC i“Hygiene, iSanitation, iand iWater: iWhat
iNeeds ito iBe iDone?”7 iPLoS iMed i11(2010)
141
460
iIbid.

142
2.2 Sanitation iis iNeglected iand iFragmented iSector

Sanitation ihas ialways ibeen ian iunder iprioritised iand ineglected isector iin iIndia.
iGovernments ihave ialways igiven imuch iimportance ito iother iissues iwhich ihave ihigher
iemotional iand ipolitical ivalue ibetween ithe imasses iwhich icertainly idoes inot iinclude
iSanitation iwithin iits ipurview. iMoreover, ithe ifragmentation iof isanitation isector ihas
ioften icaused ihinderance iin ideveloping istrategies ito ideal iwith ithis isector ias ialso ito
imonitor ithe iprogress irelated ito iits iimprovement.461

2.3 Ensuring iright ito isanitation: iA ichallenge ifor igovernment

There iare idifferent ideterminants iof isanitation iand iall ithese ivariants iimpact
ivarious ipeople iin idifferent iways. iThe ifact iis ithat ithe inotion iof iright ito isanitation iis
iso iwide ithat iit iis inow ibecoming iburdensome ifor ithe igovernment ito ifocus ion iall iits
ivaried iaspects iespecially iwhen iall iof ithem iare ilinked ito ieach iother.462

2.4 Legislation ipertaining ito iSanitation

The iparliament ihas iembraced ia idynamic iapproach ito imeet ithe irequirements iof
ithe ispeedily ichanging isociety, ihowever, i till idate iwe i do inot ihave iany
idistinguishing ilegislation ion isanitation. iThere ihas ibeen ia iGrey iarea iin ithe ilaws ithat
iguard ithe ihealth iof ia iperson iand iwe ineed ito ifill ithis igap iby iauthorizing ia
iparticular ilegislation.463

2.5 Ineffectiveness iof ithe iExecutive iin iimplementing ithe iConstitutional imandate

Applaudable iand iSignificant isteps ihave ibeen itaken iby ithe iGovernment ias iwell ias
ithe iJudiciary iin iattaining ithe igoals iset iout iby ithe iConstitution iyet, ithe
iimplementing ibody iof ithe iGovernment ihas ishown iless ior ino iconcern itowards ithis
ineglected iand iaffected isector. iThey ihave ifailed ito ifulfill itheir iduties iin ian ieffective
imanner iwhich iin iturn iis iaffecting ithe ilives iof imillions iwho iare isuffering ibecause
iof ilack iof ithis iamenity.464

461
Available iat: ihttp://www.indiawaterportal.org/sites/indiawaterportal.org/files/uploads/2007/11/what-
is- iailing-poor-sanitation-coverage-in-india.docLast iaccessed ion i27 iDec, i2018)
462
iAvailable iat:http://news.trust.org//item/20140613151612-pknit/Last iaccessed ion i27 iDec, i2018)
463
iAvailable iat:https://www.soppecom.org/pdf/Right-to-sanitation-in-India-Nature-scope-and-voices-fro-
%20the-margins.pdfLast iaccessed ion i27 iDec, i2018)
464
iAvailable iat:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2981587/Last iaccessed ion i27 iDec, i2018)
143
2.6 Role iof iJudiciary: iLaudable

The iSupreme iCourt iof iIndia ihas ibeen idynamic ienough iin ideveloping iand
iimproving ithe ihealth ias iwell isanitation isector. iIt iis ibecause iof ithe iactivist irole
iplayed iby ithe iApex iCourt ias iwell ias ithe iother iHigh iCourts ionly ithat ithe isanitation
ihas ibeen iregulated ias ia iright. iBut ithe ionly ihinderance iin ithe icomplete irealisation
iof ithis iright i is i the ilacksaidal iapproach iadopted iby ithe igovernment imachinery iin
iimplementing ithe iguidelines iset iout iby ithe iCourts. iOnly ia ifew icases iare igiven
iserious ieffect iand ithat itoo iunder ithe ifear iof icontemning ithe iorders iof icourts465.

2.7 No ipriority igiven ito icases irelating ito isanitation

No idoubt, ias ithe ioutcome iof ivarious ijudicial idecisions, iRight ito i Sanitation
i has ialso ibeen irecognized ias ia ifundamental iright ihowever, iit iis ifound ithat icases
irelating ito ihealth iand isanitation iaspects iare ipending iin ithe icourts iof ilaw ifor ia ilong
itime iand ieven ithe idecided iones ishow ithat iit ihad itaken ia ilong itime ito ibe idecided.
iSome iof ithe ireasons ibehind ithe idelay iin idisposal iof isanitation irelated icases iare
iincrease iin ithe inumber iof icases ifiled ion ieveryday ibasis, icomplex inature iof icases,
iinadequate iinfrastructural ifacilities, ilack iof ijudges iand icourts, inon ispecialized
iknowledge iof ithe ijudges ietc.

2.8 Importance iof iEducation iand iits ieffect ion iSanitation

Twin iissues iof iilliteracy ias iwell ias ipoverty ihave ibecome ia imajor ihinderance
iin ithe irealisation iof ithis iright. iThe ipoor ipopulation ibelonging ito ilower istrata iof
isociety iis ionly iconcerned iabout ifulfilling ithe ibasic ineeds ifor iexistence iand ido inot
igive imuch iattention ito ithe ihealth iproblems. iBeing iUneducated, ithese ipeople iare inot
iable ito iparticipate iin ithe idecision imaking iprocess ias iwell iand ithus ibecome iprone
ito idiseases idue ito ilack iof ithis ibasic ihuman iright.466

2.9 Role iof imedia

Media ihas iplayed ia ipoignant irole iin iproviding iinformation iand ispreading
iawareness iregarding isanitation iso ithat ithe ipeople iattain ithe imaximum ibenefits iout
iof ithe iplans imade. iTelevision, iradio iand inewspapers iplay ian ieminent irole iin
igenerating iawareness ibut iin iremote
465
Available iat: ihttps://legaldesire.com/role-of-judiciary-in-environmental-protection/Last iaccessed ion i27
iDec, i2018)
466
iAvailable iat:https://borgenproject.org/education-and-sanitation-in-developing-countries/Last iaccessed ion
144
i27
Dec, i2018)

145
villages iwhere ithere iis ino ielectricity, imedia ihas iminimal irole ito iplay. iAt ithe isame
itime ithe ipopulation iat ithose iareas iis iilliterate iand iuneducated iso inewspaper iare ijust
iblack iletters ifor isuch imass.467

2.10 Certain icategories iof ipeople iIgnored

There iare imillions iof ipeople iwhose ifundamental irights iare ibeing iconstantly
ineglected. iMany ifamilies iwho ihave ibeen iaffected iby iwar, ithousands iof islum
idwellers, icitizens ibelonging ito ithe ifailed ior ifailing iStates, idrought iprone ifarmers
iand i livestock i breeders, ipeople ibelonging ito ilow icastes ior iminority icommunity iare
iusually iignored ior itotally ileft iout iat ithe itime iwhen ithey ishould iusually ibe
iconsidered.468

2.11 Limited ipublic iinvestment iin iSanitation

India‟s ishameful iperformance iin ithe isanitation isector iis inot ionly ideeply irooted iin
iits irigid isocial iand ieconomic iinequalities iof icaste, igender, ireligion iand iclass ibut
ialso idue ito ivery ilow iexpenditure iin ithis iimportant isector iwhich ieffects ithe imillions
iof ipoor iwho iare idevoid iof ibasic i amenities i like i nutrition, i clean i drinking i water,
i sanitation, i education, i quality i housing iand ia ihealthy ilocal ienvironment.469

2.12 Non- iCommittal itowards iInternational iInstruments

Despite ibeing isignatory ito ivarious iinternational iconventions iand itreaties, iIndia ihas
ifailed ito ifulfill iits icommitment itowards ithe igoals ienshrined iin ithe iinternational
i instruments ithus ifailing iin iits iduty ito iprovide iaccess ito ibasic ifacilities iof idrinking
iwater iand i sanitation ito iall iits icitizens.

3. Suggestions

Failures iand ishortcomings iof iany ipublic isystem icannot iand ishould inot i i iaffect
ithe ipath iof idevelopment. iDynamic iand icertain iapproach iis irequired ito iachieve ithe
igoal iof iuniversal isanitation ifor iwhich ithe ifollowing ieffective isteps imust ibe
iundertaken:

467
Available iat: ihttps://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2158244016675395(Last iaccessed ion i27
iDec, i2018)
468
iAvailable iat:https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/2018-Water-Hygiene-and-Sanitation-
Barometer.pdf(Last iaccessed ion i27 iDec, i2018)
146
469
iTejinder iK. iSoni. i“Health iCare ifor iAll: iA iHuman iConcern” i5 iArmy iInstitute iof iLaw iJournal. i102
i(2012).

147
3.1 Need ito idraft i Separate iLaws iand iAmend iExisting ilaws

Dynamic iand iSpecific iLegislation imust icome iinto iforce ito iensure ithe iprovision iof
i„right ito isanitation‟ iholding iboth ithe ipublic ias iwell ias ithe iprivate isectors
iresponsible ifor iits iimplementation. iBesides idrafting inew ilaws, ithe iexisting ilaws
imust ialso ibe icritically ianalysed ito iinclude ithe iindividuals iand igroups ibelonging ito
ispecial icategories ias iwell. iSeparate iadjudicating itribunals imust ibe iset iup ito idecide
ithe icases irelating ito ihealth iand isanitation iwith iits imembers ihaving ispecial iand ideep
iknowledge iregarding ithe ifield.470

3.2 Change iin iSocial imindset iand ibehavior

The ilegislative iand iexecutive ibodies ihave ialways igiven iimportance ito ithe iprovision
iof itoilets irather ithan iits iactual iuse. iThey ihave icertainly ifailed ito iconsider ithat
imerely ideclaring ia istate ior ivillage ias iopen idefecation ifree iwould inot ido ijustice ias
i ensuring iits icontinuance iis ia imajor itask iwhich irequires ia isustainable ichange iin ithe
imindset iand ibehaviour iof ithe isociety. iInculcation iof ibehavioral ichange iis ipossible
ionly iby iadopting iconsistent iand ieffective imethods iand ione isuch iway iis i„System i2
idrivers iof ichange‟ iwhich ifocuses ion ispreading iawareness iby imaking iuse iof ihuman
iemotions iof ipride, ishame iand iridicule. iThis iapproach itends ito itrigger ithe imasses ito
iadopt isustainable ipractices iby ishocking iand idisgusting ithem iin ifront iof iothers.471

Moreover, iwe ican iachieve igreat iresults iby istrategically iplanning ithe iadoption iof
ithese idrivers iand imore ieffectively iby ilinking iit iwith ithe ireligious ibeliefs iof ithe
igroups. iChange ican ibe iinitiated iand ipromoted iduring ithe imonsoon iseason iwhen
idefecating iin ithe iopen iis ia ihuge idifficulty ior iwhen iany idisease ihas ispread ilike
iwild ifire iand ipeople iare iconcerned iabout itheir ihealth iand ienvironment.

3.3 Regulating iuse iand imaintenance iof isanitation isystems

In iorder ito iachieve ithe iobjectives, iset iout iunder ithe i„Sustainable iDevelopment
iGoals‟ iand ithe imandate ispecified iunder ithe iConstitution iof iIndia, iGovernment
ishould iaim ito iimprove ithe ientire iinfrastruture irelated ito ithe iprovision iof ifacilities
ifor isanitation ithat icovers ithe icomplete iprocess iranging ifrom icontainment, idisposal
iand itreatment iof ihuman iwaste. iMerely ithe iconstruction iof itoilets iwould inot iserve

ithe ilong iterm ipurpose. iA ispecific

iAvailableat:http://www.worldwatercouncil.org/fileadmin/wwc/Programs/Right_to_Water/Pdf_doct/RWP-
470

Legal_Res_1st_Draft_web.pdf(Last iaccessed ion i27 iDec, i2018)

148
 iAvailable iat:https://blogs.worldbank.org/water/new-tactics-nudge-habit-change-open-defecation-
471

behavior(Last iaccessed ion i27 iDec, i2018)

149
policy/mechanism i is i required i to i be i followed i for i ensuring i its i effective i use i by
i the i masses ialong iwith iits iproper imaintenance.

3.4 Putting ian iEnd ito iManual iScavenging

Stigma iand itaboos iattached iwith ithe ipractice iof iCaste isystem ican inot ibe inegated iin
icountry ilike iIndia iwhere iinhuman ipractice iof imanual iscavenging iis istill iprevalent iin
ivaried iforms. iApart ifrom iconstructing itoilets, igovernment ishould isubject iits iattention
ion ithese ipoor iand ihelpless iindividuals iwho iare iforced ito iempty ithe itoilets iafter ithe
ifilling iup iof ilatrine ipits. iFor ithat ithe iGovernment iand iits iagencies imust itake iall
ipossible isteps ito iimplement, iin iletter iand ispirit, ithe ilaws iprohibiting isuch ipractice
iand ishould iassociate ithemselves iwith ithe iPanchayats iso ias ito iencourage ithe
iinhabitants iof irural iareas ito imake iuse iof i„sustainable isanitation ipractices.‟473

3.5 Adequate iAllocation iin iAnnual iBudget

Health iand iSanitation isectors ihave inever ireceived ithe idesired iattention iof ithe
igovernment iwhile iallocating iresources iin ithe iyearly ibudget, ihence, iimproved ipublic
iinvestments iin isanitation isector iis ithe ineed iof ihour. iHowever, ithe iexpenditure ion
iproviding ifacilities ifor isanitation imust inot ibe ilimited ionly ito ithe iurban ipopulation
ibut ishould ialso iaddress ithe iissues iconcerning irural ipopulation ias iwell. iMoreover,
iBudgetary iallocation ishould ibe isuch ithat ithe iindividuals ibelonging ito ipoor iand
idisadvantageous isection iof isociety iget ispecial iattention.474

3.6 Promoting iPrivate iinvestments iin isanitation isector

Lack iof iaccess ito ifacilities ifor isanitation istrongly ieffects ithe ihealth i and
iproductivity iof imillions iof iindividuals iand itends ito ihave ia inegative iimpact ion
ithe ieconomy iof ithe icountry ias iwell. iThus, iin iorder ito ireduce ithe iadvent iof
idiseases iand iloss iin iGDP, iwe ineed iproper iinvestments ifor ithe idevelopment iof ithis
isector. iAlong iwith i public i sector, ifruitful iinitervention iand iinvestment iby ithe
i private isector i must i be ipromoted ias iit i will i not

Available iat: ihttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11755/(Last iaccessed ion i27 iDec, i2018)

472

iAvailable iat:http://www.theweekendleader.com/Crusade/311/the-liberator.html(Last iaccessed ion i27

473

150
iDec, i2018)
474
Available iat: ihttps://www.waterlex.org/waterlex-toolkit/budgeting-tools/(Last iaccessed ion i27 iDec, i2018)

151
only iimprove itheir ibusiness iand iprofits ibut iwould ileave ia ipositive ieffect ion ithe
ieconomy iof ithe ination ias ia iwhole.475

3.7 Participation iand iSensitization iamongst imasses

In iorder ito iaddress ithe iissue iof iSanitation iin ian ieffective imanner, ithe iparticipation
iof igeneral ipublic imust ibe iencouraged iin ithe idesigning iand iimplementing iof ithe
ilaws, ipolicies iand iprogrammes iassociated iwith ithe i„right ito isanitation‟ iso ithat ithe
ineeds iof iindividuals ias iwell ias icertain ispecific igroups, iespecially iwomen iand
ichildren, iwho iare iforced ito isquat iin iopen iduring iwee ihours iand isubjected ito
iphysical iand isexual iharrasment, i are i properly icatered.

3.8 Intervention iof iMedia

Issues iconcerning ilack iof isanitation ifacilities ias ialso ithe ipolicy idecisions itaken iby
ithe iagencies iof ithe igovernment imust ibe ibrought ito ithe inotice iof ithe igeneral ipublic
ithrough ithe ihelp iof imedia, ibe iit iprint ior ipaper. iMoreover, iany iinfringement iof ithe
i„right ito ihealth iand isanitation‟ imust ibe ispread iamongst ithe imasses ito imake ithem
iaware iof itheir iright ito iseek iremedial imeasures iin icase iof iviolation.

3.9 Design iof iToilets imust ibe icondusive ito ithe iinfrastructural isetting iof ithe iarea

While idesigning itoilets iand iits isurrounding iareas, iadequate iattention imust ibe
igiven ito ithe isocial iand icultural ineeds iof ithe ipopulation ifor iwhom ithey iare ibeing
iconstructed ias isuch ifactors ilargely iinfluence ithe ibuilding ias iwell idevelopment iof
isanitation iinfrastructure. iApart ifrom ithese iareas, ithe iexisting iwater ilevels iand
isewage isystem ithat iaffects ithe idesign iof itoilet imust ialso ibe itaken iinto iconsideration
ibefore ifinalising ithe idesign iof itoilets ifor ia iparticular iarea476.

3.10 Addressing iSocial, icultural iand iReligious ifactors ito ipromote iuse iof itoilets

Usage iof itoilets iand iother ifacilities ifor iSanitation iis inot imerely irelated ito ithe
iproblems iof iilliteracy ior ipoverty. iIt iis ioften iinfluenced iby ithe icomplex idynamics iof
icaste, ireligion, igender i and i culture. i Thus, i in i order i to i address i the i issue i of
i open i defecation, i these i barriers

475
iAvailable iat:http://www.oecd.org/investment/globalforum/40314855.pdf(Last iaccessed ion i27 iDec, i2018)
476
iAvailable iat:https://www.toilet.org.sg/articles/GuideBetterPublicToilet.pdf(Last iaccessed ion i27 iDec,
i2018)
which ilink ithe iuse iof ifacilities ifor isanitation iwith ipurity iand ipollution ineeds ito
ibe iremoved477.

3.11 Giving iImportance ito iShared isanitation ifacilities

The i„sanitation iladder iapproach‟ idoes inot igive imuch iimportance ito ithe ishared
ifacilities iof ithe isanitation, ihowever, iin iareas iwhere ithe ispace iand ibudgetary
iconstraints ipave ia ihinderance iin irealisation iof ithis iright, ishared ifacilities iplay ia
i significant i role iin iaddressing ithe ineed iof ithe imasses iby iensuring ithe iright ito
iaccess ifacilities ifor isanitation.Thus, iconstruction iand iuse iof isuch itoilets imust ibe
iencouraged.478

3.12 Promotion iof iRight iby itechnological iintervention

By itaking ibenefit iof ithe iincreased imobile iconnectivity, ipromotion iof iawareness
iregarding ithis isector icould icertainly igain imomentum. iOnline imobile iapplications
icould ibe ideveloped ito itrack ithe iconstruction, iuse iand imaintenance iof itoilets ias iis
ibeing iactively idone iin iBikaner iand iChuru idistricts iof iRajasthan iwhere ithe igram
ipanchayats iwere iable ito imake ieffective iuse iof ithe iinformation ideduced ifrom ithe
iphotographs iand iGPS i co-ordinates isupplied iby ithe iapplication. iVarious iexhibitions
iare ibeing iorganised iand ipamphlets iare igetting idistributed iamong idifferent iStates iin
iorder ito ispread iawareness iregarding iuse iof ithese ilatest iapplications iin iensuring ithe
iprovision iof ifacilities ifor isanitation.479

3.13 Training iof iSanitation iWorkers

The iagencies iand iinstitutions iof ithe igovernment imust itry ito itrain ia iseparate
icadre iof isanitation iworkers iwho icould ibe iinstrumental iin igenerating iawareness
iregarding ithe ivarious iaspects iof isanitation iamongst ithe imasses ias ialso icreating ia
iplatform ifor ithe igeneral ipublic ito iget itheir igrievances iredressed.480

Thus, iit iis ievident ifrom ithe iresearch ithat ilack iof iSanitation iis i still ia
iglorifying iproblem ifor ialmost ihalf iof ithe ipopulation. iHowever, iit iis ihigh itime ithat
iIndia i should iprioritize iits iattention itowards isanitation isector. iIt iis ihigh itime ithat
ichallenges iof idisease iand

477
Available iat: ihttps://www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/Conville-2003-How.pdf(Last iaccessed ion i27
iDec, i2018)
478
iAvailable iat:https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0093300(Last iaccessed ion
i27
Dec, i2018)
479
Available iat: ihttps://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/new-mobile-app-under-swachh-bharat-abhiyan-
to- icollect-data-on-use-of-toilets-47351(Last iaccessed ion iDec i21, i2018)
480
iAvailable iat: ihttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/vadodara/sanitation-workers-to-get-
professional- itraining/articleshow/62856928.cms(Last iaccessdd ion iDec i25, i2018)
mortality iassociated iwith ithis ineglected iissue iare iaccepted iand iaddressed. iIt iis ihigh
itime ithat ithe isafety iand isecurity iof iyoung igirls iand iwomen, iwho iare iforced ito
isquat iin iopen, iin idarkness, iis iensured. iIt iis ihigh itime ithat ihealth iof iour ifuture
igenerations igets iimproved. iIt iis ihigh itime ithat ithe ipolicies ipropagated iby ithe
iGovernment igets iproperly iimplemented. iIt iis ihigh itime ithat ithe ithe iconcept iof
ihealthy iand ihygienic ienvironment igets itransformed iinto ia ireality. iIt iis ihigh itime ito
imake ia ichange.
 APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE

Please ispare ia ifew iminutes iof iyour ivaluable itime ito ianswer ithis iquestionnaire.

Part-I-GENERAL iINFORMATION i(This iinformation ishall inot ibe idisclosed ito

ianyone.)

Name: Age : i < i17 iyrs

Sex: iM/F/LGBT 18-30 iyrs
Educational iQualification: 30-40 iyrs
Occupation: 40-50 iyrs
Marital iStatus: 50-60 iyrs
Residence: iRural/ iUrban iArea > i60 iyrs

Part-II- iSUBJECT iSPECIFIC iQUESTIONS i(Please itick ithe ibox ithat iapplies ito iyou.)

1. Do iyou iknow iwhat iis iSanitation?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

2. Do iyou ihave iaccess ito iclean idrinking iwater iand itoilet ifacility iat iyour ihome?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

3. If ino, ido iyou imake iuse iof ishared/community/public itoilets?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

4. If iyes, iis iwater iavailable ifor iuse iin isuch itoilets?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

5. If ino, idoes iany imember iof iyour ihousehold idefecate iin ithe iopen?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

6. Do iyou iknow ithat iopen idefecation iresults iin ispread iof idiseases?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

7. Do iyou ihave iaccess ito iclean idrinking iwater iand itoilet iat iyour iworkplace?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

8.If ia istudent, iwhether iyour ischool/college ihas iseparate itoilets ifor iboys/girls?
i(Parents ican ianswer iwith iregard ito itheir ischool/college igoing ichildren)

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

9. Do iyou iknow ithat igirls/women ihave ito iface iverbal/physical iharassment ieveryday
ibecause iof ilack iof iaccess ito itoilets?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

10.Whether ithe itoilet ifacility ithat iyou iuse iat ihome/workplace/educational

iinstitution, iregularly icleaned?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

11. Do iyou ifollow iproper ihand iwashing ibehaviour ifor imaintaining ihygiene?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

12. Whether ithe isewerage isystem iof iyour ilocality iproperly imaintained?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

13. If iyes, iwhether ithat isewerage isystem iis imanually icleaned?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

14. Do iyou iknow ithat ithe ipractice iof imanual iscavenging iis iprohibited iin iIndia?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

15. Whether ienough idustbins iare iavailable iin/around iyour ilocality? iIf iyes, ido
iyou imake iproper iuse iof ithem?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

16. Whether ithose idustbins iare iregularly icleaned iby ithe isafai ikaramcharis iof ithe
imunicipal icorporation?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

17. If ino, iis ithere iany iheap iof igarbage ior ilitter ipiled iup ior idumped
iaround iyour ihouse/locality?

Yes No To ia ilimited
iExtent
18. Have iyou ikept iseparate idustbins ifor idisposing idry iand iwet igarbage iat iyour
ihome?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

19. Is ithe igarbage icollector iof iyour ihome/locality iregular iin icollecting iand idisposing
ioff ithat igarbage?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

20. Do iyou iknow iwhat iis ie-waste/ ibio-medical iwaste/ ihazardous iwaste?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

21. Have iyou idisposed ioff iyour iold imobile iphone/laptop/ear iphones iproperly?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

22. Do iyou iknow iabout ithe ipoor icondition iof iour irivers/water ibodies?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

23. Did iyou iwitness ithe iimproperly idisposed ioff isyringes, icotton iballs, imedicines
iand iother imedical iwaste iwhen iyou ivisited iany ihospital/dispensary ilately?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

24. Do iyou ithink ithat iIndian iRailways ineed ito imake iproper ifacilities ifor
imaintaining icleanliness iand idisposal iof ihuman iwaste?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

25. Have iyou iheard iabout ithe iSwatchh iBharat iMission?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

26. Do iyou ithink ithat iGovernment ihas ibeen iable ito icreate iawareness iregarding
iSanitation ithrough ithis iprogramme?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

27. Do iyou ithink ithat iGovernment iwould ibe iable ito iachieve iits itarget iby i2030?

Yes No To ia ilimited
iExtent
28. Do iyou iknow iabout ithe iexisting ilaws/ ipolicies iregarding iSanitation iin iIndia?

Yes No To ia ilimited iExtent

Yes No To ia ilimited
iExtent