Lesson 5.

1 Summary

 Evolution occurs when heritable characteristics of a species

change
It is now widely acknowledged that today's flora and fauna evolved from
pre-existing forms of life through change ('descent with modification'), most
likely very slowly.
By 'evolution,' we mean the gradual evolution of life over geological time,
from its earliest beginnings to the diversity of living and extinct organisms
we know about today; it is the development of new types of living organism
from pre-existing types through the accumulation of genetic differences
over long periods of time through the process of natural selection of chance
variations. In the meantime, the changes that an organism undergoes during
its existence are not inherited and are not passed on to its descendants. As a
result, evolution is defined as the gradual change in a population's heritable
features. Modern biology adheres to this organizing idea.
Many sources of evidence supporting evolution exist, including the study of
fossils, artificial selection in the generation of domesticated breeds,
comparative anatomy studies of groups of related organisms, and
geographic distribution of species.

 Evidence from fossils

The evidence of fossils teaches us something about the evolution of life.
Fossilization is a once-in-a-lifetime occurrence. Dead plant and animal
structures are generally broken down by predators, scavengers, and
bacterial action before they can be fossilized. The majority of the rare fossils
that are generated are buried or, if they are exposed, are missed or
mistakenly destroyed.
Despite this, innumerable fossils have been unearthed, and more are being
discovered all the time. Figure 5.1 depicts the many types of fossils and the
procedures involved in their development through petrification. We have
strong evidence of the history of life where the fossil or the rock that
surrounds it can be correctly dated (using radiometric dating techniques).
The levels of naturally occurring radioactive chemicals such as carbon are
measured using radiometric dating (in relation to the amount of carbon).
Extinct 'life' and transitional forms in fossils
The fossils in a precisely dated rock layer (stratum) provide us with
information about the community of species that lived at a specific time in
the past, however this is always an incomplete picture. The sequence in
which groupings of species evolved, as well as the advent of the major
phyla, may be inferred from the fossil record.

 Evidence from selective breeding

Humans are responsible for selective breeding (also known as artificial
selection). It is usually a planned and purposeful undertaking. It involves
identifying the largest, best, or most helpful of the progeny and employing
them as the parents for the following generation. Deliberate genetic
alteration results from the generation-by-generation reduction of kids with
less desirable characteristics. Indeed, the population's genetic makeup is
subject to fast change. As a result of his interest in organism variety, Charles
Darwin began breeding pigeons (Figure 5.3). He remarked in The Origin of
Species that there were more than a dozen kinds of pigeon that would have
been recognized as separate species if presented as wild birds to an expert.
All of these pigeons were descended from the common wild bind, the rock
dove.
If so much change can be produced in so few generations, Darwin claimed,
species must be able to develop into other species through the slow
accumulation of minute changes as environmental conditions change,
selecting certain progeny and not others. Plants and animals useful by

2
humans (such as in agriculture, transportation, companionship, and leisure)
have been cultivated from wild organisms by artificial selection. The
foundations of artificial selection can be traced back to the first agricultural
developments, yet successful practice, doubtless, emerged by accident at
this time (Figure 5.4).

 Evidence from comparative anatomy

Some species appear to have remarkably similar body structures. The limbs
of vertebrates, for example, appear to follow a common pattern known as
the pentadactyl limb (which means "five fingered"). As a result, we refer to
these limbs as homologous structures since they occupy comparable places
in an organism and share a basic structure, but they may have evolved
diverse purposes (Figure 5.5). The fact that vertebrates' limbs are similar but
modified shows that these organisms are related. Vertebrates have diverged
over a lengthy period of time from their common ancestor. Adaptive
radiation refers to this mechanism.
The beaks of the finches of the Galápagos Islands are another example of
adaptive radiation (Figure 5.6). On his excursions to the Islands, these
species generally failed to grab Charles Darwin's attention; the ornithologist
David Lack later conducted an extensive study of these birds.
The variety in finch beak morphology is a genetically determined trait. It
reflects the fact that people eat in different ways. Lack was so taken with
the finches' proof for Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection that
he named them Darwin's finches. It has stuck with them, even if it is
deceiving.
Other structures of animals with similar functions but essentially distinct
origins might be contrasted with homologous structures. Their similarities
are only superficial; they are referred to as comparable structures. An
insect's and a bat's wings, for example, are similar.

 Evidence from geographical distribution

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The flora and fauna of countries with comparable temperatures and
environments should be anticipated to be similar. In reality, they are
frequently dissimilar. South American and African fauna are excellent
examples. Both of these regions have a similar latitude range, with tropical
rainforests, savannah, and mountain ranges as ecosystems. They also have
some fossilized remnants in common. These include Mesosaurus, a dinosaur
that lived 200 million years ago on both continents during the Jurassic era.
The faunas (and floras) of these geographical masses today are vastly
different. For example, New World monkeys (which have tails), llamas,
tapirs, pumas (mountain lions), and jaguars are now found in South America.
Old World monkeys, apes, African elephants, dromedaries, antelopes,
giraffes, and lions today live in Africa, but not in South America.
The theory is that these geographical masses were formerly linked, and as a
result, they shared a single flora and fauna, which included dinosaurs. They
did, however, move away around 150 million years ago (through plate
tectonics, Figure 5.7). The creatures of South America and Africa have
developed in isolation over the past 100 million years.
Species may originate in one location and spread from there, settling in
advantageous environments wherever they come upon them. However, the
vast ocean that separated South America and Africa created an impassable
barrier, and evolution in each location proceeded at its own pace, producing
distinct faunas and floras. This demonstrates how populations of species can
evolve into distinct species over time.

 Local population — the venues for evolution