CHAPTER TWO

RELATED CONCEPTS AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Physics is one of the major pre-requisites for studying major courses such as medicine,
geophysics, engineering, astronomy and so much more (Sherrif, Maina and Umar, 2011). It is
extremely relevant and important for effective living in the modern age of science and
technology. More so, students’ competence and performance in most science subjects plays
important role in students’ mental development and cognitive thinking.

While it is importance to study Physics, one should not be quick to ignore the major role of
Mathematics as a pillar in the understanding of Physics. According to Ayodele, Awofala and
Adekoya (2014), the teaching of Mathematics concepts before physics teaching could be a
way of improving students’ achievement in school physics since mathematics is viewed to be
the language of all streams of science. Oladejo, Olosunde, Olabisi and Isola (2011) perceived
physics to be one of the science subjects found to be difficult in the school curriculum.
Hence, this chapter explains the history, concepts, theoretical assumptions and applications of
the major role of Mathematics as a subject in the performance of students in Physics at
secondary school level (a case study of SS1 students in Alimosho local government area,
Lagos). It also reviews and evaluate critically, previous researches and theories on students’
abilities in mathematics and physics.

2.1 CONCEPTUAL REVIEW

2.1.0 BRIEF REVIEW OF MATHEMATICS.

Mathematics is one of the oldest courses in human history. It is coined from the ancient
Greek word ‘mathema’ (µαθήμα) which means ‘that which is learnt’, ‘what one gets to
known’. Hence, it also means ‘study’ and ‘science’. In English, Mathematics as a noun yields
a singular verb. It is abbreviated often to Maths or Math in North America.

The prehistoric peoples probably became familiar with numbers in terms of collections of
fruits or quantity of their members. Indications of these are seen by tallies found on bones. It
became obvious that the prehistoric peoples can identify and count abstract quantities like
time, days, seasons or even years. It was not until around 3000BC, that more compound
Mathematics became known. The infamous Pythagorean theorem seems to be the most
originally widespread mathematical development after basic arithmetic and geometry due to
the fact that all the oldest manuscripts available mentioned the Pythagorean triples. These
eras marked the Babylonian and Egyptian Mathematics.
The Babylonian Mathematics is known as the Mathematics of the people of Mesopotamia
(Modern Iraq) to the Hellenistic period to the dawn of Christianity. The oldest mathematical
document provides indication of these period. The period supervises the development of the
multiplication tables, geometrical exercises, division, sexagesimal (base 60) numerical
systems for measuring angles and times which are still in use today, place-value systems,
fractions and whole numbers, algebra quadratic and cubic equations, calculations of regular
numbers and their reciprocal pairs, and also, the methods for linear, quadratic and cubic
equations. The major resemblance between the Babylonian Mathematics and the Egyptian
Mathematics is that there is no awareness of the alterations between precise and estimated
solutions, or the solubility of a problem, and finally, no clear statement for the needs of
evidences or logical ideologies.

The Egyptian Mathematics follows closely after the Babylonian Mathematics but it was
written in the Egyptian language. It was famous during the Hellenistic period to the Arab
empire and forms part of the Islamic Mathematics. The Rhind papyrus dated about 1650 BC,
provided the instructions manual for students in that period in arithmetic and geometry. It
also includes composites and prime numbers, arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means,
simple understanding of sieve of Eratosthenes and perfect number theory, first order linear
equations, and arithmetic and geometric series. The Moscow papyrus which is dated about
1890 BC, gives the technique of solving the volume of a frustum (transacted pyramid). It also
contains words problems or story problems mostly used for entertainment. An additional
papyrus found that proves that the Egyptians could solve a second-order algebraic expression
was the Berlin papyrus which is dated about 1800 BC.

The Greek Mathematics did not begin until the 6th century BC. By then Mathematics is
known as a subject in its own fact. Euclid presented the axiomatic method around 300BC in
his book Elements, which contains definitions, axiom, and proofs. The book came to be the
most widely significant textbook of all time. Archimedes (c 287-212 BC) of Syracuse,
established formulas for approximating the surface area and volume of solids of revolution.
He was known as the greatest mathematician of antiquity. He uses the method of exhaustion
to estimate the value of Pi, and to compute the area under the arc of a parabola, with the
summation of an infinite series in a manner somewhat similar to modern calculus. Other
known accomplishment of the Greek Mathematics includes conic sections (Apollonius of
Perga, 3rd century BC), trigonometry (Hipparchus of Nicaea, 2nd century BC), and the
beginning of algebra (Diophantus, 3rd century AD).

The Hindu-Arabic numeral evolved around the 1st millennium AD in India down to the
western world through the Islamic Mathematics. During the golden age of Islam (9th-10th
century AD), Islamic mathematics see to the growth in algebra, advances in spherical
trigonometry and the addition of the decimal point to the Arabic numeral system while the
Indian mathematics gave the modern definition and approximation of sine and cosine and an
early form of infinite series. Greatest Mathematicians known in this era includes Al-
Khwarizmi, Omar Khayyam and Sharaf al-din-al-Tosi.

During the early modern period, Newton and Leibniz advanced the development of calculus
in the 17th century in western Europe. Leonard Euler was a notable mathematician that
contributed to the discoveries of numerous theories in the 18th century. He was followed
closely by the famous German mathematician, Carl Fredrick Gauss who also made various
aids in algebra analysis, differential geometry, matrix theory, number theory and statistics. In
the 20th century, Kurt Gödel contributed to the transformation of Mathematics in his
incompleteness theorems. Finally, In the January 2006 issue of the Bulletin of the American
Mathematical Society, Mikhail B Serdyuk gives an analysis of over 1.9 million papers and
books in the mathematical reviews record and over 75 thousand items are added to the record
each year since 1940. These confirmed that Mathematics has expanded hugely over recent
discoveries and there have been the major comparisons between it and science.

2.1.1. MATHEMATICS AS A SCIENCE.

Carl Fredrick Gauss spoke of Mathematics as “the Queen of science.” He was no doubt not
the only mathematicians who used that expression since Marcus du Sautoy shared the same
sentiment where he also referred to Mathematics as “the Queen of science… the main driving
force behind scientific discovery.” Karl Popper also observed that “most mathematical
theories are like those of Physics and Biology, hypothetic-deductive. Pure Mathematics
therefore, turns out to be much closer to the natural sciences whose hypothesis are
conjectures than it seemed recently.”

Mathematics also share a lot with the physical sciences and had advanced greatly due to the
boundary between Mathematics and its application in sciences and engineering. This view is
debated by most mathematicians since a vast majority of them feels that to call Mathematics
a science is to restrain the important of its artistic side. In custom, Mathematicians can be
grouped as scientist at the ground level but at higher level, they are grouped distinctly.

Mathematical language: It can be problematic for beginners to understand this language

because common terms such as or and only can mean a whole new thing in Mathematics than
the daily meaning of those words. It also includes many technical terms that may be
confusing to learners and most time frustrating.

Fields of Mathematics: Mathematics can be divided into many studies that includes quantity,
structure, space, and change (arithmetic, algebra, geometry, analysis). Other sub divisions
include logic, set theory (foundations), empirical mathematics (applied mathematics), and
recently, the study of uncertainty.
2.1.2 BRIEF REVIEW OF PHYSICS.

Physics may be defined as the natural science that deals with the study of matter, its motions
and its comportment through time and space. It is also one of oldest course due to its direct
relationship with astronomy. It is the foundation for most scientific disciplines. Archimedes
and Ptolemy are one of the Babylonian and Hellenistic writers that began the mathematical
discipline. Physics recently, can be divided into; classical and modern physics. These are
based generally on explaining nature through ideas such as Aristotle’s four types of “course”.

The ancient Greece era (650-480 BCE) marked the beginning of human needs to understand
nature’s phenomena and principles. These give rise to outstanding philosophers such as
Thales of Miletus (7th and 6th centuries BCE) who was also known as ‘the father of science’
because he refused to believe the superstitions and fabled explanations of natural phenomena,
instead he propounded that every event has a natural cause. Although, at that time he
assumed that the basic element for matter is water. However, Anaximander, a famous
evolutionist, countered that assumptions and instead proposed that rather than water, a
substance called Apeiron was the building block to all matter. Eventually, after many verified
reasonings and observations, Leucippus and his pupil Democritus found atoms to be
proportionally accurate when proposing the component of matter. This soon became widely
accepted and still in use till date. The Greek era also see to the birth of many great
philosophers such as Aristotle (384-322 BCE), who was a student of Plato. He was famous
for his writings in physics, metaphysics, poetry and so much more. He also founded the
Aristolelian physics where he tried to explain such ideas like motion and gravity with his
theory of four elements. The Aristolelian physics become greatly popular for many centuries
in Europe until the time of Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton. Aristarchus of Samos (310-230
BCE) was yet another great philosopher who was famous for giving a thorough argument
against the heliocentric model of the solar system. Soon, his students, Seleucus of Seleucus
gave the solar system theory which was later proven by Plutarch. Shortly thereafter,
Archimedes of Syracuse (287-212), also contributed to physics by using his mathematics
knowledge to calculate the mathematics behind levers. He also laid the foundation for
hydrostatics, statics and systems of pulleys. He developed the principles of equilibrium
states and the centers of gravity which later became the background for further studies by
Galileo and Newton.

Finally, towards the end of the Greek era, Hipparchus (190-120 BCE) conclude the era by
focusing on astronomy and mathematics. In doing that he used different techniques to
predict accurately times of the solar eclipses. Most of his direct works do not survive the
next centuries even though he wrote at least fourteen books. Most of Aristolelian works
also do not survive and only few of them we have today are merely lecture notes.
During the eastern Roman empire, many big contributions are added to various fields of
learning including physics. One of the famous physicist of those times is Ptolemy (90-168
CE), who was the leading minds during the time of the Roman empire. Later in the 6th
century, Isidore of Miletus and John Philoponus were well known in Europe, in which John
was specifically known for his criticism of Aristolelian principles of physics. Galileo (the
father of modern science) also made use of his criticism ten centuries later.

In the Islamic golden age, Aristolelian physics was widely used and then developed further
to form early forms of the scientific methods. Many of this scientist includes Ibn Sahl, Al-
Kindi, Ibn Al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. They all made notable innovations and works
in the field of optics and vision. But Ibn Al-Haytham disapproved of the Greek idea about
vision. So he came up with the background for explaining how light entered into the eye.
Most of his theories and principles were published in his book named the book of optics.
The book eventually made a huge impact alongside Newton's work and it contributed in
laying the ground work and inspiration for many great European scholars and engineers.

In the 18th century, physics was known as natural philosophy based on various Greek
philosophers point of view but by the 19th century, physics, like the rest of other disciplines
in science came to be a distinct discipline from philosophy. Although, it relies on philosophy
of science and it's scientific methods to develop our knowledge of the physical world.

CLASICAL PHYSICS AND MODERN PHYSICS.

For the classical physics, the laws of physics was discovered through series of experiments
and quantitative methods during the early modern Europe. Kepler (between 1609 and 1619)
determined the laws governing the motion of planetary bodies. Galileo pioneered the work
on telescope and observatory astronomy in the 16th and 17th century, and Newton
discovered and unified the laws of motion and universal gravitation that bears his name till
date. He also developed calculus, the mathematical study of change which gives rise to new
mathematical methods for solving physical methods. News laws such as the laws in
thermodynamics, chemistry and electromagnetics were also discovered which were later
used to develop theories such as quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity. However,
due to the inaccuracy of the classical mechanics to calculate for very small objects and very
high velocities, it led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century.

Max Planck in quantum theory and Albert Einstein's theory of relativity began the modern
physics era in the early 20th century. Unlike the classical mechanics varying prediction of
speed of light, Einstein used the theory of special relativity for fast moving bodies and
allowed for a constant speed of light. Planck proposed a complete theory predicting discrete
energy levels of electron orbitals in quantum mechanics which thereby, replaced the
classical black-body radiation theory. Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger and Paul Dirac
were also famous scientists that pioneered the early works relating to the standard model
of particles in quantum mechanics. They provide the limelight in partilce physics as to what
a matter is actually composed of.

Physics development has answered many issues and questions arising from early
philosophical thinkings including the nature of space and time. It also employs a priori and
posteriori reasoning to measure the validity of a given theory. Physics also deals with a vast
variety of theories that accurately describes the motion of objects provided that they are
moving at much less speed than speed of light and are larger than atoms. These theories are
important tools used for research in more streamlined topics such as classical mechanics,
quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism and
special relativity. Therefore, it is safe to say that the laws of classical physics can accurately
describe systems whose length scales are greater than the atomic scale and whose motion
are much slower than the speed of light. Outside of this assumptions, the modern physics
laws holds.

FIELDS OF PHYSICS : There are five major fields in physics. These are; Atomic and Particle
Physics, Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics, Condensed matter Physics, Astrophysics and
finally, Applied Physics. These fields can also be divided into other major sub-fields or
divisions.

2.1.3 MATHEMATICS AS A PREREQUiSITES FOR PHYSICS

Physics uses Mathematics to organise and formulate experimental results and from this
results, solutions are obtained which are precise and accurate with their units of
measurement. These is because mathematics gives a compact and provides the exact
language used in order to describe nature. Mathematics in general is also important in this
field and some related study that includes probabilities and groups. Mathematics affects the
study of physics so much that it can seen in almost every part of it. (Sidhu, 2006). It is only
mathematics that gives the form and structure to the properties of matter and the
interpretation of nature is only possible through quantitative ideas and imaginations. It is no
longer surprising to know that mathematics education is required to tackle numerical
problems in physics leaving much to be done in order to change students attitude towards
mathematics and science. (Charles-Organ, Okey, 2017) Thus, physics students who lacked
basic algebra performed poorly on the mathematical problem-solving tasks in physics. It is
hereby recommended that physics students must have proper basic understanding of
mathematics principles, laws, and theories before applying them to the concepts of physics.
Although, mathematics contribute largely to physics, there is still a wide conceptual
difference between these two subjects. Mathematics is mainly concerned with abstract
pattern, even beyond the physical world. In contrast, physics is majorly concerned with
descriptions of the real world. Physics statement is also known to be synthetic while
mathematical statement are analytic. Other relatable field includes mathematical physics
which is the application of mathematics in physics. The downside of this field is that every
mathematical statement has a very difficult physical meaning unlike the mathematical
solutions which has a easier meaning since it is the main aim of the solver.(Wikipedia).

Physics is the fundamental branch of all science. Other fields of science are based on its
synthetical and analytical behaviour. It is applied in important fields such as medicine and
engineering. Based on that notion, phyiscs is being taught alongside with mathematics at all
science level of education. These includes high schools, colleges, polytechnics or
monotechnics and most especially, universities. The basics method for its teaching is the
lecture methods accomplained by laboratory exercises. Physics concepts are best
understood with demostrations, experiments and questionaires that will keep the students
pondering on the purpose and theories of the various experiments. Physics like
mathematics should be taught with all efforts being made to ensure that mathematical
expressions introduced by physics teachers are not ambiguous and provide a direct relation
with the physical world and direct environment of the learner (Lerner 1989). Since little to
no laboratory exercises are being performed when teaching mathematics, it is best leave
most of its teachings by using students-centered approach In which the teaching and
learning processes are centered mainly on the students in order to train their cognitive
minds and to enable most of them to think outside the box so to speak. That is, ”to go
beyond the physical world."

The link between mathematics and physics is a strong one (Hutchings 1973). Infact, there
are some topics in physics that appears just the same in mathematics such as linear motion,
trigonometry and vectors. Students who score high in mathematics are likely to perform
even better in physics than thise who not perform well in mathematics (Lyons 2005). The
most distinctive feature of modern physics is its use of mathematics and experiment infact
it's joint use of them. The business of mathematics in physics has to do with construction of
subsequent analysis of concepts that are applicable to any practicals in theoretical
situations. (Hudson 1989). The theoretical aspects of mathematics calls for spatial
visualization ability which is a significant contributing factor to science achievement. (Twoli
1986).

Generally, boys have higher spartial visualization ability than girls according to standard
achievement tests done by Alonso (1998). The use of mathematical formulae according to
Embegwa (1985) consistutes a saving of mental energy. It provides for an economical use of
mental effort. Physics students tends to treat mathematical relations as symmetrical entities
by distinguishing dependent from independence variables.

Many studies have show the major effect of students prior knowledge in mathematics on
their achievement in physics. One such study is that of Melter, David E (2002) which shows
that mathematical ability is positively correlated to the success in typical introductory
physics. It also shows positive correlation between students' mathematical skills and their
exams grades in college physics- resulting from physics instructions, particularly with
regards to qualitative, conceptual understanding. Another of such study were done by
Awodun, Adebisi, Ojo, and Olarewaju (2013), which also maintained that adequate
mathematics education must be given to perspectives physics students which will in turn
contributes greatly in the technological advancement and development of the country at
large since there is no growth without technology. And finally, in recents study, Odogwu and
Babajide (2018), attestified that there is a significant role of mathematics knowledge as a
preequsites on physics student's achievement in physics.

2.1.4 STUDENTS PERFORMANCE IN SCIENCE

Science as a process requires some measure of commitment, curiousity and love for what
scientist do; in order to be able to go through it successfully. A school of thought are of the
the opinion that males find it worrisome to identify problem, gather facts about problems,
formulate hypothesis, experiment, observe and interpret, formulate generalizations and
application. The attitude for students toward science, their grades, and their career
expectations have been identified as possible contributing factor to achievement in science.

The performance of students in science generally is major concern to science educators.

Aghyneko in Sakiyo and Sofeme (2008) noted that students performance in science subjects
is low both in national and state examinations. A number of reason can be identified to be
accountable for the poor performance of students in sciences. These include the science
curricular, teacher'sethod is teaching, parents , government, lack of science facilities and
others (Abiakwo 2003).

Surveys from schools (Ajayi, 2007) revealed that inadequacy of good instructional materials,
equipment and laboratory facilities in the schools. According to Ango (1990), students poor
performance in physics globally is basically due to lack of involving the students in the
teaching-learning activities right from the beginning of any new concepts to be taught, lack
of qualified teachers as well as experiences in teaching and unavailability and /or
insufficiency of materials in the laboratories.
The impact of the teachers in the performance of the students is germane. The teachers are
the facilitators who are to impact into the students the concepts to be learnt. However,
Olarewaju (1986) and Nwagbo (1995) were of the opinion that ignorant of the teachers
greatly contributes to the students low performance in physics. The teachers is the major
man power saddled with the responsibility of impacting the concepts considered
fundamental to technology through the teaching of these basic concepts from the
secondary schools. As stipulated in the Nigeria National Policy on education (2004), physics
teaching at the secondary school is meant to develop essential scientific skills in the learners
so as to prepare them for technological application inorder to stimulate and enhance
creativity in them. This laudable objective would not be realized when the students are
taught by incompetent teachers. Such teachers would not be able to properly and
adequately desseminate one of the pivotal subject in technology. Its effective teaching most
be handled with all seriousness. The competent of the physics teacher in this regards would
be of immeasurable value. One thing is to be well grounded in the conceptual
understanding of a subject, another thing is to be well acquitted with the best method to
pass the concepts across to the learners for proper comprehension. From Ajayi's (2009)
point of view, the professional qualities of a teacher have to do with the following: mastery
of the subject matter, ability to clarify ideas, sense of organization, good imagination, ability
to involve the students in meaningful activities throughout the period of teaching and
frequent monitoring of student's progress through tests, formal and informal written and
oral quizzes.

The availability of professional teachers in out school is low (Ngada, 2008). The reason may
not be far fetched. Teaching is seen as a dumping ground for any unemployed school
leavers, irrespective of their area of specializations. This group of able bodied young men
and women thus handle the job as a bye-pass venture to their desired ends. Consequently,
their input in the job would be very low since it lack the dedication demanded by the job.
The few ones that seems to show dedication lack the technical know-how of teaching since
they were never trained on the job. The resultant effects on the student's performance is
catastrophic. This major evil done by this half-baked and shallow knowledge students who
often perform poorly in their examinations. This eventually colminates to a decline in the
national technological growth.

2.1.5 STUDENTS PERFORMANCE IN PHYSICS

Physics is thought to be the most basic science subjects whose concepts and techniques
support the progress of all other branches of science (Sheriff, Maina and Umar, 2011).
Physics is divided into two aspects which are physics theory and physics practical. Physics
theory belongs to cognitive domain of learning while physics practical is in psychomotor
domain. Physics practical involves the ability of students to use physics apparatus to
implement experimental procedures and being able to draw conclusions successfully from
the experimental results. According to Erinosho (2013), only few students showns insterest
in physics. The educational objective of physics cannot be fully realized if students are not
performing well in both physics theory and practical.

It has been observed that one of the major problems of physics is the absence of qualified
teachers in schools. Thomas and Israel, 2013, Josiah 2012 and Stephen , 2010 cited Odili and
Akpan that many physics teachers are poorly qualified and are not familiar with the
mlnames and uses of some physics apparatus in the laboratory.

Physics has been seen as a course where students' performance has not been encouraging.
Evidence abounds that there are massive failure in public examinations like the West Africa
Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (WASSCE) and National Examination Council
(NECO) in physics in Nigeria (Erinosho 2013). This author explains further that slightly over
30% of students who registered for physics passed as credit level as against 40% in Biology
and Chemistry. The poor performance is not only limited to secondary schools and as
observed by Stephen (2010), it also extends to post-secondary levels in Nigeria in which
physics students still performs woefully despite all the efforts of the government.

Pupils educators and scholars are not satisfied with students' performance in physics. The
situation is worrisome to both teachers and students which is in accordance to Dupe (2013)
that students' dwindling performance in physics in public examinations are worrisome to
the generality of the people most especially physics educators. Performance of students is
dismal.

2.1.6 COMPETENCE VERSUS PERFORMANCE

According to the concise Oxford dictionary, competence (or competency) denotes “the
ability to do” something or “the ability to perform a task.” Competence can also be define as
the quality of being ‘competent’ in which competent means to be “properly qualified” or
“capable”. The main focus is on competent people having the ability or capability, which will
enable the satisfactory completion of some task(s).

Rising out of these definitions, it becomes clear that the concept of competence centres on
the ability or capability which in turn focuses attention on the attributes that comprises this
ability or capability. This implies that attributes are a neccessary part of any satisfactory
conception of competence. Negleting attributes and concerntrating on tasks is the prome
reason why so many people lapse into a narrow view of competency standards.
Competencies often serve as the basis for skills standards that specify the level of
knowledge, skills, abilities required for success in the workplace as well as potential
measurement criteria for assessing competency attainment. Competencies are relevant to
an individual's job responsibilities, roles and capabilities. They verify that a learner has infact
learned what was intended in the learning objectives. In short, objectives say what we want
the learners to know and competencies say how we can be certain they know it.

The Oxford dictionary, on the other hand, takes performance to be as how well or badly you
do something or how well or badly something works. It is defined as the act or process of
performing a tasks, an action, e.t.c. The verb 'perform' means to work or function well or
badly. Although, performance is a multidimentional term capable of no single definition. It is
related to two terms: Effectiveness and Efficiency; effectiveness as an indicator of the
degree of a goal attainment and efficiency as an indicator of the resources that were
consumed to reach the level of achievement. Performance takes into account the
interaction between competence (knowledge, ability for use), the competence of others,
and the cybernetic and emergent properties of events themselves.

Thus, according to chomsky, “we make a fundamental distinction between, competence

(the learners' ability or capabilities to do work) and performance (the actual use of the
learners' ability to do work)”.

2.1.7 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE STUDENTS' PERFORMANCE IN MATHEMATICS AND

PHYSICS TODAY.

1. ATTITUDE TOWARDS SCIENCE: Pupils feelings are very important when teaching and
have a strong effects upon the amount of work, the effort pit towards and the
learning that is acquired (Callahan 1971). This means that positive attitude plays a
significant role in learning physics since it determines the amount of time and effort
dedicated to the subject and this is likely to be reflected in performance (Ndentu
2007). Students attitude towards a subject may also be defined by the teachers
characteristics. Students who were taught science by the female teachers had a
positive attitude towards science than those who were taught by male teachers.
While male teachers had a higher academic achievement, students percievd them to
be more difficult (Wasagna 1982). Althou their is a relationship between attitude and
academic performance. One cannot be certain whether negative attitude causes low
performance or whether performance causes negative attitude (Twoli 1986). It is
however possible that consistent low academic achievement may lead to
discouragement and consequently, negative attitude. To feel positive attitude
toward a subject, one has to actualize one's ability through achievement. In other
 words, it is primarily the acquisition of proficiency in a subject that leads to positive
attitude in that subject in that subject ( Aiken an Gvedgwen 1987). It follows
therefore that students who have been known to do better in physics will hold a
more positive attitude in the subject. A study carried out in Australia in August, 2010
noted that high school students percieved mathematics, science, engineering and
technology as too hard, boring and irrelevant. (Adelaide 2010).
2. STUDENTS' IGNORANCE OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICS AND
MATHEMATICS: Most students especially those in secondary schools failed to value
the relationship between physics and mathematics with other works of life. Instead,
they view them as abstract knowledge that has no meaning in correlation with the
real world. One thing to be done is that students need to be sentized as to the
relevance of physics and mathematics in real life terms (Jegede and Adedayo, 2013).
Physics and mathematics instructions should relate to everyday life activities of the
students to help them to develop the proper attitude toward these disciplines.
(Wilfredo 2016).
3. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AND TEACHING MATERIALS: According to adeyemo
(2010), Mathematics and Physics curriculum are often interfaced. This can be a real
problem considering the effects of mathematics on the teaching of Physics. Other
major problem includes incomprehensible science languages and communications
techniques, inadequate finances, inadequate human resources and inadequate
teaching materials. Instructional and teaching materials play major role in the
teaching of Physics and Mathematics today. Baiyelo, Ogunleya (1987), and adeyemo
(1985) all argued that both Physics and Mathematics and the medium of instructions
are foreign in Nigerian society. Resources provide an activity hands on approach to
learning science and engage students in a genuine pursuit of science. The activities
provide a meaningful interaction between students and their world in a manner that
encourage sound scientific reasoning (Herr, 1994). Thus, efforts should be made in
order to provide for well-written and easy-to-comprehend instructional textbooks
for both teachers and students alike. All of this should be written in clear and
understandable everyday language. There should be collaboration between
mathematics and physics curricular and the government should invest more in
mathematics and science education. Past performances may have an impact on how
learners perceive a subject (Orodho 1996, reporting Okpala et al 1988). Some may
believe that since they never performed well in the past, they may as well fail in the
future and vice versa.
4. TEACHER'S QUALITY AND TEACHING METHODS: Unavailability of qualified and
professional teachers in the science profession has decrease drastically over the
years in Nigeria. This is due to several reason such as good salary, e.t.c. Studies have
 shown that there is significant relationship between the teachers' use of different
instructional strategies and their student's performance in mathematics and physics.
For example, students doing problem solving, self pratice, teachers demonstrating
and students contributing in the teaching session on what they know on the topic in
session (Isack 2015). Consequently, one possible solution to these is that
government should employ competent and reliable science teacher who will
improve on the teaching of science subject such as mathematics and physics
(Odogwu and Babajide, 2018). Teaching methods such as students-centered model
should be adopted in the teaching of Mathematics and Physics. The personnel
management of the school should also considered each individual teachers affairs
and to endeavor regular payment of salaries as well as pensions too. This can be a
real source of motivation and encouragement for the staff to put in their best in the
teaching and learning environment.
5. GENDER IN THE LEARNING OF SCIENCE: Gender refers to the social meaning
associated to being a male or a female, including the construction of identities,
expectations, behaviours and power relationships that are derived from social
interaction (Ambe-uva, Iwuchukwu and Jibrin, 2008). Orji (2002) asserted that in
Africa, especially in a traditional setting, female and male sex rules are seen as
mutually exclusive. For instance, some professions such as carpentry, engineering,
woodworks, metalworks and automobile engineering technologies are still regarded
as no go area for women while nursing and catering professions are seen as
exclusive areas for women. Studies shows that in girls, the brain region responsible
for impulsive control is demonstrated earlier than that of boys, and hence they
matured earlier than boys (Viadero, 2006). While some studies also reported that
females are deficient in science because they lack analytical and visual spatial skills
that are needed for abstract reasoning in science (Asker and Oatley, 1993). However,
this argument had been prooved wrong because emerging evidence shows that
ability is not a determing factor whether or not females would participate better or
worse in science. Girls and boys are found to perform equally well if instructional
content is fair and conducive (Campbell, Jolley, Hoey and Permian, (2002), Erinosho,
2008).

2.2 THEORETICAL REVIEW.

2.2.0 PIAGET'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget was a swiss psychologist who was mainly concerned with the way thinking
develop in children from birth till they become young adults. Piaget believed that humans
also adapt to their physical and social environment in which they live. Piaget saw this
adaptation in terms of two basic processes: Assimilation and Accomodation.

Assimilation: According to Piaget, assimilation is the components of adaptation when

informations arises that can fit into a learner existing knowledge. This information adds to
extends the learner mind or cognitive structure. It also refers to the process by which new
objects and events are grasped or incorporated within the scope is existing schemes or
structures.

Accomodation: According to Piaget, the accomodation is the components of adaptation that

adds new infomation that can contradict or conflicts with the learner's cognitive structure. It
is also the process through which the existing schemes or structures is modified to meet the
resistance to straight forward grasping or assimilating of a new object or event.

Piaget also developed four stages of cognitive development by observing the behavior of his
own children. He did so by presenting problems to them and observing their responses to
each situations. Each stages of cognitive development has an age span with distinctive
learning capabilities. These would be helpful in framing curriculum. The understanding of th
cognitive development is very important for both parents and teachers because these
influences a great deal during infancy, childhood and adolescence of a human. The four
stages of cognitive development are:

1. Sensori-motor stage (birth till 2 years): A child's thinking involves seeing, hearing,
moving and so on. The first few weeks of a baby's life consists mainly of reflex's
responses such as sucking, sleeping and grasping. These later disappears as the baby
begin to choose what and when to grasp. During this period, the baby develops the
concept of objects permanance. This refers to the understanding that objects and
events continue to exists even when they cannot be seen, heard or touched. Another
accomplishment in this stage is learning to reverse actions. That is; when a toy is
given to a child to detached and rebuild, in time the child gradually learns to attach all
of the toys after many series of trial and errors.
2. Pre-operational stage (2-7 years): A child in this stage have not yet mastered the
ability to perform mental operations. Thinking is governed by what is seen rather than
biological principles. During this stage, a child develops the ability to think and use
symbols and signs. He believes that his way of thinking is the only way. A child also
have difficulties in seeing more than one dimensions or aspects of situations. He tends
to refer to inanimate objects as livings things capable of actions and quantities. A
child lacks the ability of classifying or grouping objects into categories in this stage
and he finally understand that certainly properties of an object remains the same
despite a change in their appearance.
3. Concrete operational stage (7-10 years): A child in this stage is concerned with the
integration of stability of his cognitive systems. He learns to add, substracts, multiply,
 and divide. He can also classify concrete objects. Overall, a child develops the ability
to think rationally but his thinking is tied to concrete objects.
4. Formal operational stage (11 and above years): This stage is characterized by the
emergence of logical thinking and reasoning. Other important cognitive attainment
during this period are: the ability to think about hypothetical possibilities and to solve
problems through logical definitions and in a systematic manner.

2.2.1 IMPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY TO THE STUDY.

Piaget's concept can be useful in teaching and other educational practices. He expresses that a
child pass through a number of stages before the age of 14 years and lot of care should be
taken in the child's training and development.

Most teachers agrees with him that it is illogical to take something that cannot be experienced
through sense organs to a child. When a child forms many direct experiences, only he can
understand the abstract ideas and concepts. Therefore, the teacher must endeavor to orient
education around the child.

The most important function of a school is to provide good stimulating environment within
the school for proper development of school children abilities. Provision of good library and
opportunities for free discussions and community services should be provided as well. The
needs of an adolescence should be given proper place on the school curriculum. Adolescence
should be given opportunities for the development of their creative abilities through music,
science, art and crafts. They should be provided guidance as regards to their individual
educational and vocational problems.

2.2.2 RELEVANT OF THE THEORY TO THE STUDY.

In assimilation for instance, the lesson 1 highlighted in a grade 9 mathematics class involves
very basics linear equations which had been considered in basic 8. Learners are familiar with
this type of equations where solving X require the use of addictive inverse and dividing by
coefficient of X. Then in lesson 2; learners are given unknown values on both side of the
equal signs. Due to prior knowledge of lesson 1, this serves as a link to better understand
and interpret the content in lesson 2. The process does not change insteads, it expands the
cognitive structures of a learner. Similarly, this can be applied in the study of students prior
knowledge of mathematics and their performance in physics.

Another instance can be seen in accomodation where grade 10 learners are first exposed to
the quadratic equations. On the lesson 1, the teacher asks them to solve X and learners try
touse the grade 7 existing knowledge of linear equations. But the learner's answers will be
incorrect. Therefore learners needs to first understand that this are two different equations and
it requires different methods to solve each of them. So, the teacher have to assist learners to
change their cognitive structures. The teacher and a learner can change the learner's cognitive
structure through teaching and learning and the understanding of the new concepts of
quadratic equations. Likewise, lessons in physics can be new and totally different with
previous knowledge and methods of solving them. But with teaching and learning, learners
can soon accommodate and assimilate each methods thereby, adding or changing their
cognitive structures.