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Counseling Psychologists Who View Their Careers as a Calling: A

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Career Assessment

Counseling Psychologists Who View Their Careers as a Calling : A Qualitative Study

Ryan D. Duffy, Pamela F. Foley, Trisha L. Raque-Bodgan, Laura Reid-Marks, Bryan J. Dik, Megan
C. Castano and Christopher M. Adams
Journal of Career Assessment 2012 20: 293 originally published online 14 February 2012
DOI: 10.1177/1069072711436145

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 Journal of Career Assessment
20(3) 293-308
ª The Author(s) 2012
Counseling Psychologists Reprints and permission:
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Who View Their Careers as DOI: 10.1177/1069072711436145
http://jca.sagepub.com
a Calling: A Qualitative Study

Ryan D. Duffy1, Pamela F. Foley2, Trisha L. Raque-Bodgan3,

Laura Reid-Marks4, Bryan J. Dik5, Megan C. Castano2, and
Christopher M. Adams6

Abstract
Interviews were completed with eight counseling psychologists who viewed their careers as a calling.
Using the Consensual Qualitative Research guidelines, six domains emerged: definition, process of
discerning, content of the calling, professional impact, personal impact, and maintenance. Generally,
interviewees viewed the discernment of their calling as the result of an indirect route that included
self-reflection, support from others, and an identified calling source. Interviewees generally viewed
their calling as what one is meant to do, as something that evolved over time, as synonymous with
one’s purpose in life, and as tied to helping or serving others. Generally, interviewees were satisfied
with their personal and professional lives and noted that the calling positively impacted their daily
work tasks and interpersonal relationships. Interviewees generally viewed their calling as an ongoing
process, and they identified role models and supportive work environments that aided in maintaining
their calling.

Keywords
calling, qualitative, career, psychologists

‘‘I found my calling.’’ This phrase has become common nomenclature in American culture. But
what exactly does it mean to find one’s calling? And through what kind of process does a person
discern one? Despite the widespread popular use of the term, a growing body of literature suggests
that those who truly perceive their work as a calling view their work differently than those who sim-
ply believe their work is a good fit for their skills and interests (e.g., Dik & Duffy, 2009;

1
Department of Psychology, The University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
2
Seton Hall University, South Orange, NJ, USA
3
Department of Counseling, Higher Education, and Special Education, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
4
Department of Educational Studies, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
5
Department of Psychology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins , CO, USA
6
Counseling Center, East Carolina University,Greenville, NC, USA

Corresponding Author:
Ryan D. Duffy, Department of Psychology, The University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32601, USA
Email: rduf@ufl.edu

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294 Journal of Career Assessment 20(3)

Wrzesniewski, 2010). However, little is known about the phenomenological process through which
individuals develop and maintain a sense of calling. This lack of knowledge may be especially
important to address, given studies finding that those living their calling tend to be satisfied with
their work and life (Bunderson & Thompson, 2009; Davidson & Caddell, 1994, Peterson, Park, Hall,
& Seligman, 2009; Wrzesniewski, McCauley, Rozin, & Schwartz, 1997). Indeed, as Seligman
(2002) noted in his book Authentic Happiness, following a calling may be one route to achieving
a meaningful and fulfilling life.
In the current study, we sought to qualitatively explore the meaning of ‘‘calling’’ and the process
of discerning a calling with a group of counseling psychologists. This group was chosen for two
main reasons. First, qualitative methodologists have recommended that for studies exploring a
specific subject area, a homogenous population is most appropriate (Hill, Thompson, & Williams,
1997). Second, the job of a counseling psychologist has been characterized as a meaningful career
which is often focused on helping others (Forrest, 2008; Vera & Speight, 2003). Given the centrality
of meaning and helping others in many definitions of calling (Dik & Duffy, 2009), we expected that
this group may be especially inclined to view their careers in such a fashion. In the following sec-
tions, we discuss the limited, but growing, theoretical, and empirical work related to calling and
make a case for why studying this construct in a qualitative manner may provide an important
contribution.

Calling Background
In their review of the literature addressing the constructs calling and vocation, Dik and Duffy (2009)
noted that these terms have existed for centuries and that calling has most often had religious con-
notations (e.g., called by God). However, a religious worldview is not a prerequisite for finding the
terms relevant, and numerous authors have proposed nonreligious definitions of the construct. Dik
and Duffy (2009) explored the overlap among the diverse definitions in the literature and defined
calling as,

a transcendent summons, experienced as originating beyond the self, to approach a particular life role (in
this case work) in a manner oriented toward demonstrating or deriving a sense of purpose or meaning-
fulness and that holds other-oriented values and goals as primary sources of motivation. (p. 427)

According to this definition, a calling to a particular career is believed to come from a force outside
the person (e.g., God, a social need, a family legacy) and applies to areas of both paid and unpaid
work that help others in some way and that also help provide, or are consistent with, a broader sense
of meaning and purpose in life.
Empirical research on calling has been growing within the last 20 years, and most research has
explored (a) how salient the construct is to certain populations, (b) how calling relates to career or
work outcomes, and (c) how calling relates to well-being outcomes, such as life satisfaction and life
meaning. With regard to salience, Duffy and Sedlacek (2010) distributed the Brief Calling Survey
(BCS; Dik, Eldridge, Steger, & Duffy, 2012; Dik, Sargent, & Steger, 2008) to over 5,000 undergrad-
uate students. This survey assessed calling through 2 items: ‘‘I have a calling to a particular kind of
work’’ and ‘‘I have a good understanding of my calling as it applies to my career.’’ The authors
found that over 35% of students viewed each of these statements as mostly or totally true of them-
selves and found that the endorsement of a calling was extremely similar across gender and racial
groups, and was moderately higher in students seeking advanced degrees. Similar and even higher
prevalence rates have been found with other samples of college students (e.g., Hunter, Dik, & Ban-
ning, 2010) and in studies with working adults, where approximately one third tended to view their
career as a calling (Wrzesniewski et al., 1997).

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The majority of existing research on calling has explored how it relates to career- and work-related
outcomes. College students who endorse a calling have been found to be more decided and comfortable
in their career decisions and have greater levels of vocational self-clarity, career decision self-efficacy,
intrinsic work motivation, work hope, and academic satisfaction (Dik et al., 2008; Duffy, Allan, & Dik,
2011; Duffy & Sedlacek, 2007; Steger, Picking, Shin, & Dik, 2010). Studies with adults in the teaching
profession (Serow, 1994; Serow, Eaker, & Ciechalski, 1992) and with general samples of working adults
(e.g., Bunderson & Thompson, 2009; Davidson & Caddell, 1994, Duffy, Dik, & Steger, 2011; Peterson
et al., 2009; Wrzesniewski et al., 1997) have found that those endorsing a calling are significantly more
satisfied with work and express greater levels of occupational identification, occupational commitment,
occupational importance, work meaningfulness, work zest, and perceived organizational duty. The link
of calling to career commitment and work meaning is especially pronounced for adults able to live out
their calling (Duffy, Bott, Allan, Torrey, & Dik, 2012).
A few studies have examined how the presence of a calling relates to well-being, most often
exploring links to life meaning and life satisfaction. With college students, Duffy and Sedlacek
(2010) and Steger, Picking, Shin, and Dik (2010) each found the endorsement of a calling to
positively but weakly correlate with life satisfaction and to positively, moderately correlate with
meaning in life. Duffy, Allan, and Bott (2012) extended these findings and found life meaning and
academic satisfaction to fully mediate the calling-life satisfaction relation. Slightly stronger relations
have been found with working adults, as those who view their career as a calling tend to be moder-
ately more satisfied with life (Bunderson & Thompson, 2009; Davidson & Caddell, 1994; Peterson
et al., 2009). This result is perhaps institutive, since those actually living their career-related calling
(working adults) would likely experience a stronger tie between calling and well-being than college
students who have yet to enter the work world.
This brief review of the calling literature is meant to highlight two main points. First, across several
studies, a substantial proportion of the populations studied thus far seem to view their career as a calling,
and this is consistent for both college students and adults. Second, the presence of a calling appears to be
related to positive work and personal outcomes. Those with a calling tend to display greater levels of
career maturity, greater work commitment and satisfaction, and greater life meaning and satisfaction.

Studying Calling Qualitatively

All of the research reviewed above explored the calling construct in a quantitative manner, either by
categorizing people based on how they view their work or by scaling their responses on continuous
measures of calling. Each of these approaches contains a number of weaknesses, however. Studies
using the categorization method (Davidson & Caddell, 1994; Peterson et al., 2009; Wrzesniewski
et al., 1997) used author-developed descriptions representing a small number of ways to view one’s
work (e.g., as a job, career, or calling) and classified participants using the option deemed most char-
acteristic of them. Studies using the BCS (e.g., Dik et al., 2008, 2012; Duffy & Sedlacek, 2007;
Duffy & Sedlacek, 2010; Steger et al., 2010) and other brief instruments (e.g., Bunderson &
Thompson, 2009; Serow, 1994) primarily assessed the extent to which people viewed their career as
a calling and often allowed each participant to interpret what this term actually means without docu-
menting those personal meanings, potentially leading to unique response patterns among participants.
Ultimately, these simple methodological approaches are unable to capture the potentially com-
plex ways that individuals define and live their calling, as well as the process by which individuals
understand the career to which they perceive a calling. Dik and Duffy (2009) offer one, theoretically-
based definition of calling, describing it as an external call to a meaningful and service-oriented
career. But is this how individuals actually describe this term?
Two qualitative studies have examined the question of how people personally conceptualize
calling using college student samples. Hunter, Dik, and Banning (2010) used emergent quantitative

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296 Journal of Career Assessment 20(3)

document analysis to investigate open-ended written responses from 295 college students regarding
how they defined calling and perceived its influence on their career development and nonwork roles.
Results suggested that participants’ sense of calling originated from guiding forces, corresponded to
a strong sense of fit and well-being, included prosocial values and motives, and was relevant for
multiple life roles rather than only work. French and Domene (2010) examined perceptions of life
calling using interviews with seven White, Christian, female university students. This group
described the nature of their callings using five characteristics: an altruistic focus, intensity, a deep
passion for the area to which they felt called, a sense of facilitating the discovering of a calling in
others, and burdens of having a calling. Participants noted support from valued others, early expo-
sure to relevant roles, and personal attributes (e.g., proactivity, tenacity, resiliency, and identity) as
factors that facilitated the development of their callings.
Four other studies have used qualitative methods to explore aspects of calling using samples of
working adults. Two studies have targeted Christian mothers in faculty positions and examined their
experiences balancing their faculty work and motherhood. Sellers, Thomas, Batts, and Ostman
(2005) found among their sample of 11 women that calling ‘‘denoted a sense of early recognition
of God-given gifts and longings that manifested themselves later in life’’ as articulated in words such
as ‘‘drive,’’ ‘‘passion,’’ ‘‘longing,’’ and ‘‘compelled,’’ (p. 201) when applied to the work role. When
applied to motherhood, most women framed calling more in terms of their commitment to their
children and their approach to parenting than to the decision to become a mother. They described
their dual callings as complex and demanding, but as deeply satisfying and a source of gratitude.
Oates, Hall, and Anderson (2005) analyzed interviews from 32 women, also Christian mothers in
academia, and found that a sense of calling provided a sense of certitude, collaboration, and a con-
text of purpose, which helped facilitate adaptive coping with interrole tension. Their sample
described both internal (passion, interests, giftedness) and external (circumstances, God’s leading,
social needs) influences on of their sense of calling, and described calling as providing a strong sense
of commitment, a source of strength, and a healthy perspective on failure.
A third study by Hernandez, Foley, and Beitin (2011) explored the phenomenological process
through which individuals discern and maintain a calling, using a sample of seven Roman Catholics
(three male and four female) representing diverse occupations, whose source of calling was expli-
citly religious. For this sample, the process of discerning a calling arose from a mutual relationship
with God, often coincided with a period of struggle with one’s faith, utilized supports such as prayer
and other individuals, often involved both positive and negative emotional reactions, and impacted
the participants’ families in both positive and negative ways.
Finally, a recent study by Bunderson and Thompson (2009) was completed on the experience of a
calling among zookeepers. They reported, from a grounded theory analysis of interviews with 23 par-
ticipants, that calling was viewed as a job ‘‘that one feels destined to fill by virtue of particular gifts,
talents, and/or idiosyncratic life opportunities’’ (p. 39). They also found that calling provided
zookeepers with a sense of identification, meaning, and importance as well as a sense of moral duty,
personal sacrifice, and vigilance.

The Present Study

This group of six qualitative studies provides an important starting point for understanding the
meaning and role of calling for those represented by the samples investigated thus far: college
students, Christian women and mothers working in academia, Roman Catholic adults, and
zookeepers. In the current study, we sought to build on this prior research by highlighting the
experience of a calling from a previously unstudied occupational group-counseling psychologists.
We also sought to study the complex, multifaceted experience of a calling in an individual’s life,
beginning with simply understanding a participant’s personal interpretation of the term to more

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complexly learning how calling developed over time and how it is currently experienced. We
believe that the ability of qualitative research to capture this developmental process will provide rich
data on the role of calling in an individual’s life.

Method
Participants
Interviewees. Eight counseling psychologists were interviewed. The group was evenly divided
between males and females as well as across job settings, with half of the participants working
primarily in academic faculty positions and the other half working primarily in practice settings.
Seven of the participants identified as White/Caucasian and one identified at White/Latino. Four
participants had no religious affiliation, one identified as Roman Catholic, one identified as
Christian/Protestant, one identified as Unitarian Universalist, and one identified as Catholic with
Buddhist tendencies. Interviewees had an average age of 44.75 years (range 31–59) and had an aver-
age of 11.88 years in the field since earning their doctoral degrees (range 3–22).

Research team. The research team was made up of seven individuals: a 54-year-old White female,
a 29-year-old White male, a 35-year-old White female, a 33-year-old White male, a 33-year-old
White male, a 33-year-old White female, and a 26-year-old multiracial female. Three members
on the team are currently faculty at counseling psychology programs, one is currently faculty within
a general psychology program, and three members are currently doctoral students in counseling psy-
chology programs. Four team members had previously conducted qualitative studies (two had used
Consensual Qualitative Research [CQR]), and three team members had no experience with qualita-
tive research. All team members read the 1997 and 2005 CQR articles by Hill and colleagues and the
team met several times prior to commencing interviews to ensure that all members had a strong
knowledge of the methodology.
Following the CQR guidelines developed by Hill, Thompson, and Williams (1997), and recently
updated by Hill et al. (2005), prior to developing the interview protocol the research team discussed
their own assumptions and biases about the term calling as well as how this term applies to their
careers. Most of the team felt that a calling had to do with careers that were oriented toward helping
others, and two team members felt that some sort of summons was part of a calling. Three members
of the team currently viewed their career as a calling, one member felt called to work with under-
served populations, one member was searching for a calling, and two members did not define their
career as a calling.

Measures
Demographic form. Participants were asked to indicate their gender, age, race/ethnicity, religious
background, employment setting, and year of PhD.

Interview protocol. The research team worked together to assemble a semistructured interview
protocol consisting of six general themes. These included career background, definition of
calling, the process of learning/developing one’s calling, the current experience of calling in
one’s life, the impact of calling on one’s personal and work life, and the process by which the
individual maintains her or his calling. Guided by previous qualitative research on calling (e.g.,
Hernandez, Foley, & Beitin, 2011; Hunter et al., 2010), we developed a series of general
questions (i.e., How has answering the call affected your personal and professional life?) and
a number of potential follow-up questions to help the interview fully elicit each participant’s
experiences (e.g., How has your calling influenced the jobs you have chosen? What impact,

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298 Journal of Career Assessment 20(3)

if any, has having a calling had on your quality of life?). At the end of the interview, participants were
asked what the process was like of completing the interview and if they had anything else they would like
to share. Prior to conducting the formal interviews, the interview protocol was pilot tested with two indi-
viduals in the counseling profession, and minor adjustments were made based on their feedback.

Procedure
Recruitment. We sought to interview individuals who (a) had graduated with a PhD in counseling
psychology and (b) described their career as a calling. Similar to previous research with psy-
chologists (Jennings & Skovholt, 1999), we used a nomination approach to secure participants.
First, we e-mailed 12 academic training directors at counseling psychology doctoral programs
and asked them to nominate graduates who they felt may view their career as a calling.
Through this method, 15 people were nominated. Second, we consulted with counseling psy-
chologists with scholarly or clinical interests related to this topic and asked them for nomina-
tions; through this method, 10 people were nominated. The individuals who were nominated
were contacted by the primary investigator via e-mail and told about the purpose of the study.
Those expressing an interest in participating were then sent a copy of the interview protocol to
review and assess if they felt fully able to participate. Of the initial 25 people contacted, a final
total of eight individuals responded to the request and agreed to participate. This sample size
met the criteria proposed by Hill et al. (2005).

Interviews. Participants were interviewed over the phone by one of the two doctoral students in
counseling psychology, after giving their informed consent. Each interview took approximately 1
hour and participants were given the opportunity to make any additional comments at the end of the
formal questions.

Transcription. All phone interviews were audio recorded and transcription was completed by a
masters student in counselor education, who is currently a doctoral student in counseling
psychology.

Data Analysis
The CQR analytic strategies proposed by Hill et al. in 1997, and updated recently by Hill et al. in
2005, were used to code and interpret the interview data.

Coding of domains. The coding of domains commenced with each member of the coding team (the
first four authors) independently reviewing the same two transcripts. The team then met and, through
consensus, developed an initial list of primary domains. All additional transcripts were reviewed inde-
pendently and then changes to the domain list were made based on consensus reached at team meetings.
After developing a final domain list, the first two initial interviews were reviewed again to ensure all
transcripts fit under the constructed domains. Afterward, all remaining transcripts were reviewed indi-
vidually by team members and discussed in coding meetings until group consensus was reached. All text
other than demographic information within each interview was coded under a specific domain, although
two domains identified were not related to the research questions. These included general narrative com-
ments about the sequence of jobs the participants may have held (which we coded as career path) and
feedback to the interviewers about the interview process itself. These domains were eliminated from
further coding, leaving six primary domains. The six primary domains were (1) Definition, (2) Process
of discerning, (3) Content of the calling, (4) Professional impact, (5) Personal impact, and (6)
Maintenance.

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Coding of core ideas. The coding of core ideas commenced with each member of the coding team
once again independently reviewing the same two transcripts and searching for more concise
descriptions, or core ideas, within the primary domains. The research team met and discussed these
two interviews and came to consensus with a list of core ideas under each domain. Each team mem-
ber then proceeded to independently code the remaining six interviews for core ideas. Identical to the
process we used for domain coding, the research team met and came to consensus on the core ideas
for each interview.

Cross analysis. The research team independently reviewed each interview and then worked
collaboratively to group the core ideas within the primary domain across all cases. Interviews
were reviewed by each team member, categories were created that best represented the core
ideas, and through consensus among team members these categories were given
appropriate labels. The categories went through several revisions as all of the interviews were
reviewed, and categories that were represented by just one case were removed. A final list of
categories was developed after each member of the research team felt all interview data was
appropriately represented. Each of the categories was then coded as general (all or all but one
case), typical (more than half of the cases), and variant (half or fewer of the cases).

Auditing. After the coding process was complete, the auditor provided comments and sugges-
tions. The auditor was an advanced assistant professor in a counseling psychology program
with expertise in the research area and qualitative research. The auditor reviewed several inter-
views and assessed the validity of the domains, core ideas, and categories. Auditor comments
and suggestions were discussed by the research team and, once consensus was reached based on
these comments, this feedback was incorporated into the final list of domains, core ideas, and
categories.

Results
The categories and their codes (general, typical, or variant) are displayed in Table 1. In the following
sections, we focus on the results from each of the six primary domains.

Definition
The definition domain referred to how interviewees defined what the term calling meant to them.
Typically, interviewees viewed a calling as something they were meant to do and as synonymous
with one’s purpose in life. For example, one participant stated, ‘‘It does still feel very intertwined
with me, with what you believe, you know, our purpose is on the earth.’’ Interviewees also typically
viewed their definition of calling as something that changes or develops over time. For example, one
participant stated,

What I used to think was, you got this stack of phone messages, like God would tap you on the shoulder
and this was my plan . . . So what I think about now, after thinking about it quite a bit and having all this
experience, it much more seems to me that it’s two things. And part of that is having that kind of small
voice that is guiding you in a certain way, but also situations or opportunities present themselves in a way
that also lead you in that direction.

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Table 1. List of Domains and Categories

Domain Category Frequency

Definition What you are meant to do? Typical

Definition changes/develops over time Typical
Calling is the same as one’s purpose in life Typical
Comes from a higher power/higher being Variant
Serving others Variant
Religious/spiritual in nature Variant
Keeping eyes and heart open Variant
Process of discerning Support from others/mentors General
Indirect route to calling General
Identifies specific source/s of calling General
Self-reflection General
Struggles in finding calling Typical
Finding what is natural/supposed to do Typical
Conflict with original faith tradition Variant
Identification of skills/gifts Variant
Connection to life adversity Variant
Social/cultural/familial influences Variant
Happenstance Variant
Struggles/unhappiness leads to search for calling Variant
Feeling of certainty Variant
Prayer/meditation Variant
Barriers disappeared Variant
Content of the calling Being a support to others/nurture/help others General
Promoting social justice/changing greater society Variant
Teach Variant
Non-paid work Variant
Professional impact Satisfied with work/feels blessed General
Impacts counseling/research process General
Work devotion/passion/energy/productivity Typical
Centerpiece of professional identity Typical
Feel work is a good fit Typical
Confidence in work Variant
Work focus in the face of difficulties Variant
Provides sense of direction/meaning Variant
Causes work conflict Variant
Influence on job choice Variant
Facilitates serving others Variant
Intertwined with personal identity Variant
Positive impact on work relationships Variant
Personal impact Satisfied with life/feels blessed General
Positive impact on interpersonal relationships General
Negative impact on interpersonal relationships Typical
Sense of fulfillment Typical
Feel at peace Variant
Can be a burden Variant
Centerpiece of personal identity Variant
Negative impact on quality of life (e.g., salary) Variant
Facilitates work/personal life balance Variant
(continued)

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Table 1. (continued)

Domain Category Frequency

Maintenance Identifies role models General

Supportive work environment General
Calling as a process General
Engages in self-care Variant
Struggles trying to maintain the calling Variant
Support from others/God Variant

Process of Discerning
The process of discerning domain contained more categories than the other domains and referred to
interviewees’ descriptions of the process by which they discovered, found, or learned their calling.
Generally, interviewees noted support from other individuals throughout the process. For example,
one interviewee stated, ‘‘Even in my discerning process I’ve been in touch with, and had contact
with, and been inspired by men and women who have found their calling and discerning and been
encouraging me to.’’ Interviewees generally noted that the path to discovering their calling was indi-
rect, often containing other career paths before they understood what they were called to. When dis-
cussing the feeling of being called to a career as a psychologist, one interviewee stated,

I had no idea that was a job someone could have and I thought, well, what do I like better than sitting
getting to know people and talking with them? It just seemed like, well my goodness, where has this been
all my life? But it took a while. It took a while to really let myself fully embrace that because I had come
to college to be an Accounting major.

Additionally, interviewees generally recognized a specific source of their calling, which ranged from a
higher power to the needs of society. In response to an interview question about the source of the calling,
two example quotes for this category include, ‘‘Well, I would say God’’ and, ‘‘You know, as I think about
that, I’m not sure how this will sound but: the universe. There’s an aspect of this that for me is absolutely
spiritual.’’ Finally, participants generally noted using self-reflection as a mechanism to understand their
calling. One participant stated, ‘‘I got into college and had more of an awareness of my own personal
development and realized that there’s a lot going on with me that I need to figure out here.’’
Along with these general responses, participants typically noted struggles in finding their calling.
For example, one participant stated,

Here was the situation where it was different. There were barriers, but I still really had to decide, do I
pursue it, is this for me? It seemed like things really aren’t going my way now and I really had to work
towards this goal and is it really for me?

Participants also typically noted that part of the process was trying to figure out what was natural or
what one was supposed to be doing. A response that illustrates this point is, ‘‘It feels good; the word
that comes to mind is like a ‘clicking’.’’

Content of the Calling

The domain with the fewest categories concerned what interviewees believed was their individual
calling. That is, what exactly did our interviewees believe they were called to do? Of the four coded
categories, only one was generally stated by all interviewees: being a support to others and/or help-
ing others. The following quotes from three interviewees are used to illustrate this category: ‘‘To

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some extent, my calling is about helping people wake up and be connected to themselves and how
they feel, and for them to be able to use that in helpful and adaptive ways,’’ ‘‘All these people suf-
fering in the world and a big part of the calling is to try and do something about that,’’ and, ‘‘I think
it’s to help people, you know in the most general terms. And more specifically, I think it’s to listen to
people and to be there for them.’’

Professional Impact
The professional impact domain referred to the impact of having a calling on interviewees’ profes-
sional lives. Generally, participants were satisfied with their work and/or felt blessed to be in the
professional situation they were in. One interviewee noted, ‘‘You know, I feel really satisfied with
sort of where I am and what I’m doing right now. I feel really fortunate to have the kind of the bal-
ance that I have.’’ Interviewees generally felt their calling had an impact on how they performed
counseling or research activities. An example response is,

We all bring our own life experiences as a therapist or counselor, so I bring my own experience. Part of
my experience has been changing careers and making a choice that is more aligned with my values and
what I believe I am created to be about. So I think it influences my work in regard to how I might work
with someone to increase their perception of options and that they have choices.

Typically, interviewees expressed high levels of work passion, energy, and productivity. For example,
one participant stated, ‘‘Right now, I’ve never been so productive with research in my entire life.’’ Par-
ticipants also typically felt that their calling was the centerpiece of their professional identity and felt that
their work was a good fit for their skills, values, and interests. One interviewee noted, ‘‘My identity feels
so wedded to it and I wonder how it feels different to those [for whom] it is just kind of a job,’’ and another
noted, ‘‘I found a place where my values match up with the values of the institution.’’

Personal Impact
The personal impact domain referred to the impact of having a calling on interviewees’ lives outside
of work. Generally, interviewees were satisfied with their lives and/or felt blessed and typically
endorsed a sense of fulfillment. One interviewee stated,

I think there is a lot to be said for coming alive and being alive and when I’m able to make myself reso-
nate with whatever it is I’m called to and to really get in touch with it; it’s actually really nice. I have a lot
of contentment, satisfaction, and a lot of joy.

Another stated, ‘‘I think I have a really great life. I feel really fortunate.’’ Interviewees generally
reported that having a calling positively impacted their interpersonal relationships, although they
also typically reported that their calling sometimes had a negative impact on others in their lives.
For example, noting the positive impact, one interviewee noted,

Well, for me, my relationships are better. I think I’m a little more at peace with myself because I feel like
I’m doing something that’s worthwhile and that creates meaning in my life so I’m easier to be around
than I was before.

Conversely, noting the negative impact of following a calling, another stated,

I had hoped that I could have provided a better life for my wife . . . This is just a hang up that I’ve had and
a personal one. I’ve drug her from one place to another and it just gets colder each round and she hates
cold weather.

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Duffy et al. 303

Maintenance
The final domain, maintenance, concerned how participants fostered their calling over time.
Generally, participants viewed calling as a process, not something that one just finds ‘‘once and for
all’’ but as something that one further discovers and adapts over time. Two quotes to illustrate this
point include, ‘‘It’s always a process, I don’t think you ever arrive,’’ and, ‘‘I think the question that
comes up for me sometimes is ‘what’s next?’’’ Participants also generally identified role models
whom they could look to for guidance and supportive work environments that served to foster the
calling. For example, one participant stated,

You know, it’s funny, I think of a woman that I worked with who reminds me of my dad (who was a
psychologist) in some ways, and it kind of comes full circle. She really values the social justice compo-
nent and not only to help within the counseling center, but I think our center is really trying to push out-
reach and really getting themselves out onto the campus and helping in just little ways. So it’s kind of like
how my father practiced, so that’s a really good role model and something I’m working on.

When discussing the role of her supportive work environment in maintaining the calling, another
participant stated,

I think it really sort of reinforces it. I was really lucky to happen into a sublease in an office with three
incredible psychologists. They are all really different and they’ve been together leasing this office space
for many years so they know each other really well but they are really different and I love them. And I
don’t know if I would be feeling as settled and satisfied if I didn’t have that.

Discussion
The goal of the present study was to deeply explore the experience of a calling among a group of coun-
seling psychologists. Indeed, the results highlight the rich and diverse ways in which participants
described what a calling is and the ways in which it impacts their lives, yet also reveals convergent
themes. In the following sections, we discuss several of the major themes that emerged from the data.

The Meaning of Calling

Participants were asked how they defined the term calling, and perhaps the most striking find-
ing from the definition domain was that no general category emerged. Specifically, no single
category was endorsed by all or all but one of the participants. For our participants, definitions
of calling were unique, and in particular the religious or spiritual notions of calling (often
described as the traditional foundations of the construct) were variant responses. The typical
responses of a calling as consonant with one’s purpose in life and what one is meant to do fit
well with both colloquial and scholarly uses of the term (Dik & Duffy, 2009; Duffy, 2006) and
is synonymous with findings from previous qualitative research (Bunderson & Thompson,
2009). Additionally, the typical response of the definition of calling changing over time sug-
gests that for the majority of our participants, how they view the term now is different than
in the past, and may in turn be different in the future.
Participants were also asked to describe what they were currently called to do. Here, a general
theme emerged of a being called to help or serve others. This was a theme endorsed by all eight
of our participants and speaks to an altruistically rooted view of one’s calling. It is noticeable that
serving others emerged as the only general category, and that only three other categories were appar-
ent under this domain, all of which were variant. This suggests that serving others was the dominant
calling for our participants, a result that converges well with previous scholarship that has tied

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calling to prosocial motivation (Dik & Duffy, 2009; Hernandez, et al., 2011). As counseling
psychologists work in a helping profession (counseling, teaching, advising, etc.), this finding may
not be surprising. An important direction for further research is to explore how the meaning of a
calling differs across professions, especially those that are not explicitly defined in terms of helping
others.

Calling as a Process
For all of our participants, the path or process to understanding their calling was complex, and this
domain not only had the most categories but also was represented by the greatest volume of text in
the interviews. In our initial coding meetings, we had included a core idea of ‘‘realizing one’s calling
during a critical episode,’’ as some of the participants in the interviews we coded first described
rather significant events in their lives, and our team expected that some of the participants may
report a onetime profound experience that made them understand their calling. Ultimately, this
expectation proved inaccurate. While many of the participants described significant experiences that
cumulatively drew them toward their calling, none of them reported a single dramatic event as their
primary path to discerning a calling, and all discussed the discernment of their calling as a process
that unfolded over time.
The discernment process generally occurred through an indirect route and typically contained
struggles. Participants generally tried out different majors, jobs, or career paths before learning their
calling and (often in part because these paths were not their calling) typically described struggles
during this process. These struggles included being dissatisfied with jobs, careers, or majors, finan-
cial or familial barriers that could prevent following one’s calling, and a lack of clarity over what
career path can best facilitate living one’s calling. This finding is consistent with Hernandez
et al. (2011), who also found that individuals generally described struggles in discerning the calling.
However, the process was not only made up of roadblocks or struggles, but also of support and self-
reflection. Participants generally reported looking inwardly to discern their calling. Often, this
involved reflecting on how one’s interests, values, and skills could best match a career they were
meant to do, thereby leading to a life of purpose and the ability to serve others. Participants also
generally reported support in their discernment process, often from friends, family, and mentors
encouraging the participants to seek their calling, which again is consistent with the findings from
previous research (French & Domene, 2010; Hernandez et al., 2011).
Finally, participants generally noted a specific source of their calling. Most often these sources
were external to the individuals, such as God or a higher power, the universe, or society in general.
This finding matches up well with the external source or ‘‘transcendent summons’’ component of
Dik and Duffy’s (2009) definition of calling. Overall, for our participants, the process of discerning
one’s calling took time, was a circuitous path that often involved struggles, and contained both inter-
nal (e.g. self-reflection) and external (support from others, outside source) components.

Calling Impact
As all the participants in this study viewed their current career as a calling, we were able to
explore more deeply how this impacts their personal and professional lives. Overall, participants
viewed their calling as affecting their lives in much more positive than negative ways. Generally,
our participants were satisfied with their jobs and lives and/or reported feeling blessed for being
in the position they are in, and typically felt a sense of fulfillment. A majority of our participants
exuded a sense of enthusiasm and vigor for the work they were doing that tied directly to their
calling and specifically discussed how well their job fits with their personality. These results
match findings from previous quantitative research, in which those with a calling tend to be more

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Duffy et al. 305

satisfied in work and life and more enthusiastic about their jobs than those with other approaches
to work (e.g. Bunderson & Thompson, 2009; Duffy et al., 2011; Peterson et al., 2009).
The impact of the calling also extended beyond participants’ feelings and into their experiences
of their work tasks and interpersonal relationships. The calling generally impacted how participants
approached the main tasks associated with their work settings, which in our sample was either coun-
seling or research and teaching. Most often, participants reported placing a greater focus on serving
or helping others through their professional activities as a result of their calling. The calling had both
positive (general) and negative (typical) effects on our participants’ personal relationships. A num-
ber of participants described the interpersonal push and pull that existed as a result of their callings.
It seemed that although the calling helped participants feel more centered and fulfilled, leading to
more positive relations with others, it often resulted in work overload and stress as a result of feeling
so passionate about their career. For some participants, similar to results reported by Bunderson and
Thompson (2009) and Hernandez et al. (2011), there was also a concern that following the calling
was not as financially rewarding and these issues led to interpersonal struggles. Overall, however,
the positives of living one’s calling far outweighed the negative for our participants and had a ben-
eficial impact on participants’ professional and personal lives.

Calling Maintenance
Finally, we attempted to gain a deeper understanding of how participants maintained their calling as
we were curious about the ways they were able to keep it alive and consistent. Generally, our parti-
cipants viewed their callings as an open-ended process and not as something they found once and
were trying to keep in its original form. This was a key point, as there may be a preconceived idea
that once one discerns a calling she or he tries to hold onto it, akin to starting a fire and having the
goal of keeping the fire alive. This was certainly not the case for our participants. Instead, many of
our participants expressed enthusiasm over how their calling might change in the future and dis-
cussed keeping their eyes open for new ways to express that to which they are called. This result
was perhaps unsurprising, given the finding that participants typically saw the very definition of call-
ing as something that could mature and grow over time. This is consistent with quantitative research
that has found a strong correlation between measures of the presence of, and search for, a calling
(Dik et al., 2012); it seems having a calling means seeking ways new ways to live out or enhance
that calling. Simply put, our participants viewed maintaining their callings as less about preserving
and more about remaining open, adapting, and growing.
A major factor facilitating the positive adaptation and growth of our participants’ calling was sup-
port from others, either in the form of a healthy work environment or role models. Role models were
generally described by participants and often used as guides for how the participants approached
work. Additionally, our participants generally discussed positive aspects of their work environment,
such as supportive coworkers, flexible schedules, and accommodating administrators who allowed
for a participant to freely live out her or his calling. This point was highlighted in a few participants’
process domain, where they indicated that their calling was only realized once they were in a healthy
work environment. Overall, participants viewed their callings as a work in progress and as best
facilitated by identified role models and supportive work environments.

Limitations and Future Directions

The results and conclusions from the present study need to be considered in light of a number of
limitations, several of which point to important directions for future research. First and foremost,
this was a qualitative study that deeply focused on a relatively homogenous sample of eight individ-
uals in one specific occupation. Like any qualitative study, the transferability of results must be

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306 Journal of Career Assessment 20(3)

considered in light of the sample at hand. However, these results may offer ideas for future
researchers to investigate, such as how calling is experienced in other professions and how calling
relates to work-related and general well-being outcomes in more diverse samples. Second, the sam-
ple size was at the low end of the range suggested by Hill et al. (2005) and was comprised of coun-
seling psychologists in only counseling or research/teaching positions. It is important to note,
however, that studies using in depth interviews with homogenous samples are the studies in which
Hill et al. (2005) view smaller samples as most acceptable. Third, the sample was predominantly
White. More research is needed that explores the role of calling cross-culturally, especially among
those from minority groups, those from non-American countries, and those from lower and working
class backgrounds.

Summary and Conclusions

The eight counseling psychologists interviewed for this study painted a rich and complex picture of
the experience of calling in their lives. The process of discerning and living one’s calling was often
complicated, with barriers and missteps along the way. But just as often this journey was laden with
deep self-reflection and support from others, and ultimately a specific source of this calling was
identified. Interviewees differed on how they defined a calling, but they were in agreement in how
their calling was expressed: helping and serving others. Perhaps most importantly, the experience of
a calling had a positive impact on the professional and personal lives of the interviewees, as well as a
generally positive impact on interpersonal relationships. Even after attaining a calling, interviewees
continued to view their calling as a process and were aided in this process by supportive work envir-
onments and role models.
The significance of this study lies in its ability to capture a complex process among a select occu-
pation and to further lay the groundwork for the study of the construct. Future research may explore
the ways in which the definitions of calling and the discernment and maintenance processes unfold
for those in different fields of work, as well as for those from more diverse religious and cultural
backgrounds. While the term calling has become part of the common vernacular, this study supports
a unique and special meaning of this construct for those who feel they have been called to their
careers. This study and others like it may serve as a starting point for practitioners working with
those seeking to discern a calling to specific career, which may unfold in a less structured and
planned way than may have traditionally been viewed (Dik, Duffy, & Eldridge, 2009). Counseling
psychologists, career counselors, and those who train these professionals would do well to develop
increased awareness and knowledge of these pathways, and eventually to identify and develop the
specific skills needed to assist those whose career search is leading them toward a higher purpose.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publica-
tion of this article.

Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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