EDUCATION – External Factors of Class Differences in Achievement:

When examining social class differences in achievement, the main comparison sociologists make is
between working class (W/C) and middle class (M/C) pupils.

W/C – includes skilled workers such as plumbers, semi-skilled workers such as lorry drivers and
unskilled workers such as cleaners;

M/C – includes professionals such as doctors, teachers, together with managers and owners of
businesses.

Social class background has a powerful influence on a child’s chance of success in the education
system.

Children from M/C families on average perform better than W/C children, especially at GCSE. They
tend to stay longer in full-time education and take the great majority of university places.

External factors are outside the education system, such as the influence of home, family background
and wider society.

Cultural Deprivation

Cultural deprivation is the theory that many W/C and black children are inadequately socialised and
therefore lack the ‘right’ culture needed for educational success. They lack the basic ‘cultural
equipment’ including things such as language, self-discipline and reasoning skills.

Class differences in children’s development and achievement appear very early in life. A nationwide
study (2007) found that children from disadv. backgrounds are already up to 1 year behind those
from more privileged homes and the gap widens with age. Sociologists argue that this is the result of
cultural deprivation.

LANGUAGE:

This is an essential part of the process of education and the way in which parents communicate with
their children affects their intellectual development and their ability to benefit from the process of
schooling.

Bereiter and Engelmann claim that the language used in lower-class homes is deficient. They
communicate by gestures, single worlds or disjointed phrases. As a result, their children fail to
develop the necessary language skills and they grow up incapable of abstract thinking. Because of
this, they are unable to take advantage of the opportunities that school offers.

Feinstein found that educated parents are more likely to use praise which encourages their children
to develop a sense of their own competence.

Speech codes:

Bernstein (1975) identifies differences between W/C and M/C language that influence achievement.
He distinguishes between 2 types of speech code:
1: The Restricted Code

This is typically used by W/C. It has limited vocab and is based on the use of short, often unfinished, grammatically
simple sentences.

Speech is predictable and may involve only a single word, or a gesture. It is descriptive, not analytic.

This code is context-bound: the speaker assumes that the listener shares the same set of experiences.

2: The Elaborated Code

This is typically used by M/C. It has a wider vocab and is based on longer, grammatically more complex sentences.
Speech is more varied and communicates abstract ideas.

This code is context-free: the speaker does not assume that the listener shares the same experiences. Hence they use
language to spell out their meanings explicitly for the listener.

The differences in code gives M/C children an advantage at school because the elaborated code is
the language used by teachers, textbooks and exams.

Early socialisation into the elab code means that M/C children are already fluent users so they will
feel ‘at home’ in school and more likely to succeed. By contrast, W/C children, lacking the code, are
likely to feel excluded and to be less successful.

PARENTS EDUCATION:

Theorists argue that parents’ attitudes to education are key factor affecting children’s achievement.
E.g. a study by Douglas (1964) found that W/C parents place less value on education. As a result they
were less ambitious for their children, gave them less encouragement and took less interest in their
education. As a result, their children had lower levels of motivation and achievement.

1: Parenting style

Educated parents’ parenting style emphasises consistent discipline and high expectations of their
children, and this supports achievement by encouraging active learning and exploration.

Less educated parents’ parenting style is marked by harsh or inconsistent discipline that emphasises
‘doing as you’re told’. This prevents the child from learning self-control, leading to poorer motivation
at school and problems interacting with teachers.

2: Use of income

Better educated parents not only tend to have higher incomes but they also their income in ways
that promote their children’s educational success. E.g. Bernstein and Young found that M/C mothers
are more likely to buy educational toys, books and activities that stimulate intellectual development.

M/C parents are also able to afford tutors for their children to boost their attainment.

They also have a better understanding of nutrition and its importance in child development and are
able to buy more nutritious food.
W/C SUBCULTURE:

A subculture is a group whose attitudes and values differ from those of the mainstream culture.

Theorists argue that the lack of parental interest in their children’s education reflects the subcultural
values of the W/C. Large sections of the W/C have different goals, beliefs etc from the rest of society
and this is why their children fail at school.

Sugarman (1970) says W/C subcultures have 4 key features that act as a barrier to educational
achievement:

- Fatalism: a belief in fate ‘whatever will be, will be’. This contrasts with M/C values which
emphasise that you can change your position through your own efforts.
- Collectivism: valuing being part of a group instead of succeeding as an individual. M/C view
that an individual should not be held back by group loyalties.
- Immediate gratification: seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices in order to get
rewards in the future. M/C values emphasise deferred gratification, making sacrifices for
greater rewards later.
- Present-time orientation: seeing the present as more important than the future and so, not
having long-term goals. M/C culture has a future-time orientation that sees planning for the
future as important.

W/C children internalise the beliefs and values of their subculture through the socialisation process
and this results in them underachieving at school.

Cultural deprivation theorists argue that parents pass on the values of their class to their children
through primary socialisation. M/C values equip children for success whereas W/C values fail to do
so.

COMPENSATORY EDUCATION:

CE programmes aim to tackle the problem of cultural deprivation by providing extra resources to
schools and communities in deprived areas.

They intervene early in the socialisation process to compensate children for the deprivation they
experience at home.

E.g. Sure Start in the UK aimed at pre-school children and their parents to promote the physical,
intellectual and social development. This was a major element in the New Labour gov policies to
tackle poverty and social exclusion.

Material Deprivation

This refers to poverty and a lack of material necessities such as adequate housing and income.

There is a close link between poverty and social class. W/C families are much more likely to have low
incomes or inadequate housing. These factors can affect their children’s education in many ways.
HOUSING:

- Overcrowding can make it harder for the child to study;

- Overcrowding means less room for educational activities, nowhere to do homework,
disturbed sleep from sharing beds or bedrooms etc;
- Families living in temporary accommodations may find themselves having to move
frequently, resulting in constant changes of school and disrupted education;
- Children in crowded homes run a greater risk of accidents;
- Cold or damp housing can cause ill health;
- Such health problems mean more absences from school.

DIET AND HEALTH:

- Pupils from poorer homes have lower intakes of energy, vitamins and minerals;
- Poor nutrition affects health by weakening the immune system and lowering children’s
energy levels;
- Children from poorer homes are also more likely to have emotional or behavioural problems
 can cause anxiety and conduct disorders which affects their education.

FINANCIAL SUPPORT AND THE COSTS OF EDUCATION:

A lack of financial support means that children from poor families have to do without equipment and
miss out on experiences that would improve their educational attainment.

E.g. Tanner et al (2003) found that the cost of items such as transport, uniform etc place a heavy
burden on poor families.

Cultural Capital

Bourdieu (1984) argues that both cultural and material factors contribute to the educational
achievement and are interrelated. He uses the concept of ‘capital’ to explain why M/C are more
successful.

Capital refers to economic capital (wealth) but also ‘educational capital’ and ‘cultural capital’. He
argues that the M/C generally posses more of all 3 types of capital.

1: Cultural capital

This refers to the knowledge, attitudes, values, language, tastes and abilities of the M/C.

He sees M/C culture as a type of capital because, like wealth, it gives an advantage to those who
possess it.

Like Bernstein, he argues that through their socialisation, M/C children acquire the ability to grasp,
analyse and express abstract ideas.

This gives M/C children an advantage in school, where such abilities and interests are highly valued
and rewarded with qualifications.
W/C children find that school devalues their culture as inferior. This leads to exam failure as they
‘get the message’ and respond by truanting or just not trying.

2: Economic capital

Ownership of wealth, e.g. owning valuable houses, shares, having an income in which they can pay
for private education and tuition.

3: Educational capital

M/C parents tend to have educational capital by sending their children to private schools and paying
for extra tuition.

They have the knowledge in which they use to get their children the best education.