INTEGRATION II. Muheesi Alex

INTEGRATION-II
BY
ALEX.G.MUHEESI
NOTE: This document is still under preparation
1
Alex .G. Muheesi +256779291752, muheesia@gmail.com
INTEGRATION-II
This is one of the core and most interesting topics in A-Level mathematics. And going through
A-Level without it is like being in heaven but when still God is invisible.
By the end of this topic, a strategic reader is expected to have strength in the following.
9 Recognizing a function and its derivative
9 Odd powers of sinx, cosx, etc
9 Even powers of sinx, cosx
9 Changing the variable
1 1
9 The forms ∫ dx & ∫a dx
a 2 − b2 x2
2
+ b2 x2
9 Exponential functions
9 Natural logarithms (Inx)
9 Splitting the numerator
9 Partial fractions
• Denominator with only linear factors,

• Denominator with a quadratic factor
• Denominator with a repeated factor
• Improper fractions
9 Integration by parts
9 The t-substitution ( t = tan x )

2
9 Differential equations
• Separating the variables
• Exact order equations
• Verbal interpretation
2
Applied formulae
x n +1
∗ ∫ x dx =
n
(Increase the power by one and divide by the new power) ( n ≠ 1)
n +1
∗ y = xn
dy
= nx n −1 (multiply by the power and reduce the power by one)
dx
d
∗ (cos kx) = −k sin kx
dx
d
∗ (sin kx) = k cos kx
dx
d
∗ (tan kx) = k sec 2 kx
dx
d
∗ (cos eckx) = − k cos eckx cot kx
dx
d
∗ (cot kx) = − k cos ec 2 kx
dx
d
∗ (sec kx) = k sec kx tan kx
dx
d
* (e x ) = e x
dx
1
∗ ∫ sin kxdx = − cos kx + c
k
1
∗ ∫ cos xkxdx = sin kx + c
k
1
∗ ∫ sec 2 kxdx = tan kx + c
k
* ∫ e x dx = e x + c
3
1.0 Recognizing a function and its derivative
o A derivative comes from a function, the difference between the power of the
function and that of the derivative must be one (1). For example x2 & x, x2 is the
function and x is the derivative.
o The difference between the two is determined only by the powers
o For the trigonometrical functions, one with the highest power becomes the
function. If there is a root, then one with the root becomes the function.
o Any integral must end with a constant unless limits are given.
Procedures
Differentiate the function
Replace the function with the initial used
Examples
(i)
∫ x (1 − x )dx
2 3
x 2 is the derivative and 1 − x3 is the function

Let t = 1 − x3
dt
= −3 x 2 , on differntiating
dx
dt
dx = − 2
3x
dt
= ∫ x2 ⋅ t ⋅ , replacing the function
− 3x 2
1
= − ∫ tdt., increasing the power by one
3
1 ⎡t2 ⎤
= − ⎢ ⎥+c
3⎣ 2⎦
But t = 1-x 3
1
∫ x (1 − x )dx = − 6 (1 − x ) +c
2 3 3 2
Hence
4
3αx
2
∫ x e dx
4
∫1 2 + x 2 dx
3 x
Evaluate
Let t = x 4
t = 2 + x2
dt = 4 x 3dx
dt
= 2x dt
dx = ∫ x 3e t ⋅
3αx dt 4 x3
=∫ ⋅ 1 t
4∫
t 2x = e dt
3α 1
2 ∫t
= dt 1
= et + c
3α 4
= Int + c 1 x4
∫x e
3 x4
2 dx = e +c
3α 4
=
2
[ 2
In(2 + x 2 ) 1 ]
3α x −1
=
2
[[ ] [
In(2 + 22 − In(2 + 12 ) ]] (ii ) ∫ (2 x 2
− 4 x + 1)
3
2
dx
3α
= [In6 − In3] Let t = 2 x 2 − 4 x + 1
2 dt
3α = 4x − 4
= In2 dx
2 dt
= 4( x − 1)
3αx
( )
2
Hence∫ d = αIn 2 2 dx
2 + x 2
x −1 x −1 dt
∫ (2 x 2 − 4 x + 1) 3 2 dx = ∫ t 3 2 ⋅ 4( x − 1)
1
2x 1 dt
= ∫ 3
∫ x2 + 4
dx 4 t 2
1 −32
4∫
Let t = x2 + 4 = t dt
t 2 = x2 + 4
1⎡t 2 ⎤
−1
2tdt = 2 xdx = ⎢ ⎥+c

4 ⎢−1 ⎥
2x t ⎣ 2⎦
= ∫ ⋅ dt
t x 1 −1
= − t 2 +c
= 2t + c 2
2x 1
∫ x +4
2
dx = 2 x 2 + 4 + c = − 1 +c
2t 2
x −1 1
∫ (2 x 2
− 4 x + 1)
3
2
d =−
2(2 x − 4 x + 1)
2
1
2
+c
5
5
x2
∫ ∫ sin 3x cos
3
dx 3xdx
1 x −x
4 2
Let t = cos 3x
5 2
x
= ∫x x2 − 1
dx dt
= −3 sin 3x
1 dx
5
x dt
∫ ∫ sin 3x cos 3xdx = ∫ sin 3x ⋅ t 3 ⋅
3
= dx
1 x2 − 1 − 3 sin 3x
1 3
3∫
Let t = x 2 − 1 =− t dt
t 2 = x2 − 1
1 ⎡t 4 ⎤
2tdt = 2 xdx = − ⎢ ⎥+c
3⎣4⎦
x t
= ∫ ⋅ dx 1
∫ sin 3x cos 3xdx = − cos 4 3x + c
3
t x
12
= ∫ dt
=t +c
∫ sec
6
x tan xdx
[ x − 1]
= 2
1
5
Let t = sec x
⎡
=⎢ ( 5 ) − 1⎤⎥ − [ 1 − 1]
2 2 dt
= sec x tan x
⎣ ⎦ dx
= ±2
∫ sec x tan xdx = ∫ sec5 x(sec x tan x)dx
6
dt
= ∫ t 5 (sec x tan x) ⋅
∫ cos x sin x dx sec x tan x
Let t = sin x = ∫ t 5 dt
dt 1
= cos x = t6 + c
dx 5
1 dt 1
∫ cos x sin x dx = ∫ cos x ⋅ t 2 ⋅ cos x = sec6 x + c
5
1
= ∫ t 2 dt
=
2 32
t +c ∫ cos(3x + 2)dx
3 Let t = 3 x + 2
2 3
= sin 2 x + c dt
3 =3
dx
2
∫ cos x sin x dx = 3 sin x + c dt
3
∫ cos(3x + 2)dx = ∫ cos t ⋅ 3

1
3∫
= cos tdt
1
= sin t + c
3
1
∫ cos(3x + 2)dx = 3 sin(3x + 2) + c 6
∫ x cos ec (2 x )dx
2 2
∫ sin 4 x cos 2 xdx
Let t = 2 x 2 = ∫ (2 sin 2 x cos 2 x) cos 2 xdx
dt = 2 ∫ sin 2 x cos 2 xdx
2
= 4x
dx
Let t = cos 2 x
dt
∫ x cos ec (2 x )dx = ∫ x cos ec t ⋅ 4 x
2 2 2
dt
= −2 sin 2 x
1 dx
= ∫ cos ec 2tdt dt
4 = 2 ∫ sin 2 x ⋅ t 2 ⋅
1 − 2 sin 2 x
= − cot t + c
4 = − ∫ t 2 dt
1 t3
∫ x cos ec (2 x )dx = − 4 cot 2 x + c
2 2 2
=− +c
3
cos3 2 x
∫ sin 4 x cos 2 xdx = − 3 + c
7
1.2 Changing the variable
This is related to the function and derivative. However in this case, the would be function
has the same power as the would be derivative.
9 Rename the broad expression together with its powers

9 Make the variable a subject
9 Differentiate
9 Take the steps of the recent discussion.
Examples
∫ 3x 4 x − 1dx Alternatively ∫ 3x 4 x − 1dx

Let t = 4 x − 1, Let t = 4 x − 1,
squaring both sides we have 1
x = (t + 1)
t 2 = 4x − 1 4
dx 1
1 2 =
x= (t + 1) dt 4
4
1 1 1
dx 1 = 3∫ (t + 1).t 2 . dt
= (2t ) 4 4
dt 4
3 1
dx t = ∫ (t + 1)t 2 dt
= 16
dt 2
3 3 1
1 t = ∫ t 2 + t 2 dt
= 3∫ (t 2 + 1).t. dt 16
4 2
3 ⎡t 2 t 2 ⎤
5 3
1 ⎢ ⎥+c
= ∫ (t 2 + 1)t 2 dx = +
8 16 ⎢ 5 3 ⎥
⎣ 2 2⎦
3
= ∫ (t 4 + t 2 )dx 3 ⎡2 5 2 3 ⎤
8 = ⎢ t 2 + t 2⎥ + c
16 ⎣ 5 3 ⎦
3 ⎡t5 t3 ⎤
= ⎢ + ⎥+c 3 32
8⎣5 3⎦ = t [3t + 5] + c
120
3 3 2 3
= t (3t + 5) + c (4 x − 1) 2 [3(4 x − 1) + 5] + c
3
120 =
120
3 3
6
= (4 x − 1) 2 [3(4 x − 1) + 5] + c =
3
(4 x − 1) 2 (6 x + 1) + c
120 120
3 3
1
= (4 x − 1) 2 (12 x + 2) + c =
3
(4 x − 1) 2 (6 x + 1) + c
120 20
3 3
= (4 x − 1) 2 ⋅ 2(6 x + 1) + c
120
1 3
= (4 x − 1) 2 (6 x + 1) + c
20
8
x+2
∫ sin x cos x dx ∫ 3x − 4
dx
Let t = cos x Let t = 3 x-4

t = cos x
2
t 2 = 3x − 4
dt sin x dx 2t
=− =
dx 2t dt 3
− 2tdt
= ∫ sin x ⋅ t ⋅ t +4
2
sin x +2
3 2t
=∫ ⋅ dt
= −2 ∫ t 2 dt t 3
⎡t3 ⎤ 2
= −2 ⎢ ⎥ + c = ∫ t 2 + 10dt
9
⎣3⎦
2 ⎡t3 ⎤
2 3 = ⎢ + 10t ⎥ + c
∫ sin x cos xdx = − 3 cos 2 x + c 9⎣3 ⎦
2t 2
= (t + 30) + c
27
x3 2 3x − 4
∫ (1 + x 2
)
1
2
dx =
27
(3 x − 4 + 30) + c
1 x+2 2
Let t = ( 1 + x 2 ) 2
∫ 3x − 4 dx = 27 (3x + 26) 3x − 4 + c
t 2 = 1 + x2
t 2 − 1 = x2
2t dt = 2 x dx
t
dx = dt
x
x ⋅x t
2
=∫ dt
t x
= ∫ x 2 dt
= ∫ t 2 − 1dt
1
= t3 − t + c
3
t
= (t 2 − 3) + c
3
1 1
[
= (1 + x 2 ) 2 (1 + x 2 ) − 3 + c
3
]
3
x 1 1
Hence ∫ 1
dx = (1 + x 2 2
) ( x 2 − 2) + c
(1 + x 2 ) 2 3
9
Odd powers of sinx, cosx etc
The reader should ensure that the powers are not divisible by two before applying this approach.
Procedure
• Split the function to create one and an even number as powers

• Replace the function with an even power with the suitable identity of
cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1
tan 2 θ + 1 = sec 2 θ
cot 2 θ + 1 = cos ec 2θ
• Expand the expression to generate functions and derivatives
Examples
∫ cos x dx ∫ cos x dx
5 3
= ∫ cos x cos 4 x dx = ∫ cos x cos x dx

2
= ∫ cos x(cos 2 x) 2 dx cos 2 x = 1 − sin 2 x
cos 2 x = 1 − sin 2 x = ∫ cos x (1 − sin 2 x)dx
= ∫ cos x (1 − sin 2 x) 2 dx = ∫ cos xdx − ∫ cos x sin 2 xdx
= ∫ cos x (1 − 2 sin 2 x + sin 4 x) Let t = sin x

dt
= ∫ cos xdx − 2 ∫ cos x sin 2 xdx + ∫ cos x sin 4 xdx = cos x
dx
Let t = sin x dt
= sin x − ∫ cos x ⋅ t 2
dt cos x
= cos x
dx = sin x − ∫ t 2 dt
dt dt
= sin x − 2 ∫ cos x ⋅ t 2 + ∫ cos x ⋅ t 4 t3
cos x cos x = sin x − +c
3
= sin x − ∫ t 2 dt + ∫ t 4 dt
1
∫ cos x dx = sin x − 3 sin x+c
3 3
1 1
= sin x − t 3 + t 5 + c
3 5
1 3 1 5
∫ cos x dx = sin x − 3 sin x + 5 sin x + c
5
10
∫ sin x 3dx
5
= ∫ sin x sin x dx 4
3 3
(
= ∫ sin x 1 − cos 2 x dx
3 3
2
)
3
(
= ∫ sin x 1 − 2 cos 2 x + cos 4 x dx
3 3
)
x x
= ∫ sin dx − 2 ∫ sin cos 2 x
dx + ∫ sin x cos 4 x dx
3 3 3 3 3
Let t = cos x
3
dt 1
= − sin x
dx 3 3
− 3dt − 3dt
= −3 cos x − 2 ∫ sin x ⋅ t 2 ⋅ + ∫ sin x ⋅ t 4 ⋅
3 3 sin x 3 sin x
3 3
= −3 cos x + 6 ∫ t dt − 3∫ t dt
2 4
3
x ⎡t3 ⎤ ⎡t5 ⎤
= −3 cos + 6⎢ ⎥ − 3⎢ ⎥ + c
3
⎣3⎦ ⎣5⎦
x dx = −3 cos x + 2 cos3 x − 3 cos5 x + c
∫ sin
5
Hence
3 3 3 5 3
∫ tan x sec xdx

5
= ∫ tan x tan x sec xdx

4
∫ tan x sec x(sec x − 1) dx

2 2
∫ tan x sec x(sec x − 2 sec x + 1)dx

4 2
∫ tan x sec xdx − 2∫ tan x sec xdx + ∫ tan x secxdx

5 3
Let t = sec x
dt
= sec x tan x
dx
dt dt
= ∫ tan x sec x ⋅ t 4 − 2∫ tan x sec x ⋅ t 2
sec x tan x ∫
+ tan x secxdx
sec x tan x
= ∫ t 4 dt − 2 ∫ t 2 dt + ∫ tan x secxdx
⎡t5 ⎤ ⎡t3 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ − 2⎢ ⎥ + sec x + c
⎣5⎦ ⎣3⎦
1 2
Hence ∫ tan 5 x sec xdx = sec5 x − sec3 x + sec x + c
5 3
11
∫ sec xdx
4
= ∫ sec x sec xdx

2 2
∫ sec x (1 + tan x)dx

2 2
= ∫ sec x + ∫ sec x tan

2 2 2
x
Let t = tan x
dt
= sec 2 x
dx
dt
= ∫ sec 2 xdx + ∫ sec 2 x ⋅ t 2
sec 2 x
= ∫ sec 2 xdx + ∫ t 2 dt
t3
= tan x + +c
3
1
Hence ∫ sec 4 xdx = tan x + tan 3 x + c
3
12
Even powers of sinx, cosx
The reader should ensure that the powers are divisible by two before applying this approach.
Procedure
( )
Make the expression a subject from the double angle formula cos 2 x = 2 cos2 x −1 , the
individual parts are then integrated.
Examples
∫ cos
2
x dx
from cos 2 x = 2 cos 2 x − 1
1 + cos 2 x
cos 2 x =
2
1
= ∫1 + cos 2 x dx
2
1⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎢ x + sin 2 x ⎥ + c
2⎣ 2 ⎦
x 1
Hence ∫ cos 2 x dx = + sin 2 x + c
2 4
∫ cos x dx
4
= ∫ (cos x )
2 2
dx
from cos 2 x = 2 cos 2 x − 1
1 + cos 2 x
cos 2 x =
2
2
⎛ 1 + cos 2 x ⎞
= ∫⎜ ⎟ dx
⎝ 2 ⎠
1
= ∫1 + 2 cos 2 x + cos 2 2 x dx
4
1 + cos 4 x
Also cos 2 2 x =
2
1 1 + cos 4 x
= ∫1 + 2 cos 2 x + dx
4 2
1
= ∫ 2 + 2 cos 2 x + 1 + cos 4 x dx
8
1⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎢3 x + sin 2 x + sin 4 x ⎥ + c
8⎣ 4 ⎦
3 1 1 13
Hence ∫ cos 4 x dx = x + sin 2 x + sin 4 x + c
8 8 32
∫ sin (4 x + 7)dx
4
∫ sin (4 x + 7)dx = ∫ [sin (4 x + 7)] dx

4 2 2
1 − cos(8 x + 14)
But sin 2 (4 x + 7) =
2
2
⎡1 − cos(8 x + 14) ⎤
∫ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥ dx
⎦
1
= ∫ 1 − 2 cos(8 x + 14) + cos 2 (8 x + 14)dx
4
1 + cos(16 x + 28)
Also cos 2 (8 x + 14) =
2
1 1 + cos(16 x + 28)
= ∫ 1 − 2 cos(8 x + 14) + dx
4 2
1
= ∫ 2 − 4 cos(8 x + 14) + 1 + cos(16 x + 28)dx
8
1
= ∫ 3 − 4 cos(8 x + 14) + cos(16 x + 28)dx
8
1⎡ 4 1 ⎤
= ⎢3 x − sin(8 x + 14) + sin(16 x + 28)⎥ + c
8⎣ 8 16 ⎦
3x 1 1
Hence ∫ sin 4 (4 x + 7)dx = − sin(8 x + 14) + sin(16 x + 28) + c
8 16 128
1
1− x π
If x = cos 2α , prove that ∫ dx = − 1
0
1+ x 2
dx
= −2 sin 2α
dα
1− x 1 − cos 2α
∫ 1+ x
dx = ∫
1 + cos 2α
⋅ −2 sin 2αdα
1 − 1 + sin 2 α
=∫ ⋅ −2 sin 2αdα
1 + cos 2 α − 1
sin 2 α
=∫ ⋅ −4 sin α cos αdα
cos 2 α
= −4 ∫ sin 2 α dα = −2 ∫ 1 − cos 2α dα
1
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡1 1 ⎤
= −2 ⎢α − sin 2α ⎥ = −2 ⎢ cos −1 x − 1 − x2 ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣2 2 ⎦0
⎡ 90 0 1 ⎤
= 0 − −2 ⎢ − ⎥
⎣ 2 2⎦
1
1− x π
Hence∫ dx = − 1
0
1+ x 2
14
1
d
x
,
&
a
2
∫ ∫ − b2 x2
b
x
The form
2
−
c
o
s
θ
s
i
n
θ
1
2
2
This is done by comparing it to the identity of + = . One should make sure that;
• The numerator is not a variable but constant like 1, 2, 3 etc

• The denominator must be a difference of two squares under a square root
• Any deviation from the above may make the approach un applicable
Examples
1
∫ a 2 − b2 x2
dx
From cos 2θ + sinθ 2 = 1

cos 2θ = 1 − sin 2 θ , the L.H.S is standardised with the cosntant a 2 of the question
and compared with the whole denominator.
a − b x = a 2 (1 − sin 2 θ ),
2 2 2
expand and siplify
b x = a sin θ ,
2 2 2 2
find the root on both sides
bx = a sin θ .................................... *
a
x= sin θ , differentiate
b
dx a
= cosθ
dθ b
1 a
∫ ⋅ cosθ dθ
a (1 − sin θ ) b
2 2
1 a
∫a ⋅ cosθ dθ
(1 − sin 2 θ ) b
But cosθ = 1 − sin 2 θ
1
b∫
dθ
1
θ +c
b
⎛ bx ⎞
From * θ = sin -1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ a⎠
1
1b
b
xa
d
x
s
i
n
c
-
1
⎛ ⎞
∫ = ⎟+
a
b
x
Hence ⎜
2
2
2
− ⎝ ⎠

15

1

1
∫5 dx
4 − x2 ∫ dx
1
1 3 − 2x2
5 ∫ 4 − x2
= dx By comparison,
By comparison 3 − 2 x 2 = 3(1 − sin 2 θ )
, 4 − x 2 = 4(1 − sin 2 θ ) 3 − 2 x 2 = 3 − 3 sin 2 θ
4 − x 2 = 4 − 4 sin 2 θ ) 2 x 2 = 3 sin 2 θ ,
x 2 = 4 sin 2 θ , x 2 = 3 sin θ .................................... *
x = 2 sin θ .................................... * dx 3
= cosθ
dx dθ 2
= 2 cosθ
dθ 1 3
1 1 ∫ 3(1 − sin 2 θ )
⋅
2
cosθ dθ
∫
5 4(1 − sin 2 θ )
⋅ 2 cosθ dθ
1 3
1 1 ∫ ⋅ cosθ dθ
∫
5 2 (1 − sin 2 θ )
⋅ 2 cosθ dθ 3 (1 − sin 2 θ ) 2

But cosθ = 1 − sin θ 2
1
2∫
1 dθ
5∫
dθ
1
1 θ +c
θ +c 2
5
⎛x 2⎞
⎛x⎞ From * ,θ = sin -1 ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
From * ,θ = sin -1 ⎜ ⎟ 3
⎝2⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 2
1
15
x2
1
c
⎛x 2⎞
s
i
n
c
-
1
⎛ ⎞
Hence ∫5 dx = ⎜
⎝
⎟+
⎠
Hence ∫ 3 − 2x2
dx = sin -1 ⎜⎜
3
⎟+
⎟
4 − x2 ⎝ ⎠
16
1
1
∫ dx ∫ 3 − 2 x − x2
dx
− 2 x + 12 x − 9
2
[
− 2 x + 12 x − 9 = −2 x 2 − 6 x + 9
2
] 2
3 − 2 x − x 2 = −[ x 2 + 2 x − 3]
= −[( x + 1) 2 − 12 − 3]
= −2[( x − 3) − 3 + 9 ]
2 2
2 = −[( x + 1) 2 − 4]
= −2[( x − 3) − 9 + 9 ]
2
= 4 − ( x + 1) 2
2
1
= −2[( x − 3) − ]9 2
2 ∫ 3 − 2 x − x2
dx = ∫ 4 − ( x + 1) 2
dx
= 9 − 2( x − 3) 2
1
1
By comparison,
∫ − 2 x 2 + 12 x − 9
dx = ∫ 9 − 2( x − 3) 2
dx 4 − ( x + 1) 2 = 4(1 − sin 2 θ )
4 − ( x + 1) 2 = 4 − 4 sin 2 θ )
By comparison,
( x + 1) 2 = 4 sin 2 θ ,
9 − 2( x − 3) 2 = 9(1 − sin 2 θ )
( x + 1) = 2 sin θ .................................... *
9 − 2( x − 3) 2 = 9 − 9 sin 2 θ )
dx
2( x − 3) 2 = 9 sin 2 θ , = 2 cosθ
dθ
2 ( x − 3) = 3 sin θ .................................... * 1
=∫ ⋅ 2 cosθ dθ
dx 3 4(1 − sin 2 θ )
= cosθ
dθ 2 1
=∫
1
⋅
3
cosθ dθ
= ∫2 (1 − sin 2 θ )
⋅ 2 cosθ dθ
9(1 − sin θ ) 2
2

1 3
=∫ ⋅ cosθ dθ
3 (1 − sin 2 θ ) 2 = ∫ dθ
=θ +c
⎛ x +1⎞
1 From * ,θ = sin -1 ⎜ ⎟
2∫
= dθ ⎝ 2 ⎠
1
c
1 ⎛ x + 1⎞
= θ +c Hence ∫ 3 − 2x − x
dx = sin -1 ⎜
2
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎟+
2
⎛ ( x − 3) 2 ⎞
From * ,θ = sin -1 ⎜⎜ ⎟
3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
1
⎛ ( x − 3) 2 ⎞
Hence ∫ 3 − 2x − x2
dx = sin -1 ⎜⎜
3
⎟+
⎟
⎝ ⎠
17
x2 1
∫ 4 − 9 x6
dx ∫x x2 − 9
dx
x2 3
=∫ dx Let x = .......................................... *
4 − 9( x 3 ) 2 cos α
dx = 3 sec α tan α dα
Let t = x 3
1
dt =∫ ⋅ 3 sec α tan α dα
= 3x 2 3 9
dx −9
cos α cos2 α
x2 dt
=∫ 1
4 − 9t 2 3x 2 =∫ ⋅ 3 sec α tan α dα
3 9 − 9 cos2 α
1 dt
= ∫
3 4 − 9t 2
cos α cos2 α
1
By comparison, =∫ ⋅ 3 sec α tan α dα
3
4 − 9t 2 = 4(1 − sin 2 θ ) 9 − 9 cos α 2
cos2 α
4 − 9t 2 = 4 − 4 sin 2 θ ) 1
=∫ ⋅ 3 sec α tan α dα
9t 2 = 4 sin 2 θ , 9 sin α
3t = 2 sin θ .................................... * cos2 α
1
dt 2 =∫ ⋅ 3 sec α tan α dα
= cosθ 9 secα tan α
dθ 3
1
1 1 2 = ∫ dα
= ∫ ⋅ cosθ dθ 3
3 4(1 − sin 2 θ ) 3
1
1 1 = α +c
= ∫
9 (1 − sin 2 θ )
⋅ cosθ dθ 3
⎛x⎞
From * α = sec-1 ⎜ ⎟
But cosθ = 1 − sin 2 θ ⎝3⎠
1 1 ⎛x⎞
= ∫ dθ = sec-1 ⎜ ⎟ + c
9 3 ⎝3⎠
1
= θ +c
9
⎛3 ⎞
From * ,θ = sin -1 ⎜ t ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
c
1 ⎛3 ⎞
= sin -1 ⎜ t ⎟ +
9 ⎝2 ⎠
c
2
x 1 ⎛3 ⎞
Hence ∫ 4 − 9x 6
dx = sin -1 ⎜ x3 ⎟ +
9 ⎝2 ⎠
18
x
∫ x − x4
2
dx
∫x
1
dx
1 − x2
2
x
=∫ dx Let x = cos α ......................................... *
x 1 − x2 dx = − sin α dα
1
=∫ dx sin α = 1 − x 2
1− x 2
By comparison 1 − x2
tan α =
1 − x 2 = 1 − sin 2 θ x
1
x = sin θ =∫ ⋅ − sin αdα
dx cos 2 α 1 − cos 2 α
= cosθ −1
dθ =∫ ⋅ sin α dα
1 cos α sin α
2
=∫ cosθdθ = − ∫ sec 2 α dα
1 − sin 2 θ
= ∫ dθ = − tan α + c
1 1
=θ +c ∫ x 2 1 − x 2 dx = − x 1 − x + c
2
x
Hence ∫ dx = sin −1 x + c
x −x
2 4
19
a
b
x
d
x
2
2
2
∫ − ∫ 9 − x 2 dx
By comparison, By comparison, 9 − x 2 = 9(1 − sin 2 θ )
a 2 − b 2 x 2 = a 2 (1 − sin 2 θ ) 9 − x 2 = 9 − 9 sin 2 θ
a 2 − b 2 x 2 = a 2 − a 2 sin 2 θ x 2 = 9 sin 2 θ ,
b 2 x 2 = a 2 sin 2 θ , x = 3 sin θ
bx = a sin θ dx
= 3 cosθ
dx a dθ
= cosθ
dθ b = ∫ 9(1 − sin 2 θ ) ⋅ 3 cosθ dθ
a
= ∫ a 2 (1 − sin 2 θ ) ⋅ cosθ dθ
b
= 9∫ cos 2 θ dθ
1 1 + cos 2θ
= ∫ a 2 cos 2 θ dθ But cos 2θ =
b 2
a2 1 + cos 2θ
= 9∫ dθ
=
b ∫ cos 2 θ dθ
2
1 + cos 2θ 9
But cos 2θ = = ∫ 1 + cos 2θ dθ
2 2
a 1 + cos 2θ
2 9⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎢θ + sin 2θ ⎥ + c
b ∫
= dθ 2⎣ 2
2 ⎦
a2 9 9
= θ + sin 2θ + c
2b ∫
= 1 + cos 2θ dθ
2 4
a2 ⎡ 1 ⎤ 9 9
= θ + sin 2θ ⎥ + c = θ + ⋅ 2 sin θ cosθ + c
2b ⎣⎢ 2 2 4
⎦
9 ⎛ x⎞ 9 x 2
2
a ⎡ 1 ⎤ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ + ⋅ 1− x + c
= ⎢θ + sin 2θ ⎥ + c 2 ⎝3⎠ 2 3 9
2b ⎣ 2 ⎦
9 −1 ⎛ x ⎞ x
=
a2 ⎡
⎢
1 ⎤
θ + ⋅ 2 sin θ cosθ ⎥ + c
Hence ∫ 9 − x 2 dx =
2
sin ⎜ ⎟ +
⎝3⎠ 2
9 − x2 + c
2b ⎣ 2 ⎦
=
a2
2b
[
θ + sin θ 1 − sin 2 θ + c ]
a 2 ⎡ −1 ⎛ bx ⎞ ⎛ bx ⎞ b2 x2 ⎤
= ⎢sin ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ 1 − ⎥+c
2b ⎢⎣ ⎝ a⎠ ⎝ a⎠ a ⎥⎦
a 2 ⎡ −1 ⎛ bx ⎞ ⎛ bx ⎞ 2 ⎤
= ⎢sin ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ 2 ⎟ a − b 2 x 2 ⎥ + c
2b ⎣ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝a ⎠ ⎦
a2 ⎛ bx ⎞ x 2
∫ a − b x dx = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ + a − b2 x2 + c
2 2 2
2b ⎝ a⎠ 2
20
1
∫ (1 − 9 x 2
) (1 − 9 x 2 )
dx
` 1 1
∫ (1 − 9 x 2
) (1 − 9 x )
2
dx = ∫
(1 − 9 x ) 2
3
2
dx
By comparison
1 − 9 x 2 = 1 − sin 2 α
9 x 2 = sin 2 α
3x = sin α
3dx = cos α dα
cos α = 1 − 9 x 2
3x
tan α =
1 − 9x2
1 cos α
=∫ 3
⋅ dα
(1 − sin 2 α ) 2 3
1 cos α
=∫ ⋅ dα
(cos α )
2
3
2 3
1 cos α
=∫ ⋅ dα
cos α
3
3
1 1
= ∫ dα
3 cos 2 α
1
= ∫ sec 2 α dα
3
1
= tan α + c
3
1 3x
= ⋅ +c
3 1 − 9x2
1 x
Hence∫ dx = +c
(1 − 9 x ) (1 − 9 x )
2 2
1 − 9x2
21
1b
d
x
a
x
The form ∫
2
+
t
a
n
θ
1
s
e
c
2
2
This is done by comparing it to the identity of + = θ . One should make sure that;
• The numerator is not a variable but constant like 1, 2, 3 etc
• The denominator must be a sum of two squares and not under a square root
• Any deviation from the above may make the approach un applicable
Note: This form is closely related to the previous, so the reader should always be careful.
Examples
1 1
∫a+ b2 x2
2
dx ∫ 4 + 3x 2
dx
By comparison By comparison
a 2 + b 2 x 2 = a 2 (1 + tan 2 α ) 4 + 3 x 2 = 4(1 + tan 2 α )
b 2 x 2 = a 2 tan 2 α 3x 2 = 4 tan 2 α
bx = a tan α ................................ * x 3 = 2 tan α ................................ *
a 2
dx = sec 2 α dα dx = sec 2 α dα
b 3
1 a
=∫ 2 ⋅ sec 2 α dα 1 2
∫ 4(1 + tan 2 α ) ⋅ 3 sec α dα
2
a (1 + tan α ) b
2
But 1 + tan 2 α = sec 2 α

1
ab ∫
= dα 1
2 3∫
= dα
1
= α +c 1
ab = α +c
2 3
⎛ bx ⎞
from *, α = tan -1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎛x 3⎞
⎝a⎠ from *, α = tan -1 ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟
1 1 ⎛ bx ⎞ ⎝ ⎠
Hence ∫ 2 dx = tan -1 ⎜ ⎟ + c
a +b x2 2
ab ⎝a⎠ 1 1 ⎛x 3⎞
This is commonly known as tan substitution.
Hence ∫ 4 + 3x 2
dx = tan -1 ⎜⎜ ⎟+c
⎟
2 3 ⎝ 2 ⎠
22
2x 1
∫ 1 + 7 x 4 dx ∫ 3x − 12 x + 16
2
dx
2x 2x ⎡ 16 ⎤
3x 2 − 12 x + 16 = 3⎢ x 2 − 4 x + ⎥
∫ 1 + 7 x 4 dx = ∫ 1 + 7(x 2 )2 dx ⎣ 3⎦
Let t = x 2 ⎡ 16 ⎤
= 3⎢( x − 2) 2 − 22 + ⎥
⎣ 3⎦
dt = 2 xdx
2x 1 ⎡ 4⎤
=∫ ⋅ dt = 3⎢( x − 2) 2 + ⎥
1 + 7t 2 x
2 ⎣ 3⎦
1 3x 2 − 12 x + 16 = 3( x − 2) 2 + 4
=∫ dt
1 + 7t 2 1 1
By comparison ∫ 3x 2 − 12 x + 16dx = ∫ 4 + 3( x − 2)2 dx
1 + 7t 2 = 1 + tan 2 α By comparison
7t 2 = tan 2 α 4 + 3( x − 2) 2 = 4(1 + tan 2 α )
t 7 = tan α ................................ * 3( x − 2) 2 = 4 tan 2 α
1 ( x − 2) 3 = 2 tan α ................................ *
dt = sec 2 α dα
7 2
dx = sec2 α dα
1 1 3
∫ (1 + tan 2 α ) ⋅ 7 sec α dα
2
1 2
∫ 4(1 + tan 2 α ) ⋅ 3 sec α dα
2

1 But 1 + tan 2 α = sec 2 α
7∫
= dα
1
2 3∫
= dα
1
= α +c
7 1
= α +c
from *, α = tan -1 t 7 ( ) 2 3
=
1
7
( )
tan -1 t 7 + c
⎛ ( x − 2) 3 ⎞
from *, α = tan -1 ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Hence ∫
2x
dx =
1
(
tan -1 x 2 7 + c ) 1 1 ⎛ ( x − 2) 3 ⎞
1 + 7x 4
7 Hence ∫ 3x 2
− 12 x + 16
dx =
2 3
tan -1 ⎜⎜
2
⎟+c
⎟
⎝ ⎠
23
1
∫ (1 + x )2 2
dx
By comparison
1 + x 2 = 1 + tan 2 α
x 2 = tan 2 α
x = tan α
dx
= sec2 α
dα
x
sin α =
1 + x2
1
cos α =
1 + x2
dx
= sec2 α
dα
1
=∫ ⋅ sec2 α dα
(1 + tan α )
2 2
1
=∫ ⋅ sec 2 α dα
(sec α )
2 2
1
= ∫ 2 ⋅ dα
sec α
= ∫ cos 2 α dα
1 + cos 2α
=∫ dα
2
1
2∫
= 1 + cos 2α dα
1⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎢α + sin 2α ⎥ + c
2⎣ 2 ⎦
1⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎢α + ⋅ 2 sin α cos α ⎥ + c
2⎣ 2 ⎦
1
= [α + sin α cos α ] + c
2
1⎡ x 1 ⎤
= ⎢α + ⋅ ⎥+c
2⎣ 1 + x2 1 + x2 ⎦
1 1 x
Hence ∫ dx = tan −1 x + +c
(1 + x )
2 2
2 2(1 + x 2 )
24
Exponential functions
These are functions whose powers are variables (say a later that can be substituted by any
figure) e.g 3x, 2tanx
The functions fully employ the laws of logarithms specifically natural logs ie;
⇒ Ine = log e e = 1
⇒ In x n = nIn x
⇒ Inx + Iny = Inxy
⇒ Inx − Iny = In x
y
⇒ etc
Note:
d derivative derivative
dx
In( funtion) =
function & ∫ function
= In( funtion)
eg
d 2x 2
⇔ ( Inx 2 ) = 2 =
dx x x
⇔ y = 2 sin x ⇔ y = ex
Introducing natural logs on both sides Iny = Ine x
Iny = In2 sin x Iny = xIne
Iny = sin xIn2 1 dy
=1
differentiating both sides and considering y dx
In2 as a constant dy
=y
1 dy dx
= In2 ⋅ cos x dy
y dx = ex
dx
dy
= ( yIn2) cos x
dx
dy
= (2 sin x In2) cos x
dx
Note: integrations involving exponentials are started by differentiating the index.
25
Examples
∫ (1 + tan
2
x)e tan x dx
∫x e
2 − x3
dx
Let t = − x 3 Let t = tan x
dt dt
= −3 x 2 = sec 2 x
dx dx
dt
= ∫ x 2 et
dt = ∫ (1 + tan 2 x)et
− 3x 2 sec 2 x
1 But 1 + tan 2 x = sec 2 x
= − ∫ e t dt
3 = ∫ e t dt
1 t
=− e +c = et + c
3
∫ (1 + tan x)e tan x dx = e tan x + c
2
1 − x3
=− e +c
3
e cot x
∫
x
a dx ∫ sin 2 x dx
Let t = a x Let t = cot x
Int = Ina x dt
= − cos ec 2 x
Int = xIna dx
et dt
1 dt = −∫ 2 ⋅
= Ina sin x cos ec 2 x
t dx
dt = − ∫ e t dt
= tIna
dx = −e t + c
dt
∫ a dx = ∫ t ⋅ tIna e cot x
x
∫ sin 2 x dx = −e + c
cot x
1
Ina ∫
= dt
1
= t+c
Ina
ax
∫ = +c
x
a dx
Ina
26
Splitting the numerator
o In this, the numerator has no relationship at all with the denominator.
o Split the numerator and integrate each individual part.
o The reader is expected to be conversant with the previous approaches that take place for
the individual parts.
Examples
2x + 3
∫x 2
+ 2 x + 10
dx
2x + 3 2x + 2 + 1
∫ x 2 + 2 x + 10dx = ∫ x 2 + 2 x + 10dx
2x + 2 + 1 2x + 2 1
∫ x 2 + 2 x + 10dx = ∫ x 2 + 2 x + 10dx + ∫ x 2 + 2 x + 10dx
2x + 2 1
=∫ 2 dx + ∫ dx
x + 2 x + 10 9 + ( x + 1) 2
2x + 3 1 ⎛ x + 1⎞
∫x 2
+ 2 x + 10
dx = In( x 2 + 2 x + 10) + tan −1 ⎜
3 ⎝ 3 ⎠
⎟+c
2 + 3x
∫ 1+ x 2
dx
2 3x
=∫ dx + ∫ dx
1+ x 2
1+ x2
1+ x 3
∫ 1 + x 2 dx = 2 tan x + 2 In(1 + x) + c
−1
27
Partial fractions
Denominator with linear factors
A linear factors has its highest power as one
Procedure
Constants are given to each factor and calculated for
Take care of the difference of two squares in case ie a − b = (a − b)(a + b)

2 2
Examples
Express the following in partial fractions

x+4 A B C
= + + , A, B & C are constants
x( x + 2)( x − 3) x x+2 x−3
x+4 A( x + 2)( x − 3) + Bx( x − 3) + Cx( x + 2)
=
x( x + 2)( x − 3) x( x + 2)( x − 3)
x+4= A( x + 2)( x − 3) + Bx( x − 3) + Cx ( x + 2)
The assumptions below are taken on the basis of ellimination
When x = −2
2 = 10 B
1
B=
5
When x = 3
7 = 15C
7
C=
15
When x = 0
4 = −6 A
2
A=−
3
x+4 1 7 2
Hence = + −
x( x + 2)( x − 3) 5( x + 2) 15( x − 3 3x
28
2 2
= , these are linear factors now hence
( x − 4) ( x + 2)( x − 2)
2
2 A B
= +
( x + 2)( x − 2) x + 2 x − 2
2 A( x − 2) + B ( x + 2)
=
( x + 2)( x − 2) ( x + 2)( x − 2)
2 = A( x − 2) + B( x + 2)
When x = −2
2 = −4 A
1
A=−
2
When x = 2
2 = 4B
1
B=
2
2 2 1 1
Hence 2 = = −
( x − 4) ( x + 2)( x −) 2( x − 2) 2( x + 2
x −1
3x − 11x + 10
2
Factorising the denominator

x −1 x −1
= , hence linear factors
3 x − 11x + 10 (3x − 5)( x − 2)
2
x −1 A B
= +
3 x − 11x + 10 3x − 5 x − 2
2
A( x − 2) + B(3 x − 5)
=
(3x − 5)( x − 2)
x − 1 = A( x − 2) + B(3 x − 5)
When x = 2
1= B
We can also consider coefficients to avoid fractions ie,
Coeff of x
1 = A + 3B
1= A+3
A = −2
x −1 x −1 1 2
Hence = = −
3 x − 11x + 10 (3x − 5)( x − 2) x − 2 (3 x − 5
2
29
x−9
∫ x( x − 1)( x + 3)dx
x−9 A B C
= + +
x( x − 1)( x + 3) x x − 1 x + 3
A( x − 1)( x + 3) + Bx( x + 3) + Cx( x − 1)
=
x( x − 1)( x + 3)
x − 9 = A( x − 1)( x + 3) + Bx( x + 3) + Cx( x − 1)
When x = 1
− 8 = 4B
B = −2
When x = −3
− 12 = 12C
C = −1
We can also consider coefficients to avoid fractions ie,
Coeff of x 2
0 = A+ B +C
0 = A − 2 −1
A=3
x−9 3 2 1
Hence∫ dx = ∫ dx − ∫ dx − ∫ dx
x( x − 1)( x + 3) x x −1 x+3
= 3Inx − 2 In( x − 1) − In( x + 3) + Inc
x−9 ⎛ x 3c ⎞
∫ x( x − 1)( x + 3) dx = In⎜
⎜ ( x − 1) 2 ( x + 3) ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
30
ex
∫ (9 − e2 x )
Let t = e x
dt
= ex = t
dx
t 1
=∫ ⋅ dt
9−t t 2
1
=∫ dt
9 − t2
1 1
=
9−t 2
(3 + t )(3 − t )
1 A B
= +
(3 + t )(3 − t ) 3 + t 3 − t
A(3 − t ) + B(3 + t )
=
(3 + t )(3 − t )
1 = A(3 − t ) + B(3 + t )
When t = 3
1 = 6B
1
B=
6
When t = −3
1 = 6A
1
A=
6
1 1 1
Hence = +
(3 + t )(3 − t ) 6(3 + t ) 6(3 − t )
1 1 1
∫ 9 − t 2 dt = ∫ 6(3 + t )dt + ∫ 6(3 − t )dt
1 1
= [In(3 + t )] + [In(3 − t )] + c
6 6
1
= In(3 + t )(3 − t ) + Ink
6
1
= In(9 − t 2 ) + Ink
6
1
= In(9 − t 2 ) 6 k
ex 1
∴∫ = In(9 − e 2 x ) 6 k
(9 − e )
2x
31
3
2 x 2 − x + 14
∫1 (4 x 2 − 1)( x + 3)dx
2 x 2 − x + 14 2 x 2 − x + 14
=
(4 x 2 − 1)( x + 3) (2 x − 1)(2 x + 1)( x + 3)
2 x 2 − x + 14 A B C
= + +
(2 x − 1)(2 x + 1)( x + 3) (2 x − 1) (2 x + 1) x + 3
2 x 2 − x + 14 = A(2 x + 1)( x + 3) + B(2 x − 1)( x + 3) + C (4 x 2 − 1)
When x = 1 When x = − 1 When x = −3
2 2
14 = 7 A 15 = -5B 35 = 35C
A=2 B = -3 C =1
3 3 3 3
2 x 2 − x + 14 2 3 1
∫1 (4 x 2 − 1)( x + 3)dx = ∫1 (2 x − 1) dx − ∫1 (2 x + 1) dx + ∫1 x + 3dx
3
⎡ 3 ⎤
= ⎢ In(2 x − 1) − In(2 x + 1) + In( x + 3)⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦1
⎡ 3 ⎤ ⎡ 3 ⎤
= ⎢ In5 − In7 + In6⎥ − ⎢ In1 − In3 + In4⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
= -0.0607 (3dp )
3
1 + x2
∫1 x 3 + 4 x 2 + 3x dx
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
= =
x 3 + 4 x 2 + 3x x( x 2 + 4 x + 3) x( x + 3)( x + 1)
1 + x2 A B C
= + +
x( x + 3)( x + 1) x x + 3 x + 1
1 + x 2 = A( x + 3)( x + 1) + Bx( x + 1) + Cx ( x + 3)
When x = −1 When x = −3 When x=0
2 = −2C 10 = 6B 1 = 3A
5 1
C = −1 B= A=
3 3
3 3 3 3
1 + x2 1 1 5 1 1
∫1 x 3 + 4 x 2 + 3x dx = 3 ∫1 x dx + 3 ∫1 x + 3dx − ∫1 x + 1
3
⎡1 5 ⎤
= ⎢ Inx + In( x + 3) − In( x + 1)⎥
⎣3 3 ⎦1
⎡1 5 1 ⎤ ⎡1 5 1 ⎤
= ⎢ In3 + In6 − In4⎥ − ⎢ In1 + In4 − In2⎥
⎣3 3 3 ⎦ ⎣3 3 3 ⎦
= 0.3489(4dp ) 32
Denominator with repeated factors
A repeated factor has a power more than one eg (2+x)2
Procedure
The factors are listed in ascending order with respect to the powers eg (2+x)3 = (2+x), (2+x)2, (2+x)3
Each factor is allocated a constant
Examples 3
2x 2 − 1
∫2 ( x + 2)( x − 1) 2 dx
x + 2, is a linear factor & ( x − 1) 2 is a repeated factor
2x 2 − 1 A B C
= + +
( x + 2)( x − 1) 2
x + 2 x − 1 ( x − 1) 2
A( x − 1) 2 + B ( x − 1) + C ( x + 2)
=
( x + 2)( x − 1) 2
2 x 2 − 1 = A( x − 1) 2 + B ( x − 1) + C ( x + 2)
When x = 1
1 = 3C
1
C=
3
We can also form smult. eqns
When x = −2
7 = 9 A − 3B...................................................... *
When x = 0
− 1 = A − B + 2C
2
−1= A − B +
3
− 3 = 3 A − 3B........................................................ * *
eqn. * −eqn * *
10 = 6 A
5
A=
3
8
From * B =
3
33
3 3 3 3
2x2 −1 5 8 1
∫2 ( x + 2)( x − 1) 2 dx = ∫2 3( x + 2) dx + ∫2 3( x − 1) dx + ∫2 3( x − 1) 2 dx
3
⎡5 8 1 ⎤
= ⎢ In( x + 2) + In( x − 1) −
⎣3 3 3( x − 1) ⎥⎦ 2
3
⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎢ In ⎡( x + 2) 3 ( x − 1) 3 ⎤ −
5 8
⎣ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ 3( x − 1) ⎥⎦
2
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ ⎡ 3⎤
1 ⎤
= ⎢ In ⎡(3 + 2) 3 (3 − 1) 3 ⎤ −
5 8 5 8
− ⎢ In ( 2 + 2 ) 3
( 2 − 1) −
⎣ ⎣ ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
⎦ 3(3 − 1) ⎦ ⎣ ⎣ ⎢ ⎦ 3(2 − 1) ⎥⎦
⎥
= 5.395 (3dp)
34
7
x2 − 4
∫6 ( x − 5)( x + 1)2 dx
x2 − 4 A B C
= + +
( x − 5)( x + 1) 2
x − 5 x + 1 ( x + 1) 2
A( x + 1) 2 + B( x + 1)( x − 5) + C ( x − 5)
=
( x + 2)( x + 1) 2
x 2 − 4 = A( x + 1) 2 + B( x + 1)( x − 5) + C ( x − 5)
When x = −1
− 3 = −6C
1
C=
2
When x = 5
21 = 36 A
7
A=
12
When x = 0
− 4 = A − 5 B − 5C
7 5
−4 = − 5B −
12 2
5
B=
12
7 7 7 7
x −4
2
7 1 5 1 1 1
∫6 ( x − 5)( x + 1)2 dx = 12 ∫6 ( x − 5) dx + 12 ∫6 ( x + 1) dx + 2 ∫6 ( x + 1)2 dx
7
⎡7 5 1 ⎤
= ⎢ In( x − 5) + In( x + 1) − ⎥
⎣12 12 2( x + 1) ⎦ 6
7
⎡1
[
= ⎢ In ( x − 5) 7 ( x + 1)5 − ] 1 ⎤
⎥
2( x + 1) ⎦ 6
⎣12
⎡1
[
= ⎢ In (7 − 5)7 (7 + 1)5 − ]
1 ⎤ ⎡1
[
⎥ − ⎢ In (6 − 5) (6 + 1) −
2(7 + 1) ⎦ ⎣12
7 5
] 1 ⎤
⎥
2(6 + 1) ⎦
⎣12
= 0.469 (3dp)
35
5x + 2
∫ ( x − 2) ( x + 1) dx
2
5x + 2 A B C
∫ ( x − 2) ( x + 1) dx = x − 2 + ( x − 2)
2 2
+
( x + 1)
A( x + 1)( x − 2) + B ( x + 1) + C ( x − 2) 2
=
( x + 1)( x − 2) 2
5 x + 2 = A( x + 1)( x − 2) + B ( x + 1) + C ( x − 2) 2
When x = −1
− 3 = 9C
1
C=−
3
When x = 2
12 = 3B
B=4
When x = 0
2 = −2 A + B + 4C
4
2 = −2 A + 4 −
3
1
A=
3
1 4 1
=∫ dx + ∫ dx + ∫ dx
3( x − 2) ( x − 2) 2
3( x + 1)
1 1 4
= In( x − 2) − In( x + 1) − +C
3 3 ( x − 2)
1 ⎛ x −2⎞ 4
= In⎜ ⎟− + Ink
3 ⎝ x + 1 ⎠ ( x − 2)
1
⎛ x −2⎞ 3 4
= In⎜ ⎟ k−
⎝ x +1 ⎠ ( x − 2)
36
6x
∫ ( x − 2)( x + 4) 2
dx
6x A B C
∫ ( x − 2)( x + 4) 2
dx = + +
x − 2 ( x + 4) ( x + 4) 2
6 x = A( x + 4) 2 + B( x + 4)( x − 2) + C ( x − 2)
When x = −4
− 24 = −6C
C=4
When x = 2
12 = 36 A
1
A=
3
When x = 0
0 = 16 A − 8B − 2C
16
8 = − 8B
3
1
B=−
3
1 1 1 1 1
= ∫
3 ( x − 2)
dx − ∫
3 ( x + 4)
dx + 4∫
( x + 4) 2
dx
1 1 4
= In( x − 2) − In( x + 4) − +C
3 3 ( x + 4)
1 ⎡ x−2 ⎤ 4
= In ⎢ ⎥ − + Ink
3 ⎣ ( x + 4 ) ⎦ ( x − 2)
1
⎡ x+4 ⎤ 3
4
= Ink ⎢ ⎥ −
⎣ (x − 2)⎦ ( x + 4)
37
Denominator with a quadratic factor
A quadratic factor is one whose variable say x is to an index or power greater than one
A quadratic factor is given two constants, one with a variable as seen below in the examples.
Examples
37
∫ (4 x − 12)(4 x 2
+ 1)
dx
4 x 2 + 1, is a quadratic factor. Hence

37 A Bx + C
= +
(4 x − 12)(4 x + 1) 4 x − 12 (4 x 2 + 1)
2
37 = A(4 x 2 + 1) + ( Bx + C )(4 x − 12)

When x = 3 Coef x 2 Coef x 0
37 = 37 A 0 = 4 A + 4B 37 = A − 12C
A =1 B = −1 C = −3
1 x+3
=∫ dx − ∫ dx
4( x − 3) (4 x 2 + 1)
Spliting the numerator
1 1 x 3
= ∫
4 ( x − 3)
dx − ∫
(4 x + 1)
2
dx − ∫ 2 dx
4x + 1
I II III
1
I= In(x − 3)
4
For II Let t = 4 x 2 + 1
dt
= 8x
dx
x dt
II = ∫ ⋅
t 8x
1 1
II = Int = In(4 x 2 + 1)
8 8
For III, 4 x + 1 = 1 + tan θ
2 2
2dx = sec2 θ dθ
3 sec2 θ
III = ∫ ⋅ dθ
1 + tan 2 θ 2
3 3
III = θ = tan −1 2 x
2 2
1 1 3
= In( 4 x − 12) − In(4 x 2 + 1) − tan −1 2 x + Ink
4 8 2
37 1 ⎛ x−3 ⎞ 3
Hence∫ dx = In⎜⎜ ⎟k − tan −1 2 x
⎟
38
(4 x − 12)(4 x + 1)
2
4 ⎝ 4x + 1 ⎠
Alex .G. Muheesi +256779291752, muheesia@gmail.com 2 2
x2
∫ 1 − x 4 dx
x2 x2 x2
= =
1 − x 4 (1 − x 2 )(1 + x 2 ) (1 − x)(1 + x)(1 + x 2 )
x2 A B Cx + D
= + +
(1 − x)(1 + x)(1 + x ) 1 − x x + 1 1 + x 2
2
A( x + 1)(1 + x 2 ) + B (1 − x)(1 + x 2 ) + (Cx + D)(1 − x 2 )

=
(1 − x)(1 + x)(1 + x 2 )
x 2 = A( x + 1)(1 + x 2 ) + B(1 − x)(1 + x 2 ) + (Cx + D)(1 − x 2 )
When x = 1 When x = −1 when x = 0 Coef of x
1 = 4A 1 = 4B 0 = A+ B+ D 0 = A-B+C
1 1 1
A= B= D=− C=0
4 4 2
x2 1 1 1 1 1 1
∫ 1 − x 4 dx = 4 ∫ 1 − x dx − 4 ∫ x + 1 dx + 2 ∫ x 2 + 1dx
1 1 1
− In(1 − x) − In(1 + x) + tan −1 x + Ink
4 4 2
1 1
= − In(1 − x)(1 + x)k + tan −1 x
4 2
2
x 1 1
Henc ∫ dx = tan −1 x − In(1 − x 2 )k
1− x 4
2 4
39
1
x2 + 6 π
Show that ∫ 2 dx =
0
( x + 4)( x + 9)
2
20
x2 + 6 Ax + B Cx + D
= 2 +
( x + 4)( x + 9) x + 4 9 + x 2
2 2
x 2 + 6 = ( Ax + B )(9 + x 2 ) + (Cx + D )(4 + x 2 )

Coef x 0 ; 6 = 9 B + 4 D................................... *
Coef x ;2
1 = B + D..................................... * *
* −4 * *
2 = 5B
2
B=
5
3
D=
5
Coef x; 0 = 9 A + 4C.................................. * * *
Coef x 3 ; 0 = A + C...................................... * * * *
* * * −4 * * * *
0 = 5A
A=0
C=0
1 1 1
x2 + 6 2 1 3 1
∫0 ( x 2 + 4)( x 2 + 9)dx = 5 ∫0 x 2 + 4dx + 5 ∫0 9 + x 2 dx
( ) ( )
1
⎡1 1 ⎤
= ⎢ tan −1 x + tan −1 x ⎥ from tan substitution
⎣5 2 5 3 ⎦0
1
5
( ( ) 2 3
1
5
( )) ( ( )
= tan −1 1 + tan −1 1 − tan −1 0 + tan −1 0
2 3
( ))
1
x2 + 6 π
Hence∫ dx =
0
( x + 4)( x + 9)
2 2
20
40
3
3 + 3x
∫x
2
3
− 1
dx
3 + 3x 3 + 3x
=
x − 1 ( x − 1)( x 2 + x + 1)
3
3 + 3x A Bx + C
= + 2
( x − 1)( x + x + 1) x − 1 x + x + 1
2
3 + 3x = A( x 2 + x + 1) + ( Bx + C )( x − 1)
When x = 1 Coef x 0 ; Coef x 2 ;
6 = 3A 3 = A + −C 0 = A+ B
A=2 C = −1 B = −2
3 3 3
3 + 3x 1 2x + 1
∫2 x3 − 1dx = 2∫2 x − 1 dx − ∫2 x 2 + x + 1dx
[ ]
= 2 In( x − 1) − In( x 2 + x + 1) 2
3
⎛4⎞ ⎛1⎞
= In⎜ ⎟ − In⎜ ⎟
⎝ 13 ⎠ ⎝7⎠
⎛ 28 ⎞
= In⎜ ⎟
⎝ 13 ⎠
= 0.767 (3dp )
41
Improper fractions
¾ In this the highest power of the variable in the numerator is equal or greater than that of
the denominator.(Note: The definition is for integration only )
¾ Go through long division to get both the quotient and the remainder
¾ Integrate the quotient and remainder separately.
Examples
1 x 3 − 18 x − 21
∫ ( x − 5)( x + 2 dx
x 3 − 18 x − 21 x 3 − 18 x − 21
= 2
( x − 5)( x + 2 x − 3x − 10
x+3
x − 3 x − 10 x 3 − 18 x − 21
2
x 3 − 3x 2 − 10 x
3x 2 − 8 x − 21
3x 2 − 9 x − 30
x+9
x 3 − 18 x − 21 x+9
∫ ( x − 5)( x + 2 dx = ∫ x + 3dx + ∫ ( x − 5)( x + 2dx
I II
x2
I= + 3x
2
x+9 A B
II = ∫ dx = +
( x − 5)( x + 2 x−5 x+2
x + 9 = A( x + 2) + B( x − 5)
When x = 5 When x = −2
14 = 7 A 7 = -7B
A=2 B = -1
1 1
II = 2 ∫ dx − ∫ dx
x−5 x+2
II = 2 In( x − 5) − In( x + 2) + Ink
⎡ ( x − 5)2 ⎤
II = In ⎢ ⎥k
⎣ x+2 ⎦
x 3 − 18 x − 21 x2 ⎡ ( x − 5)2 ⎤
Hence∫ dx = + 3x + In ⎢ ⎥k
( x − 5)( x + 2 2 ⎣ x+2 ⎦
42
x3 − 3
∫ ( x 2 + 1)( x − 2)dx
x3 − 3 x3 − 3
=
( x 2 + 1)( x − 2) x 3 − 2 x 2 + x − 2
1
x − 2x + x − 2 x3 − 3
3 2
x3 − 2x 2 + x − 2
2x2 − x −1
x3 − 3 2x2 − x −1
∫ ( x 2 + 1)( x − 2) ∫ ∫ ( x 2 + 1)( x − 2)dx
dx = dx +
I II
I=x
2x2 − x −1 Ax + B C
= 2 +
( x + 1)( x − 2) ( x + 1) x − 2
2
2 x 2 − x − 1 = ( Ax + B)( x − 2) + C ( x 2 + 1)
When x = 2 Coef x 0 Coef x 2
5 = 5C - 1 = −2B + C 2=A+C
C =1 B =1 A =1
2x2 − x −1 x +1 C
= 2 +
( x + 1)( x − 2) ( x + 1) x − 2
2
2x2 − x −1 x 1 1
∫ ( x 2 + 1)( x − 2)dx = ∫ ( x 2 + 1) dx + ∫ ( x 2 + 1) dx + ∫ x − 2dx
1
= In( x 2 + 1) + tan −1 x + In( x − 2) + Ink
2
1
= In( x 2 + 1) 2 ( x − 2)k + tan −1 x
x3 − 3 1
Hence∫ dx = x + In( x 2 + 1) 2 ( x − 2)k + tan −1 x
( x + 1)( x − 2)
2
43
3 4 x3
x ∫ x 2 + 1dx
∫ x + 1dx x
x + 1 x3
2
1 x3 + 1
x +1 x
−1
x +1
x3 1
−1 ∫ x 2 + 1dx = ∫ xdx − ∫ ( x 2 + 1dx
x 1
∫ x + 1dx = ∫ dx − ∫ ( x + 1dx x3 x2
∫ x2 + 1dx =
2
- tan −1 x + c
= x - In( x + 1) + Ink
x ⎛ k ⎞
Hence∫ dx = x + In⎜ ⎟
x +1 ⎝ x +1⎠
Integration By Parts
dv
These are identified in two parts ∫ u dx
dx
u → should be easier to differentiate
dv
→ should be easier to integrate
dx
where the two are interchangeable, avoid increasing powers of the variable.
dv du
∫ u dxdx = uv − ∫ v ⋅ dx dx,
Note : ∗ Before applying the formulea, ensure that you have the two parts and can not be related
to any of the above approaches.
Where you have inverse of trig functions and logs then they must take up " u "
Examples
1 ∫ x sin x dx
The two are intechangeable, so to avoid increasing powers of x,
dv
Let u = x = sin x
dx
du
=1 v = cos x
dx
dv du
from ∫ u dx = uv − ∫ v dx
dx dx
∫ x sin x dx = x cos x − ∫ cos x ⋅ 1dx
44
∫ x sin x dx = x cos x − sin x + c

∫ Inx dx
dv
Let u = Inx =1
dx
du 1
= v=x
dx x
dv du
dx dx
∫ Inx dx = 1 − ∫ dx
∫ Inx dx = 1 − x + c
∫ x tan
−1
2 3 xdx
∫ sin
−1
xdx
Let u = tan −1 x
∫ sin xdx = ∫1 × sin −1 xdx
−1
tan u = x
Let u = sin −1 x
sec 2 udu = dx
sin u = x
du 1 1 1
cos udu = dx = = =
dx sec u 1 + tan u 1 + x 2
2 2
du 1 1 1
= = = dv
dx cos u 1 − sin 2 u 1 − x2 =x
dx
dv x2
=1 v=
dx 2
v=x dv du
dv du from ∫ u dx = uv − ∫ v dx
from ∫ u dx = uv − ∫ v dx dx dx
dx dx x 2
1 x2
∫ 2 ∫ 1 + x2
−1 −1
x x tan xdx = tan x − dx
∫ sin xdx = x sin x − ∫ 1 − x 2 dx 2
−1 −1
Let t = 1 − x 2 1
t 2 = 1 − x2 1 + x x2
2
2tdt = −2 xdx 1 + x2
t −1
dx = − dt
x x2 1 1 1
∫ x tan xdx = tan −1 x − ∫ dx + ∫
−1
dx
x t 2 2 2 1 + x2
∫ sin xdx = x sin x − ∫ − t ⋅ x = dt
−1 −1
x2 1 1
= tan −1 x − x + tan −1 x + c
x sin −1 x + t + c 2 2 2
1 2 1
Hence∫ sin −1 xdx = x sin −1 x + 1 − x 2 + c ∫ x tan xdx = 2 ( x + 1) tan x − 2 x + c
−1 −1
45
3) 4)
Inx
∫ x dx ∫ xInx dx
dv
dv 1 Let u = Inx =x
Let u = Inx = dx
dx x du 1 x2
du 1 = v=
= v = Inx dx x 2
dx x dv du
dv du from ∫ u dx = uv − ∫ v dx
from ∫ u dx = uv − ∫ v dx dx dx
dx dx 2 2
x x 1
Inx Inx
∫ x dx = ( Inx) − ∫ x dx
2 ∫ xInx dx = 2 Inx − ∫ 2 ⋅ x dx
x2 x3
2∫
Inx
dx = ( Inx) 2 ∫ xInx dx =
2
Inx −
6
+c
x
Inx 1
∫ x dx = 2 ( Inx) + c
2
5) 6)
∫x e
5 x3
dx
∫ x sin xdx
2
Let u = x Let t = x3
du dv dt
=1 = sin 2 x = 3x 2
dx dx dx
dt
∫x e dx = ∫ x3 ⋅ x 2 ⋅ et .
5 x3
1 − cos 2 x 3x 2
v= ∫ dx 1
x 1
2 =
3 ∫ t et dt
v = − sin 2 x dv
2 4 Let u = t = et
dv du dt
from ∫ u dx = uv − ∫ v dx du
dx dx =1 v = et
⎛x 1 ⎞ x 1 dt
∫ x sin xdx = x⎜⎝ 2 − 4 sin 2 x ⎟⎠ − ∫ 2 − 4 sin 2 xdx
2
dv du
dx dx
x2 x x2 1
2 4
=
− sin 2 x − − cos 2 x + c
4 8
1 t
(
∫ x e dx = 3 t e − ∫ e dt
5 x3 t
)
2
x x 1
Hence∫ x sin 2 xdx = − sin 2 x − cos 2 x + c 1 t
∫ x e dx = 3 (t e − e ) + c
5 x3 t
4 4 8
1
= et (t − 1) + c
3
∫ Inx
2
7) dx
1 3
Hence∫ x 5e x dx = e x ( x 3 − 1) + c
3
dv 3
Let u = Inx 2 =1
dx
du 2
= v=x
dx x
2
∫ Inx dx = xInx 2 − ∫ x ⋅ dx
2
x
= xInx − x + c
2 46
∫ Inx dx = xInx 2 = x ( Inx 2 − 1) + c
2
8) 9)
∫ x sec
2
xdx
∫e
2x
Let u = x sin 3 xdx
du dv dv
=1 = sec 2 x Let u = e 2 x = sin 3 x
dx dx dt
v = tan x du 1
= 2e 2 x v = − cos 3 x
dv du dt 3
dx dx dv du
dx dx
∫ x sec xdx = x tan x − ∫ tan x
2
1 2
sin x = − e 2 x cos x + ∫ e 2 x cos 3 x
= x tan x − ∫ dx 3 3
cos x dv
Let t = cos x Let = cos 3 x
dx
dt 1
= − sin x v = sin 3 x
dx 3
sin x dt
= x tan x − ∫ ⋅ 1 2 ⎡1 2 ⎤
t − sin x = − e 2 x cos x + ⎢ e 2 x sin 3 x − ∫ e 2 x sin 3 x ⎥
3 3 ⎣3 3 ⎦
x tan x + Int + c
4 2x 1 2x 2 2x
∫ e sin 3xdx + 9 ∫ e sin 3x = − 3 e cos x + 9 e sin 3x + c
2x
Hence∫ x sec 2 xdx = x tan x + In(cos x) + c
13 2 x 1 2
9 ∫ e sin 3 xdx = − e 2 x cos x + e 2 x sin 3 x
3 9
1
( )
∫ e sin 3xdx = 13 2e sin 3x − 3e cos x + c
2x 2x 2x
47
(
The t – substitution t = tan x
2
)
o In order to apply this, the fraction of the integrand must have some trigonometrical
functions in the denominator
o Break down the function(s) using double angle formulae
o Divide both the numerator and denominator by cos2 of the current angle
o Substitute for tan of the current angle
o If the function is already squared then just divide both the numerator and denominator by
cos2 of the current angle
Examples (i) ∫ sec xdx (ii)

∫ cos ecxdx
1 1
= ∫ cos x dx = ∫ sin x dx
1 1
= ∫ cos x − sin 2 x
2
dx = ∫ 2 cos x dx
2 2 sin x
2 2
1 1
cos 2 x cos 2 x
=∫ 2 dx 2
cos 2 x
2−
sin 2 x
2
= ∫ 2 cos x sin x
dx
2 2
cos 2 x cos 2 x cos 2 x
2 2 2
2 x
sec sec 2 x
=∫ 2 dx 2 dx
2 x =∫
1 − tan 2 tan x
2 2
Let t = tan x Let t = tan x
2 2
dt 1 dt 1
= sec 2 x = sec 2 x
dx 2 2 2
dx 2
sec 2 x sec 2 x
=∫ 2 ⋅ 2 dt 2 ⋅ 2 dt
=∫
1− t sec 2 x
2
2 2t sec 2 x
2
1 1 1
= 2∫ dt = 2 ∫ dt = ∫ dt
1− t 2
(1 + t )(1 − t ) t
1 A B = Int + Ink
= +
(1 + t )(1 − t ) 1 + t 1 − t = Intk
1 = A(1 + t ) + B (1 − t )
When t = 1 When t = −1
∫ cos ecxdx = Ink tan x 2
1 1
A= B=
2 2
1 1 1
2∫ dt = ∫ dt + ∫ dt
(1 + t )(1 − t ) 1+ t 1− t
= In (1 + t ) − In (1 − t ) + Ink
⎛1+ t ⎞
= In ⎜ ⎟k
⎝1− t ⎠ 48
⎛ 1 + tan x ⎞
⎜ ⎟
∫ sec xdx = In⎜ 1 − tan x 2 ⎟k
⎝ 2⎠
1 1
(iii) ∫ 4 + 5 cos x dx (iv) ∫ 1 + 2 sin x
dx
2
1 1
=∫
(
4 + 5 cos 2 x
2
− sin 2 x
2
) dx
=∫
1
cos 2 x
sin 2 x
dx
1 +2
cos 2 x cos 2 x
cos 2 x sec 2 x
=∫ 2 dx =∫ dx
4 ⎛ cos 2 x sin 2 x ⎞ sec 2 x + 2 tan 2 x
+ 5⎜ 2− 2⎟
sec 2 x
cos 2 x ⎜ cos 2 x cos 2 x ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 2⎠ =∫ dx
(1 + tan 2 x ) + 2 tan 2 x
2 x
sec sec 2 x
=∫ 2
4 sec 2 x
+ 5 − 5 tan 2 x
dx = ∫ 1 + 3 tan 2 x dx
2 2
Let t = tan x
sec 2 x
=∫ 2 dx dt 1
4(1 + tan 2 x
) + 5 − 5 tan 2 x = sec 2 x
2 2 dx 2
2 x
sec sec 2 x dt
=∫ 2 dx =∫ ⋅
9 − tan 2 x 1 + 3t sec 2 x
2
2 1
=∫ dt
Let t = tan x 1 + 3t 2
2
dt 1
= sec 2 x
2
=
1
3
tan −1 t 3 ( )
dx 2
=∫
sec 2 x
2 ⋅ 2 dt Hence ∫
1
1 + 2 sin x
2
dx =
1
3
( 2
)
tan −1 3 tan x + c
9−t sec 2 x
2
2
1 1
= 2∫ dt = 2 ∫ dt
9−t 2
(3 + t )(3 − t )
1 A B
= +
(3 + t )(3 − t ) 3 + t 3 − t
1 = A(3 + t ) + B (3 − t )
When t = 3 When t = −3
1 1
A= B=
6 6
1 1 1 1 1
2∫ dt = ∫ dt + ∫ dt
(3 + t )(3 − t ) 3 3+t 3 3−t
1
= [In (3 + t ) − In (3 − t ) ] + c
3
1 ⎛⎜ 3 + tan 2 ⎞⎟
x
1
∫ 4 + 5 cos x dx = In
3 ⎜ 3 − tan x ⎟
+c
⎝ 2⎠
49
2 tan x
(v) 1
∫ cos 2 x − 3 sin 2 x dx
(vi) ∫ cos 2 x dx
2 tan x
=∫
1
dx =∫ dx
1 − 2 sin x − 3 sin 2 x
2 1 − 2 sin 2 x
1 1
tan x
∫ 1 − 5 sin 2 x dx = 2∫ cos 2 x dx
1 sin 2 x
1 − 2
cos 2 x cos 2 x
=∫ cos 2 x dx
1 sin 2 x tan x sec 2 x
−5 = 2∫ dx
cos 2 x cos 2 x sec 2 x − 2 tan 2 x
sec 2 x tan x sec 2 x
=∫ dx = 2∫ dx
sec 2 x − 5 tan 2 x (1 + tan 2 x) − 2 tan 2 x
sec 2 x tan x sec 2 x
=∫ dx = 2∫ dx
(1 + tan 2 x) − 5 tan 2 x 1 − tan 2 x
sec 2 x Let t = tan x
=∫ dx dt
1 − 4 tan 2 x = sec 2 x
Let t = tan x dx
t sec 2 x dt
dt
= sec 2 x = 2∫ ⋅
dx 1− t 2
sec 2 x
t
=∫
sec 2 x
⋅
dt = 2∫ dt
1 − 4t sec 2 x
2 1− t2
1 t A B
=∫ dt = +
1− t 2
1+ t 1− t
1 − 4t 2
1 A B t = A(1 − t ) + B(1 + t )
= + When t = 1 When t = −1
1 − 4t 2
1 + 2t 1 − 2t
1 = A(1 − 2t ) + B(1 + 2t ) 1 1
B= A=−
1 1 2 2
When t = When t = − t 1 1
2 2 2∫ dt = ∫ dt − ∫ dt
1 1 1− t 2
1+ t 1− t
B= A= = In(1 + t ) + In(1 − t ) + c
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 = In(1 + t )(1 − t ) + c
∫ 1 − 4t 2 dt = 2 ∫ 1 + 2t dt + 2 ∫ 1 − 2t dt = In(1 − t 2 ) + c
1 1 2 tan x
= In(1 + 2t ) − In(1 − 2t ) + c Hence∫ dx = In(1 − tan 2 x) + c
4 4 cos 2 x
1 ⎛ 1 + 2t ⎞
= In⎜ ⎟+c
4 ⎝ 1 − 2t ⎠
1 1 ⎛ 1 + 2 tan x ⎞
Hence∫ dx = In⎜ ⎟+c
cos 2 x − 3 sin x
2
4 ⎝ 1 − 2 tan x ⎠
50
x
(vii)
∫ x4 − x2
dx

x
=∫ dx
x x2 −1
1
=∫ dx
x2 −1
By comparison
x 2 − 1 = sec 2 θ − 1
x = sec θ

dx
= sec θ tan θ
dθ
1
=∫ sec θ tan θdθ
tan 2 θ
= ∫ sec θ dθ
1
=∫ dθ
cos θ
1
=∫ dθ
cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ
2 2
Dividing both the numerator and denominator by cos 2 θ
2
sec θ 2
=∫ 2 dθ
1 − tan θ 2
2
Let t = tan θ
2
dt 1
= sec 2 θ
dθ 2 2
sec 2 θ 2
=∫ 2⋅ dt
1− t sec 2 θ
2
2
dt 1
= 2∫ = 2∫ dt
1− t 2
(1 + t )(1 − t )
1 A B
= +
(1 + t )(1 − t ) 1 + t 1 − t

1 = A(1 − t ) + B (1 + t )

when t = 1, B = 1 when t = −1, A = 1
2 2
1 1 1
2∫ dt = ∫ dt + ∫ dt
(1 + t )(1 − t ) 1− t 1+ t
⎛1 + t ⎞
= − In(1 − t ) + In(1 + t ) + c = In⎜ ⎟+c
⎝1 − t ⎠
51
⎛ 1 + tan θ ⎞
x ⎜ 2⎟
∫ x 4 − x 2 dx = In⎜⎜ 1 − tan θ ⎟⎟k
⎝ 2⎠
λcosx + ωsinx
The form ∫ δcosx + ρsinx dx
These are integrated using the approach
(derivativeofdeno min ator
A∫ dx + B ∫ dx
deno min ator
A & B are constants which can be got from
Numerator = A(derivative) + B(deno min ator )

Note:
This approach is only applicable when both the numerator and denominator have variables.
Examples
2 cos x + 9 sin x
∫3 cos x + sin x
dx
2 cos x + 9 sin x = A(cos x − 3 sin x) + B(3 cos x + sin x)
When x = 45 0
11 = −2 A + 4 B..................................(i )

When x = 0 0
2 = A + 3B........................................(ii )
(i ) + 2(ii )
15 = 10 B

3 5
B= , A=−
2 2
2 cos x + 9 sin x 5 cos x − 3 sin x 3 3 cos x + sin x
∫ 3 cos x + sin x dx = − 2 ∫ 3 cos x + sin x dx + 2 ∫ 3 cos x + sin x dx
2 cos x + 9 sin x 5 3
Hence∫ dx = − In(3 cos x + sin x) + x + c
3 cos x + sin x 2 2

sin x
∫ cos x + sin xdx

sin x = A(cos x − sin x) + B(cos x + sin x)
When x = 45 0 When x = −45 0
1 1
B= A=−
2 2
sin x 1 cos x − sin x 1 cos x + sin x
∫ cos x + sin xdx = 2 ∫ cos x + sin x dx + 2 ∫ cos x + sin x dx

1 1
= − In(cos x + sin x) + x + c
2 2
sin x 1 1 52
Hence∫ dx = x − In(cos x + sin x) + c
cos x + sin x 2 2
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
dy d 2 y
These are equations which contain derivatives such as , , etc
dx dx 2
Separating the variable (first order differential equations)
These are referred to as first order because the contain only the first derivative
• If the variables are say x and y, the it means arranging x with dx and y with dy.
• Each side is then integrated separately according to the respective command
Examples
Solve the differential equations

dy 3 y dy
= ii ) e − x = y2 −1 dy x
i ) dx iii ) ( x 2 + 1) =
dx x dx y
xdy = 3 ydx 1
dy = e − x dx x
Dividing through by xy y 2
− 1 ydy = dx
1 ( x + 1)
2
1 3 dy = e − x dx
dy = dx ( y − 1)( y + 1) x
y x
1 A B
∫ ydy = ∫ ( x 2 + 1)
dx
1 3 = +
∫y ∫xdy = dx ( y − 1)( y + 1) ( y − 1) ( y + 1) y2 x
=∫ dx
1 = A( y + 1) + B( y − 1) 2 ( x + 1)
2
Iny = 3Inx + c
When y = 1 When y = −1
Iny − Inx = c
3
Let t = ( x 2 + 1)
1 1
⎛ y ⎞ A= B=− t 2 = x2 +1
In⎜ 3 ⎟ = c 2 2
⎝x ⎠ 1 A 1 1 2tdt = 2 xdx
y
=e c ∫
2 ( y − 1)
dy − ∫
2 ( y + 1)
dy = ∫ e − x dx
t
x3 dx = dt
1 1 x

y = x 3e c In( y − 1) − In( y + 1) = −e − x + c
2 2 y2 x t
= ∫ ⋅ dt
1 ⎛ y − 1⎞ 2 t x
In⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = −e − x + c 2
2 ⎝ y + 1⎠ y
=t +c
1 2
⎛ y − 1⎞ 2
In⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = −e − x + c y 2 = 2 ( x 2 + 1) + c
⎝ y + 1⎠

53

dy ⎛ dy ⎞
iv) x − 4 = 3⎜ y + ⎟ dy ⎛ dy ⎞
v) x − 4 = 3⎜ y + ⎟
dx ⎝ dx ⎠ dx ⎝ dx ⎠
dy dy dy dy
x − 4 = 3y + 3 x − 4 = 3y + 3
dx dx dx dx
dy dy dy dy
x − 3 = 3y + 4 x − 3 = 3y + 4
dx dx dx dx
dy dy
( x − 3) = 3y + 4 ( x − 3) = 3y + 4
dx dx

1 1 1 1
dy = dx dy = dx
3y + 4 x−3 3y + 4 x−3
1 1
In(3 y + 4) = In( x − 3) + c In(3 y + 4) = In( x − 3) + Ink
3 3
⎛ (3 y + 4) 13 ⎞ ⎛ (3 y + 4) 13 ⎞
In⎜ ⎟=c In⎜ ⎟=0
⎜ ( x − 3) ⎟ ⎜ ( x − 3)k ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ (3 y + 4) 13 ⎞ ⎛ (3 y + 4) 3 ⎞
1
⎜ ⎟ = ec ⎜ ⎟ = e0
⎜ ( x − 3) ⎟ ⎜ ( x − 3)k ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 1
(3 y + 4) = ( x − 3)e c (3 y + 4) = ( x − 3)k
3 3
Alternatively
dy π
(vi) (1 + cos 4 x) = 3, when y = 2 and x =
dy ⎛ dy ⎞ dx 4
x − 4 = 3⎜ y + ⎟
dx ⎝ dx ⎠ dy 3
=
dy dy dx (1 + cos 4 x)
x − 4 = 3y + 3
dx dx 3
dy = dx
dy dy (1 + cos 4 x)
x − 3 = 3y + 4
dx dx 3
dy ∫ dy = ∫ (1 + cos 4 x) dx
( x − 3) = 3y + 4
dx 3

1
dy =
1
dx
∫ dy = ∫ (1 + 2 cos 2 2 x − 1) dx
3y + 4 x−3
3
1 y=∫ dx
In(3 y + 4) = In( x − 3) + Ink 2 cos 2 2 x
3 3
⎛ (3 y + 4) 13 ⎞ y = ∫ sec 2 2 x dx
2
In⎜ ⎟=0
⎜
⎝ ( x − 3)k ⎠
⎟ 3
y = tan 2 x + c
2
⎛⎜ (3 y + 4) 3 ⎞⎟
1
π
= e0 when y = 2 and x =
⎜ ( x − 3)k ⎟ 4
⎝ ⎠
3 ⎛ 2π ⎞
1
2 = tan⎜ ⎟ + c
(3 y + 4) = ( x − 3)k
3
2 ⎝ 4 ⎠
c=2 54
3
∴y = tan 2 x + 2
2

dy
1 dy (viii ) = 3 cos 2 2 x, when y = 2 and x = 0
(vii) = sin x sec 2 4 y, dx
x dx
dy = 3 cos 2 2 x dx
dy
= x sin xdx

∫ dy = 3∫ cos
2
sec 2 4 y, 2 xdx
cos 2 4 y dy = x sin x dx 3
2∫
y= 1 + cos 4 x dx
∫ cos 4 y dy = ∫ x sin x dx
2

3⎡ 1 ⎤
I II y = ⎢ x + sin 4 x ⎥ + c
2⎣ 4 ⎦
1
∫ cos 4 y dy =
2∫
1 + cos 8 y dy when y = 2 and x = 0
2

2=c
1 1
I = y + sin 8 y 3 3
2 16 y= x + sin 4 x + 2
2 8
II = ∫ x sin x dx
dv
Let u = x, = sin x dy
dx (ix) (3 + x 2 ) − cos 2 3 y = 0
du dx
= 1, v = − cos x dy
dx (3 + x 2 ) = cos 2 3 y
dx
II = − x cos x − ∫ − cos x dx
1
II = − x cos x + sin x + c sec 2 3 y dy = dx
3 + x2
1 1 1
y+ sin 8 y = − x cos x + sin x + c
∫ sec 3 y dy = ∫ 3 + x 2 dx
2
2 16

1 3 ⎛ x ⎞
tan 3 y = tan −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + c
3 3 ⎝ 3⎠

dy 1 + x 2
( x) xy =
dx 1 + y

dy 1 + x 2
y (1 + y ) =
dx x
1
y (1 + y )dy = + x dx
x
1

∫ y(1 + y)dy =∫ x + x dx
y2 y3 x2
+ = Inx + +c
2 3 2

55

First order (exact) differential equations
• In these equations the, the variables can not be separated

• What was differentiated can be traced and identified
• Integrate each side with respect to x or any given variable representing x
Examples
Solve the following equations
x 2 dy
+ 2 xIny = 3 cos x
dy y dx
x
2
+ 2 xy = 1 d 2
dx ( x Iny ) = 3 cos x
dx
From the product rule, d ( x 2 y ) = x 2 dy + 2 xy
d 2
This implies that
dx dx
∫ dx ( x Iny

) = 3∫ cos xdx
d ( x 2 y) = 1
dx
d 2
∫ dx ( x y)dx = ∫ dx

dx cancels with the integral comand on the L.H.S

( x 2 y ) = ∫ dx
( x 2 y) = x + c

NOTE
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INTEGRATION II. Muheesi Alex

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INTEGRATION II. Muheesi Alex

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INTEGRATION-II

9 Recognizing a function and its derivative

9 Odd powers of sinx, cosx, etc

9 Even powers of sinx, cosx

9 Changing the variable

9 Natural logarithms (Inx)

9 Splitting the numerator

• Denominator with only linear factors,

9 The t-substitution ( t = tan x )

x 2 is the derivative and 1 − x3 is the function

2tdt = 2 xdx = ⎢ ⎥+c

∫ cos(3x + 2)dx = ∫ cos t ⋅ 3

9 Rename the broad expression together with its powers

∫ 3x 4 x − 1dx Alternatively ∫ 3x 4 x − 1dx

Let t = cos x Let t = 3 x-4

• Split the function to create one and an even number as powers

• Expand the expression to generate functions and derivatives

= ∫ cos x cos 4 x dx = ∫ cos x cos x dx

= ∫ cos x(cos 2 x) 2 dx cos 2 x = 1 − sin 2 x

cos 2 x = 1 − sin 2 x = ∫ cos x (1 − sin 2 x)dx

= ∫ cos x (1 − sin 2 x) 2 dx = ∫ cos xdx − ∫ cos x sin 2 xdx

= ∫ cos x (1 − 2 sin 2 x + sin 4 x) Let t = sin x

∫ tan x sec xdx

= ∫ tan x tan x sec xdx

∫ tan x sec x(sec x − 1) dx

∫ tan x sec x(sec x − 2 sec x + 1)dx

∫ tan x sec xdx − 2∫ tan x sec xdx + ∫ tan x secxdx

= ∫ sec x sec xdx

∫ sec x (1 + tan x)dx

= ∫ sec x + ∫ sec x tan

∫ sin (4 x + 7)dx = ∫ [sin (4 x + 7)] dx

• The numerator is not a variable but constant like 1, 2, 3 etc

From cos 2θ + sinθ 2 = 1

But cosθ = 1 − sin 2 θ

But cosθ = 1 − sin 2 θ

But 1 + tan 2 α = sec 2 α

But 1 + tan 2 α = sec 2 α

Note: integrations involving exponentials are started by differentiating the index.

Denominator with linear factors

A linear factors has its highest power as one

Constants are given to each factor and calculated for

Take care of the difference of two squares in case ie a − b = (a − b)(a + b)

Express the following in partial fractions

Factorising the denominator

A repeated factor has a power more than one eg (2+x)2

Each factor is allocated a constant

4 x 2 + 1, is a quadratic factor. Hence

37 = A(4 x 2 + 1) + ( Bx + C )(4 x − 12)

A( x + 1)(1 + x 2 ) + B (1 − x)(1 + x 2 ) + (Cx + D)(1 − x 2 )

x 2 + 6 = ( Ax + B )(9 + x 2 ) + (Cx + D )(4 + x 2 )

∫ x sin x dx = x cos x − sin x + c

Examples (i) ∫ sec xdx (ii)

First order (exact) differential equations

• In these equations the, the variables can not be separated

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