applied
sciences
Article
Application of Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide
Software in Saudi Arabia
Abdulrahman Fahad Al Fuhaid * , Md Arifuzzaman *
Citation: Fuhaid, A.F.A.;
Arifuzzaman, M.; Gul, M.A.
Application of Mechanistic Empirical
Pavement Design Guide Software in
Saudi Arabia. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12,
8165. https://doi.org/10.3390/
app12168165
Academic Editor: Luís Picado
Santos
Received: 27 June 2022
Accepted: 10 August 2022
Published: 15 August 2022
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4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8165. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12168165
and Muhammad Aniq Gul *
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, King Faisal University (KFU),
P.O. Box 380, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia
* Correspondence: aalfuhaid@kfu.edu.sa (A.F.A.F.); marifuzzaman@kfu.edu.sa (M.A.);
mgul@kfu.edu.sa (M.A.G.); Tel.: +966-13-589-9047 (A.F.A.F. & M.A. & M.A.G.);
Fax: +966-13-581-7068 (A.F.A.F. & M.A. & M.A.G.)
Abstract: The present study explores the structural pavement design techniques related to pavement
distresses in terms of pavement rutting, cracking and International Roughness Index (IRI) based
on the materials properties, roadbed characteristics, climate and traffic loads for highway network
of Saudi Arabia (KSA). The study was focused on selected site conditions at four regions in KSA:
Central (Riyadh); Eastern (Al-Ahsa); Western (Jeddah) and Northern (Arar). Mechanistic-Empirical
Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) software was used to calibrate and predict pavement design life
according to the mentioned distresses for different regions in the KSA. This is the first time where the
exact weather stations were selected to run analysis on the software determining realistic pavement
distresses. In the study, the pavement structure design is different for low traffic (700 AADTT) and
high traffic (2000, 6000, and 10,000 AADTT). The tests were run on the MEPDG software to analyze
the distresses predicted by the software for an interval of 5, 10, 15, and 20 years. The results predicted
by the software show that the preliminary example design satisfies all the target distresses for the
mentioned design life, even for 20 years. The study provides a base pavement design for pavement
designers that can be modified as per project requirements using the specific data for traffic, material
properties, thickness, and distress limit to achieve target design life.
Keywords: M-E pavement design; pavement distress; pavement design life
1. Introduction
The modern day pavements in Saudi Arabia (KSA), and mostly all around the world,
have experienced under-design due to financial constraints or unexpected traffic growth.
The hot mix asphalt (HMA) pavement structures, also known as flexible pavements, require
a more economic and suitable design as compared to other engineering structures. The
engineers today face the challenge of building not only longer lasting stronger pavements
but also in a restrained budget to full fill the demand of transporting people and goods
from one place to another. Transportation has been playing a vital role in the advancement
of the society, and the most widely used mode of transportation is the land mode and
specifically highway mode. Therefore, a pavement not designed for a higher level of
loading will fail earlier than the design life costing more money for repair. Currently,
in KSA, AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structure [1] along with the Marshall
method are commonly used for structural design of asphalt pavements. These procedures
are empirical, developed as long as half a century ago for much lighter traffic and low
tire pressures compared to the existing conditions in KSA. Therefore, these procedures
are incapable of providing reliable designs for existing heavy axle loads and tire pressure.
AASHTO highway design method was not able to precisely predict paving efficiency;
since the procedure was established using constrained testing of AASHTO roadways
during the 1960s [2,3]. The use of AASHTO procedure for designing asphalt concrete
pavements in KSA has been under discussion since the very start of asphaltic pavements.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8165 2 of 15

The mechanistic-empirical approach is promising but for it to produce satisfactory and cost-
efficient asphalt mix design with appropriate equipment and local distress models its field
verification has become essential. Actually, AASHTO Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement
Design Guide (MEPDG) does a great job of predicting paving efficiency using more factors
of available local resources, such factors as current traffic loads and climatic conditions,
in contrast to conventional systems of empirical design [4,5]. Using AASHTO MEPDG
provides meaningful results, which significantly improved pavement design, as well as
resulting in savings from selecting more cost-effective material mixtures [6]. There are very
restrictive literature, focused on a single location, available that address the actual climate
data prevalent in KSA to ensure precise design using the AASHTO MEPDG. Precisely,
ascertaining climate data for four different real location region conditions in KSA is the
subject of this research. The introduction of different models for hot mix asphalt (HMA)
dynamic modulus (E*) prediction, focused on the implementation of the ME Design in
the KSA by developing a database containing mechanical properties of a wide variety of
HMA mixtures is not the focus of the study [7]. Different studies have been conducted
to calibrate rutting and IRI models, and results reveal that the adjusted coefficients are
appropriate because the new coefficients of the rutting models reduced the bias from 4.90
to 0.03 and SSE from 317.68 to 61.71 while the new coefficients of the IRI model reduced the
bias and SSE from 0.44, 0.31 to 0, 0.03 respectively. The major focus is to analyze the variable
temperature of the actual variable climatic conditions in different parts of KSA [8]. Another
study aimed to prepare data for calibration of MEPDG in Central Saudi Arabia. The goal
was to collect data for the design of asphaltic pavement from the local conditions in Riyadh
region [9]. Albuaymi also prepared a set of inputs required by the AASHTOWare for the
central region of KSA. The validation of the AASHTOWare distress prediction models were
conducted after calibration [10].
AASHTO MEPDG method is developed on mechanical and experiential basis [11].
It assumes that pavement can be modelled as a multi-layered elastic structure, and the
design procedure carried out as a staged process over time. Critical stresses and strains
within the structure are estimated by structural analysis at each time step, followed by
the use of distress models for estimating incremental distresses such as rut depth, cracks,
and roughness to the previously calculated stresses and strains. The empirical design
method for the pavement performance was developed using predictions using laboratory-
developed models to observe the differences between field performances and the predicted
one. In addition, they utilized a significant amount of pavement segments of the long-term
pavement performance program (LTPP) throughout North America [12,13]. Calibration of
these models is therefore essential in order to implement them, considering environmental
conditions, local materials, and traffic information. Factually, locally based calibration
consideration factors are included in the AASHTO MEPDG distress modelling only to
consider the differences in maintenance policies, material specifications, and construction
practices across the USA [14]. Confirmation of predicted performance models is a critical
step in order to establish reliability prior to their adoption for designing practices [15]. A
biased model with significant cost effects consistently produces over designed or poorly de-
signed pavements. An inaccurate model leads to inefficiencies for design performance [16].
AASHTO MEPDG prediction model validation conducted for ensuring calibrating paving
models yield accurate and robust paving failure predictions for different cases compared to
the ones used in calibrating.
Roads are an essential part of any country infrastructure, and researchers have devoted
great effort over recent decades to improve the structure design of flexible pavements.
Figure 1 presents the evolution of pavement design methods (only the well-known methods)
through the previous decades. Currently, the US Departments of Transportation (DOTs)
implement different pavement structure design methods, and most DOTs implement more
than one method of design for the same pavement type. A recent survey, in 2014 revealed
that the AASHTO empirical methods (1993 and earlier versions) are by far the most used
design methods among the US transportation agencies [17].
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8165 3 of 15

Figure 1. The development of flexible pavement design methods [18].

The design of flexible pavements has progressively evolved from an art to a com-
plicated science but the empirical approach still has an important role in the pavement
design process. In earlier days up to 1920s, the thickness of the pavement was determined
based on experience or certain thumb rules and the same thickness of the pavement was
used for a particular section of the pavement irrespective of the varying underlying soil
conditions. As time passed and more and more experience was gained, different agencies
started to develop various methods to determine the thickness required for a particular
pavement. The load applied on top of the flexible pavement causes different stresses
and strains throughout the layers from top to the bottom decreasing in magnitude. The
typical cross section of the layered system in a flexible pavement is shown in Figure 2. The
mechanistic-empirical method is based on the mechanical properties of the materials that
give a relation between the input, in the form of loading, and the output, in the form of
stresses and strains in the pavement. The stress strain values, response values, are used to
determine the distress from laboratory and field data. This approach is much better as the
performance cannot be determined by theory alone.

Figure 2. Typical cross section of the layered system in conventional flexible pavement [19].

The main objective of this study was the implementation of the new AASHTO
Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) for pavement design in KSA.
The MEPDG procedures are intended for designing and analyzing new and rehabilitated
pavement structures. Empirical transfer functions use the critical responses with material
properties to estimate pavement performance throughout the pavement design life. Pave-
ment performance is expressed in the form of rutting, longitudinal and alligator fatigue
cracking, thermal cracking, and pavement roughness. The prediction precision of the
empirical models depends heavily on the hierarchical input levels of the design param-
eters and the calibration of transfer functions [20,21]. In MEPDG (the latest production
software version in AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design) [22], the performance models
for rutting and alligator fatigue cracking with the calibration coefficients are explained
briefly [21]. This main objective took into consideration the changes in the materials along
with prevailing environmental and traffic loading in various regions of KSA. The primary
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8165 4 of 15

objective of the design of a hot mix asphalt (HMA) pavement is to resist the rutting of the
subgrade and the bottom-up fatigue cracking. In a traditional approach while designing a
pavement, the thickness of the pavement must increase with an increase in the design load,
and this traditional approach is based on the concept that in the case of thicker pavements
bottom-up cracking does not occur. Distress is the most important factor to consider in the
pavement design as it is directly related to the pavement performance. Each of the failure
criteria defined under distresses needs to be used in the mechanistic-empirical design
approach. Among the various distress, some are caused due to the deficits in materials,
construction, and proper maintenance and are not related to the pavement design directly.
The distress evaluation in pavements is an important part of the pavement management
system, if the pavements are evaluated properly and a strategy is developed in an effective
method then proper maintenance and rehabilitation can be performed at the right time.
Typical pattern observed in deterioration of HMA pavements is rutting, this develops
rapidly in the initial years and then levels off to a much slower rate. The fatigue cracking
usually does not occur until several repeated loadings, once it starts then it increases rapidly
as the pavement is weakened. Generally, the main causes of the failure of HMA pavements
are the defect in quality of material used along with the method of construction and quality
control during construction. Moreover, four main causes of failures are the surface and
subsurface drainage problem, increase in traffic volume and the magnitude of wheel load,
deformation in foundation, and the environmental factors including heavy rainfall, snow,
rising water table, frost action. The distresses in pavement are classified into three major
groups named as cracking, deformation, and surface defects [19]. Although the concept of
pavement structural design may vary from country to country, but the input is found to be
similar. The damage models were also found to be common including the following:
• Rutting (asphalt layer), Figure 3;
• Fatigue is parallel to the road (asphalt layer and stabilized soil), Figure 4;
• Thermal cracking is perpendicular to the road (asphalt layer), Figure 4.

Figure 3. Example of rutting in flexible pavement.

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8165 5 of 15

Figure 4. Example of fatigue and thermal cracking in flexible pavement.

2. Background of Study
AASHTO MEPDG is believed to provide meaningful results which significantly im-
proved paving design, as well as resulting in savings from selecting more cost-effective
material mixtures. Hence the software application can be found in several countries around
the globe namely: India, China, Costa Rica, Qatar, UAE, Egypt, Korea, Hungary, Argentina,
Peru, and Germany [23–34]. No calibration coefficients are known that address the condi-
tions prevalent in Saudi Arabia to ensure precise design with the AASHTO MEPDG. For
that purpose, ascertaining calibration factors for conditions in Saudi Arabia is the subject
of this research. The specific research objectives for the project are as following:
1. Literature review of local studies for calibration of MEPDG and comparison of results
with this study.
2. Collection of climatic and traffic data and study their influence in the model and
overall design.
3. Performing calibration and validation of MEPDG Software in local condition.

3. Methodology
The research methodology adopted, shown in Figure 5, for the project was very
specific and organized to achieve all the research objectives determined initially. The
output intended from the project is to develop generic regional guidelines for pavement
structure to satisfy existing conditions in KSA in terms of the traffic, climate, and material
characterization. The current licensed software provides access to various climatic files
available on the AASHTOWare website. The process on how to select different location and
download the climate files is elaborated in the manual for the software. There is an option
to select the desired location online and download the updated climate data base files for
the particular location through the website from Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for
Research and Applications (MERRA) for MEPDG Inputs. Hence, MERRA data covers the
entire globe, climate data for the four regions in KSA, which can be readily selected from
the software for design. Based on the literature review and data collected from Ministry of
Transport (MOT), MEPDG Software was used to predict pavement distresses in terms of
pavement rutting, fatigue cracking, and International Roughness Index (IRI) for the local
conditions. Figure 5 shows the flow-chart for the methodology which was implemented to
progress work according to the plan.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8165 6 of 15

Figure 5. Flow-chart for the activities.

To adopt the mechanistic-empirical design method to develop structural pavement

deign in KSA, there is a need to consider the influence of site conditions (different climatic
regions), traffic loading and asphalt mixture characteristics including binder properties.
The MEPDG allows engineers to predict pavement performance (i.e., development of dis-
tresses such as rutting and alligator cracking over the design period) because the software
incorporates more fundamental material characteristics (such as the dynamic modulus
(|E*|) master curve), climate data, axle-load spectra, and other advances. The overall
pavement design framework of the MEPDG is shown in Figure 6.
Due to the complexity of material inputs required, a hierarchical input data scheme
has been implemented in the AASHTO MEPDG Software. Level 1 inputs are site-specific
and considered the most accurate as they are determined from actual measurements of the
materials used in a specific project. Level 2 inputs are used when the designer has a modest
understanding of the input parameters for the software. This level is used when limited
resources and data are available. Level 3 inputs are used when the designer has insufficient
materials data for the project and is forced to use default values. In summary, Level 1 is
considered the most accurate and normally involves comprehensive laboratory and field
testing. In contrast, Level 3 is the simplest and considered the least accurate, as it requires
estimate of input vales based on experience with no testing. Inputs at Level 2 are estimated
through correlation with other material properties that are measured in the laboratory or
field, which is the method that was used in this study.
The selection of the locations for the project are dependent on various parameters,
mainly the temperature zoning map of Saudi Arabia as shown in Figure 7. The team
restricted the site conditions at four regions in KSA. These were: Central Region (Riyadh);
Eastern Region (Al-Ahsa); Western Region (Jeddah); and Northern Region (Arar) shown
with dots in Figure 7. It has well been established and known that these four regions
encompass different environmental zones.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8165 7 of 15

Figure 6. Overall framework of MEPDG [35].

The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) in the USA classifies vehicles into
thirteen different classes, 4 through 13 are accounted for in MEPDG using the vehicle class
distribution (VCD) as shown in Table 1. The VCD is calculated by dividing the annual
average daily truck traffic for each truck class (AADTT) by the annual average daily truck
traffic (AADTT) for all trucks as listed below [35]:
1. AADTT = 10,000 Trucks (about 138,000,000 ESALs for 20 years)
2. AADTT = 6000 Trucks (about 83,000,000 ESALs for 20 years)
3. AADTT = 2000 Trucks (about 28,000,000 ESALs for 20 years)
4. AADTT = 700 Trucks (about 10,000,000 ESALs for 20 years)
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8165 8 of 15

Figure 7. Temperature zoning map according to performance grading for KSA [18].

Table 1. Vehicle classes in the United States—Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) [35].

FHWA Vehicle Class Description Example Vehicle Configuration

4 Two Axle Buses

Two Axle, Six Tire,

5
Single Unit Trucks

Three Axle Single Unit

6
Trucks

Four or More Axle Single

7
Unit Single Unit Trucks

Four or Fewer Axel

8
Single Trailer Trucks

Five Axle Single trailer

9
Trucks

Six or More Axle Single

10
Trailer Trucks
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8165 9 of 15

Table 1. Cont.

FHWA Vehicle Class Description Example Vehicle Configuration

Five or Fewer Axle Multi

11
Trailer Trucks

Six Axle Multi Trailer

12
Trucks

Seven or More Axle

13
Multi Trailer Trucks

Although it is not too difficult to determine a wheel or an axle load for an individual
vehicle, it becomes quite complicated to determine the number and types of wheel/axle
loads that a particular pavement will be subject to over its design life. In addition, the
traffic loading was limited to two distinct levels; low traffic and high traffic. The high and
low traffics were further classified into four different AADTT (average annual daily truck
traffic—two way) selected based on the reports for various roads in KSA. The values are
listed in the following experimental design (Table 2). Figure 8 shows the typical pavement
cross section used in KSA which has also been adopted for this project. As mentioned in
the experimental design, for the high traffic the California bearing ratio (CBR) of the base
and subgrade layers was assumed to be 80% and 25%, respectively. For the low traffic, the
CBRs of the base and subgrade layers were assumed to be 70% and 15%, respectively.

Figure 8. Typical pavement cross section used in the study for high and low traffic.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8165 10 of 15

Table 2. Experimental design of the study variables.

Experimental Design
Asphalt Base Subgrade Design Speed

Material Properties

Material Properties

Material Properties

AADTT
Region

Thickness

Thickness

Thickness

Traffic

km/h

mph
10,000 120 75

CBR 15% CBR 25%

Eastern (Al-Ahsa)

BWC 5 cm (2 in),
BBC-1 10 cm (4 in), High 6000 113 70

Semi-infinite
CBR 80%
BBC-2 10 cm (4 in) BWC (PG 82-10)
30 cm 2000 105 65
BBC-1 (PG 70-10)
(11.8 in)
BBC-2 (PG 76-10)
BWC 5 cm (2 in),
CBR 70% Low 700 72 45
BBC-2 8 cm (3 in)

10,000 120 75

CBR 15% CBR 25%

BWC 5 cm (2 in),
Western (Jeddah)

BBC-1 10 cm (4 in), High 6000 113 70

Semi-infinite
CBR 80%
BBC-2 10 cm (4 in) BWC (PG 82-10)
30 cm 2000 105 65
BBC-1 (PG 70-10)
(11.8 in)
BBC-2 (PG 76-10)
BWC 5 cm (2 in),
CBR 70% Low 700 72 45
BBC-2 8 cm (3 in)

10,000 120 75
CBR 15% CBR 25%
BWC 5 cm (2 in),
Central (Riyadh)

BBC-1 10 cm (4 in), High 6000 113 70

Semi-infinite

CBR 80%
BBC-2 10 cm (4 in) BWC (PG 82-10)
30 cm 2000 105 65
BBC-1 (PG 70-10)
(11.8 in)
BBC-2 (PG 76-10)
BWC 5 cm (2 in),
CBR 70% Low 700 72 45
BBC-2 8 cm (3 in)

10,000 120 75
CBR 15% CBR 25%

BWC 5 cm (2 in),
Northern (Arar)

BBC-1 10 cm (4 in), High 6000 113 70

Semi-infinite

CBR 80%
BBC-2 10 cm (4 in) BWC (PG 82-10)
30 cm 2000 105 65
BBC-1 (PG 70-10)
(11.8 in)
BBC-2 (PG 76-10)
BWC 5 cm (2 in),
CBR 70% Low 700 72 45
BBC-2 8 cm (3 in)

BWC = bitumen wearing course, BBC = bitumen base course.

4. Results and Discussion

The project focused on several preliminary design alternatives that could be used as
an initial input for MEPDG software in KSA. It should be noted that the example designs
are not recommended to be used as pavement catalogues, since many of the MEPDG inputs
can change from different locations and project requirement and would affect the results of
the design. The preliminary example pavement design were performed for four different
climatic zones mentioned in the experimental design.
It is important to note that MEPDG software consistently predicted high values of
thermal and top-down cracking in KSA as the prediction is based on models using temper-
ature difference through the year. During the literature review and collection of reports
from the field data, top-down cracking is not observed in KSA. As a result, the thermal and
top-down cracking was not included in the results of the example designs. The MEPDG
software, AASHTOWare Pavement ME Design 2.5.5 (US), was used to predict the 16 dif-
ferent scenarios as elaborated in the experimental design. The results of the predicted
distresses for a design life of 20 years are as shown in Figures 9–11. As discussed earlier in
the experimental design, the pavement structure is different for low traffic (700 AADT) and
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8165 11 of 15

high traffic (2000, 6000, and 10,000). The increase in traffic shows an increase in terminal
IRI, rutting and cracking parameters as expected. The western region performs well as
compared to the other regions selected for the study.
The western region has the best asphalt pavement performance comparing with the
other regions in real life. The reason of the best pavement performance is using basalt
aggregates that work very well with high temperatures. In agreement with Al-Khateeb
et al.’s paper, basalt is better than limestone in terms of asphalt pavement performance
against rutting resistance even in the high temperatures [36]. On the other regions, their
asphalt pavements have low durability because the limestone aggregates are used. In this
study, aggregate type inputs in the MEPDG are constant for all regions (Table 2); and the
western region still has the lowest terminal IRI (Figure 9), and permanent deformation
(rutting, Figure 10) results comparing with other regions. That means weather plays a
significant role that must be considered during the pavement design.

Figure 9. Terminal IRI (in/mile) for all different types of traffic for all the regions for 20 years
design life.
Further, the test was run on the MEPDG software to analyze the distresses predicted
by the software for an interval of 5, 10, and 15 years. The combined results of the analysis
for the predicted distresses are shown in Figures 12–14. Similar trends can be observed for
the distresses against varying AADT for an interval of 5, 10, and 15 years. The western
region consistently performs well as compared to other regions, while the eastern region
has the harshest climate of all with respect to high temperatures, so the distress responses
are also as expected.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8165 12 of 15

Figure 10. Permanent deformation of total pavement (in) for all different types of traffic for all the
regions for 20 years design life.

Figure 11. AC Bottom-up fatigue cracking (% lane area) for all different types of traffic for all the
regions for 20 years design life.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8165 13 of 15

Figure 12. Terminal IRI (in/mile) for an interval of 5, 10, 15, and 20 years.

Figure 13. Permanent deformation—total pavement (in) for an interval of 5, 10, 15, and 20 years.

Figure 14. AC Bottom-up fatigue cracking (% lane area) for an interval of 5, 10, 15, and 20 years.

5. Conclusions
The best results for pavement design using the MEPDG software are with western
region for withstanding terminal IRI, and permanent deformation (rutting), even though
all four regions have the same inputs except climatic data inputs that depend on loca-
tion condition. This indicates eastern, central, and northern regions have worse climate
conditions than western region; so, climate is an essential parameter in the software to
predict the optimum pavement design that can last for years with the minimum distresses.
However, overall, the predicted results for all regions by the MEPDG software show that
the preliminary example design satisfies all the target distresses for the design life of 5, 10,
15, and 20 years. As mentioned earlier, this design of pavement structure can be used as an
initial input by the designers for the mentioned regions. The designers can modify traffic,
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8165 14 of 15

material properties, thickness, and distress limit to achieve target design life. It needs to
be noted that the pavement structure design is different for low traffic (700 AADTT) and
high traffic (2000, 6000, and 10,000 AADTT). As per the results, the pavement design can be
adopted as a reference throughout KSA, giving the designers a starting point to optimize
the thicknesses as per the local material and site conditions.

Author Contributions: Formal analysis, A.F.A.F. and M.A.G.; Funding acquisition, A.F.A.F.; Investi-
gation, M.A. and M.A.G.; Methodology, M.A.G.; Resources, M.A.; Software, M.A.G.; Supervision,
M.A.G.; Validation, M.A.G.; Visualization, M.A.; Writing–original draft, M.A.G.; Writing–review &
editing, M.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Saudi Standards, Metrology and Quality Organization (SASO),
grant number 1608 under the MoU signed between King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa and SASO.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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