IET Renewable Power Generation

Review Article

ISSN 1752-1416
Technical grid connection guides for Received on 9th February 2015
Revised on 12th June 2015
distributed electricity generation systems: Accepted on 30th June 2015
doi: 10.1049/iet-rpg.2015.0057
a new DERlab database has come alive www.ietdl.org

Arturs Purvins ✉, Birthe Klebow

European Distributed Energy Resources Laboratories (DERlab) e.V., c/o Fraunhofer IWES, Königstor 59, 34119 Kassel, Germany
✉ E-mail: purvins.arturs@gmail.com

Abstract: The increasing share of distributed energy resources (DER) in electricity production requires new sources and
techniques in grid support services to keep the quality and reliability of power supply high. Addressing this matter,
DER systems are required to follow technical grid connection requirements determined by distribution system
operators (DSOs). Currently, these requirements widely differ from country to country. Recent studies suggest
developing unified grid connection requirements for DER on the international level. This unification currently is the
main activity for DSOs and standardisation organisations in the field of grid-connected DER. To support this activity,
the present article (i) offers a status report on recent studies relevant to the harmonisation of DER grid connection
requirements, and (ii) identifies and discusses current DER grid connection guides, namely standards of international
and European standardisation organisations, as well as regulations of national DSOs from Austria, Germany, Ireland,
Latvia, Switzerland (German-speaking part) and the United Kingdom. The guides are collected and grouped according
to the technical area and technology in a database: http://dergridrequirements.net. The database is a tool for finding
relevant DER grid connection guides for a specific region, technical area and/or technology. The target audience of the
database is DER system developers.

List of abbreviations

3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project 1 Introduction

CEN European Committee for Standardization
CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical In the recent years, the share of distributed energy resources (DER,
Standardization referring to electrical generators) in European countries has greatly
DER Distributed Energy Resources increased leading to significant changes in system topology. Main
DERlab European Distributed Energy Resources DER technologies are photovoltaic (PV) systems and wind farms.
Laboratories e. V. These technologies are characterised by their variable and almost
DSO Distribution System Operator non-controllable behaviour which is strongly dependent on external
EDSO European Distribution System Operators weather conditions. From 2002 to 2012, the installed capacity of PV
EEGI European Electricity Grid Initiative systems in the European Union (EU) has risen from 0.4 to 70 GW,
ENTSO-E European Network of Transmission System having its most rapid growth in the last five years [1]. A similar
Operators for Electricity increase in installed capacity can be observed in the wind farm
EPIA European Photovoltaic Industry Association sector: 23.1 to 106 GW from 2002 to 2012 [2]. However, unlike the
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards PV sector, where almost all generators are connected to the
Institute distribution grid, in the wind sector only part of the generation
EU European Union devices are connected to the electricity distribution grid.
EURELECTRIC Union of the Electricity Industry Traditionally, the electricity distribution grid was designed for
EWEA European Wind Energy Association the distribution of electricity to grid users and not for the
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission accommodation of active generation. As a result, to maintain the
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics same or higher power quality and grid stability, additional
Engineers techniques to support the electricity grid with ancillary services are
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force required. This transformation of the electricity systems in Europe,
ISO International Organization for which has started in the recent years, has initiated worldwide
Standardization activities in the field of electricity grid related regulations and
ITU-T Telecommunication Standardization standards.
Sector of International Telecommunication According to the Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan) of
Union the EU [3], the need for a single, uniform, and smart European
OASIS Organization for the Advancement of electricity grid is one of the key elements to integrate renewable
Structured Information Standards DER according to the given EU targets, such as generating 20%
PV Photovoltaic of the energy share from renewable sources by 2020 [4]. One of
SET-Plan Strategic Energy Technology Plan the SET-Plan initiatives, the European Electricity Grid Initiative
TSO Transmission System Operator (EEGI) [5] which focuses on smart grids, has already addressed
VDE Association for Electrical, Electronic & this issue. To allow for a cost efficient transition towards high
Information Technologies deployment of DER, the EEGI points out the need for large scale
W3C World Wide Web Consortium system experiments (i) to validate system solutions, such as the

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management of generation intermittency, and (ii) to promote the grid
connection standardisation and interoperability of the developed
technological solutions (with emphasis on uniform grid connection
requirements).
General grid connection requirements for generators of different
capacity ranges connected to distribution grids (below 110 kV) are
described by the European Network of Transmission System
Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-E) [6] by referring to frequency
stability, the robustness of power generation modules (fault
ride-through capability), system restoration (reconnection after
disconnection due to a network disturbance) and management
requirements. The latter refers to control and protection schemes,
as well as to information exchange. Moreover, synchronous power
generators and power park modules [a power park module is a
unit or an ensemble of units generating electricity which (i) is
connected to the network non-synchronously or through power
electronics, and (ii) has a single connection point to a
transmission, distribution or closed distribution network.] should
correspond to requirements regarding voltage stability [6]. All
these grid connection requirements are developed for electricity
generators with a capacity of 1–50 MW (depending on the
country). However, small generators (0.8 to 1000 kW) connected
to medium and low voltage grids are not yet considered to
participate significantly in electricity system reliability and power
quality issues. This is mainly because of the limited automated
response and the minimal system operator control of such
generators in distribution grids. Thus, small generators participate
currently only in autonomous droop of generation. Nevertheless,
these requirements of ENTSO-E are a good starting point for
identifying the expected contribution of DER to system reliability
and power quality matters of the electricity system.
The aim of the present article is to foster the development of
harmonised requirements for grid connection of DER systems (i)
through reviewing the current harmonisation status (Section 2) and
(ii) identifying current grid connection guides for DER (Section 3).
In the present article, these guides comprise existing international
and European standards as well as national regulations for several
European countries: Austria, Germany, Ireland, Latvia,
Switzerland (German-speaking part) and the United Kingdom.
Section 4 discusses the main outcomes and conclusions of the
review. It is worth noting that this article does not aim to discuss
the technical content of identified standards and regulations but
to describe and analyse the overall development process of
these guides.
The identified grid connection guides are gathered in the database
of ‘Technical grid connection guides for distributed electricity
generation systems’ (hereinafter referred to as ‘database’)
maintained by the European Distributed Energy Resources
Laboratories e.V. (DERlab). The database is available at http://
dergridrequirements.net. The database is a tool for easy and quick
finding of the relevant grid connection guides (standards and
national regulations) for DER systems of a specific region,
technical area and/or technology. The main target audience of the
database are DER system developers. Guides focussing exclusively
on electricity metering or electric vehicle systems are outside the
scope of the current version of the database and are thus not
considered by this article either.
This article supports one of the standardisation objectives of the
Smart Grids Task Force established by the European Commission:
to facilitate the implementation of different DER services and
functions, and DER interoperability with other smart grid actors [7].
2 Status report
The increasing share of DER in the electricity supply encourages
activities on developing more detailed grid connection
requirements for DER systems to foster a higher contribution of
these generators in electricity system reliability and stability
matters. Connection requirements specify the minimum technical
conditions and operation criteria which DER systems must comply
with before being allowed to be connected to the electricity
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distribution grid. EURELECTRIC in cooperation with the
European Distribution System Operators (EDSO) have identified
DSOs’ priorities for smart grid standardisation [8]. Their report
describes the main challenges in standards and national regulations
for an efficient electricity system transformation towards smart
grids. One of the main priorities for DSOs stated in the report is
the development of harmonised distribution codes for DER
including electrical connection installation and operation
requirements. Distribution code is the main document for national
distribution grid connection requirements for DER.
As the Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators points
out, ‘The network code(s) shall define a harmonised standard
according to which information shall be provided for grid
connection at the connection point.’ They are also referring
explicitly to distribution grids, ‘The network code(s) shall set out
necessary minimum standards and requirements to be followed by
DSOs when connecting significant grid users [pre-existing grid
users and new grid users which are considered to be significant on
the basis of their impact on the cross-border system performance
by influencing the system reliability in control area’s, including the
provision of ancillary services.] to the distribution network’ [9].
Here the network code refers to connection requirements for all
generators in both grids, distribution as well as transmission.
In addition, the DSOs are expected to develop from being
passive to more active players in the energy management of
distribution grids and to contribute to the overall reliability of
the electricity system managed by transmission system operators
(TSOs) [10]. As DER are connected to distribution grids, the
DSOs are key actors in the on-going transformational process
towards smart grids.
Moreover, as indicated by three European Standards
Organisations, CEN-CENELEC-ETSI, new ways of operating
electricity systems are expected to efficiently manage high
penetration of DER [11]. Ultimately, these new ways of operating
will define the functional requirements of DER. In this context, the
standardisation of grid connection requirements is an indispensable
step to ensure smart grid deployment [8]. To ensure new grid
support services and the interoperability of DER systems, a
multitude of standards and regulations in different technical areas
are required.
Ancillary service requirements for grid-connected DER are
studied by Kotsampopoulos et al. [12]. These requirements fall
within the scope of energy performance and are mainly related to
frequency support, voltage support and fault-ride-through
capabilities. Kotsampopoulos et al. [12] have reported a lack of
harmonisation and at some point even contradictory energy
performance requirements among different grid connection guides.
The reason for this are the varying DER penetration levels and the
differences in robustness of the national power systems in each
country. To ensure a stable transition from centralised to partly
decentralised electricity generation, there is a high demand for
amended distribution codes requesting a greater DER contribution
in the grid support [13, 14]. As reported by Preda et al. [15], this
trend can already be noted in up-to-date grid requirements of grid
operators. However, according to Kish and Lehn [16], there is
relatively low progression in existing national requirements and
standards.
Braun et al. [17] have reviewed national grid connection
requirements for PV systems in several countries with high
deployment of PV capacity. Their review focuses on energy
performance, namely on active and reactive power control of PV
systems. It shows a diverse approach and a significant need for
harmonisation of grid requirements. PV inverters with advanced
function in active and reactive power control are considered as a
cost effective alternative to grid reinforcement at a high level of
PV system penetration.
Different national grid connection requirements for wind turbine
energy performance are reviewed and compared by Kling et al.
[18]. Similar to the situation of PV systems, the wind turbine
requirements differ in many aspects from country to country. The
harmonisation of grid connection requirements is pointed out as an
essential condition for feasible wind farm deployment.
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 As reported by the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC), to utilise DER systems efficiently, frequent developments
and updates of grid connection requirements need to follow the
technological advances of DER systems [19]. Recent studies show
high activity in advanced control strategies. For example, Delfino
et al. [20] propose a new control scheme for active and reactive
power injection with improved dynamics for grid-connected PV
systems. Furthermore, Qiqi Bu et al. [21] and Mohseni et al. [22]
present novel control strategies for enhanced fault-ride-through
capability of grid-connected doubly-fed induction generator wind
turbines.
The IEC [23, 24] also suggests distribution code harmonisation for
minimum requirements specifying that detailed technical connection
criteria should be outside the scope of the harmonisation.
Harmonisation requirements will support DER equipment
manufacturers to move from market-oriented products to universal
solutions [25, 26]. Nevertheless, detailed technical features of
DER systems may be required to address the unique needs of
national/regional electricity systems. These detailed features may
be regionally specific and do not qualify to harmonisation. In this
case, additional power devices (such as reactive power
compensators) can be used in DER systems to meet extra regional
requirements [27].
3 Database
This section introduces and describes the technical domain of the
‘Technical grid connection guides for distributed electricity
generation systems’ database (http://dergridrequirements.net)
maintained by DERlab e.V. It discusses collected guides
(international standards and national regulations) in terms of
technical areas and technology, and lists the main gaps found in
literature regarding DER grid connection requirements.
3.1 DER interoperability
Possible paths of interaction of DER systems with other systems are
depicted in Fig. 1. The actors shown in the figure are obtained from
the Framework and Roadmap for Smart Grid Interoperability
Standards of the National Institute of Standards and Technology
[28] and the CEN-CENELEC-ETSI Smart Grid Coordination
Group [29]. According to the figure, a DER system is connected
to an electricity distribution grid as this is the main purpose of
DER – to generate electricity locally for grid energy consumers.
For grid support purposes (supporting power quality and reliability
of electricity supply) and for power balance in the electricity
market, DER systems may be required to exhibit certain functional
capabilities with regard to the flexibility of active and reactive
Fig. 1 DER interoperability: electricity flow and data communication
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power generation as indicated in the use cases of sustainable
processes of CEN-CENELEC-ETSI [30]. To inform DER systems
about the required changes in active/reactive power generation,
bidirectional communication between DER systems and other
actors in the electricity system is necessary. The potential actors
involved in this communication are energy retailers, DSOs, as well
as virtual power plant operators or other energy management
system operators. Thus, as the IEC also pointed out [24], the
essential requirements for DER system are (i) the technical
connection criteria and (ii) communication requirements.
3.2 Content of the database
The database comprises technical guides relevant to the grid
connection of DER, namely international and European standards,
and national regulations from Austria, Germany, Ireland, Latvia,
Switzerland (German-speaking part) and the United Kingdom.
Most of the International and European standards related to the
connection of DER systems to the electricity grid are developed
by the IEC. Standards collected in the database are mainly those
relevant to electricity distribution and DER systems in the IEC
Smart Grid Standardization Roadmap [24], IEC Smart Grid
Architecture (http://smartgridstandardsmap.com) and CEN-
CENELEC-ETSI Smart Grid Coordination Group First Set of
Standards [31]. The database represents standards issued by the
following international and European standardisation organisations:
3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), CEN-CENELEC-ETSI,
IEC, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE),
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Organization
for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS),
Telecommunication Standardization Sector of International
Telecommunication Union (ITU-T), Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) and World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).
National grid connection regulations for DER are those confirmed
by national DSOs from the aforementioned countries and include
distribution codes, relevant national standards and other relevant
documents.
The DER system connection guides for the electricity distribution
grid are grouped according to the following technical areas:
† Commissioning: guides relevant to procedures for carrying out
conformity evaluation of DER systems.
† Communication: the most relevant guides on smart grid
communication which may be applied to data communication with
DER systems, including communication guides related to
electricity distribution system automation.
† Cyber security: includes communication related security guides
for data.
† Design: design guides for DER systems or for power electronic
based inverters of DER systems, including also automation and
control system design aspects. The design area further
encompasses energy management system design guides on the
control of energy generation by the DER system.
† Electromagnetic compatibility: guides regarding the emission of
electromagnetic disturbances, namely limitations for emissions
generated by DER systems as well as DER system immunity to
emissions generated by other energy systems.
† Installation: installation guides specifically for DER systems.
† Maintenance: guides regarding the inspection and repair of DER
system equipment.
† Monitoring: Energy performance: includes guides describing
procedures regarding monitoring energy related characteristics of
DER systems and the analysis of the monitored data to assess the
overall performance of the system.
† Protection/Safety: protection and safety related construction
guides for DER system. Include system protection against
electrical, thermal, mechanical and other hazards, as well as safety
guides regarding persons and livestock coming into contact with
the system equipment.
† Requirements: Energy performance: connection guides related to
energy management requirements of active and reactive power
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Table 1 International and European standards, and national regulations system restoration (restore power after blackout) and in managing of
(from Austria, Germany, Ireland, Latvia, German-speaking part in energy generation via local energy management systems to increase
Switzerland, and the United Kingdom) for grid connection of DER
systems: quantity of guides covering specific technical areas local self-consumption. The IEC [24] recommends developing
future-proof communication standards to safeguard the investment of
Technical area International and National grid users in communication infrastructures. The authors point out
European regulations that with respect to the aspects of communication and cyber security,
standards
the existing standards are in all probability not sufficient to cover the
commissioning 19 29
basic cyber security needs of the complex smart grid architecture
communication 332 12 [24]. Furthermore, a lack of essential sector-specific requirements for
cyber security 67 1 cyber security has been reported [11].
design 39 23
electromagnetic compatibility 84 7 Electromagnetic compatibility is the technical area covered by
installation 44 36 around 80 standards, which makes it the second most covered area
maintenance 7 19
monitoring: energy performance 10 17
in the database. Most of the identified Electromagnetic
protection/safety 51 38 compatibility standards apply to general electric devices where
requirements: energy performance 19 32 DER are also applicable. This is the main reason for
test 64 27 well-developed standards in this area. However, just such as the
Communication area, there are additional requirements needed,
namely Electromagnetic compatibility requirements, to address the
control of DER systems’ output. The main part of these requirements specific needs of DER or the grid and their limitations. Here
is relevant for voltage and frequency ranges for continuous standardisation gaps in immunity and emissions with a frequency
operation, and for ancillary services for the electricity grid where range between 2 and 150 kHz have been reported by
DER become active grid users and participate in maintaining high CEN-CENELEC-ETSI [31] and IEC [24]. The need for additional
power quality and system reliability. standardisation activities related to power quality is in limitations
† Test: testing guides of DER systems and their equipment. in distorting current emission from DER system.
Regarding other technical areas, on-going work is focused on the
Technologies covered in the database are the following: harmonisation of electrical connection and installation requirements
combustion engine, energy storage, fuel cell, hydraulic turbine, of DER systems to ensure energy availability and system reliability
PV, and wind turbine. Most of the standards are not in the presence of a high penetration of DER [32]. Installation
technology-specific. Instead, they refer to general energy systems requirements of DER should be adopted to allow new ways of
where DER may fit in. grid operation. According to CEN-CENELEC-ETSI [32], other
The database contains around 600 entries most of which are standardisation gaps can be found [32] in the advanced
international and European standards while the rest falls within distribution grid (feeder) automation at high DER penetration.
national grid connection regulations. Entries in the database are The quantification of international standards, according to the
sorted and can be searched by the categories of technical area and technology covered in Table 2, indicates that most standards
technology. The overview of international and European standards, relevant to the DER grid connection are not technology-specific.
and of national regulations are depicted in Table 1 (sorted by These standards are mainly relevant to Communication and
technical areas) and Table 2 (sorted by technology). Quantifying Electromagnetic compatibility for grid-connected distributed
grid connection guides may not be an objective indicator with electricity systems in general. Technology-specific standards focus
respect to working capacity assigned to a specific technical area, on unique requirements to address technical differences, properties
but it is nonetheless a transparent way to show standardisation and and contribution to grid support services of various DER systems.
grid code development activities. According to the standardisation gaps as indicated in the
The entries in the database often overlap in terms of which Standardization Roadmap of the IEC [24], there are no harmonised
technical area they belong to. Cyber security related standards in basic requirements for wind turbine operation in distribution grids
Table 1, for example, often fall also in the category which are particularly concerned with active and reactive power
Communication, and guides describing Protection/Safety aspects control. For both wind turbine and PV technologies, low voltage
usually also refer to Installation. ride-through capability testing is yet not covered by currently
available standards [24]. It is recommended in the Standardization
Roadmap of IEC to establish new standards to cover these gaps.
3.2.1 International and European standards: The leader Some standards, such as EN 50160 and EN 50438, are widely used
among the technical areas is Communication which is covered by by national DSOs. EN 50160 defines, describes and specifies voltage
more than 300 standards indicating high standardisation activities ranges in which voltage may be expected in the electricity grid, for
(Table 1). A high quantity of communication related standards may example the acceptable voltage variations of ±10% during 95% of a
indicate a high variety and a strong development of communication week. EN 50438 mainly covers energy performance requirements
means. Communication is the key to interoperability in smart grids. for micro-generating plants (equipment with nominal currents of 16
According to the CEN-CENELEC-ETSI Smart Grid Coordination A per phase and below). For example, the micro-generating plant
Group [31], missing communication and information standards should be able to contribute in a voltage control with a reactive
(which are even not yet under development) for DER systems are in power injection (between 0.9 inductive and 0.9 capacitive power
factor). EN 50438 includes also requirements for protection
Table 2 International and European standards, and national regulations functions of generator systems. EN 50438 is a good example for
(from Austria, Germany, Ireland, Latvia, German-speaking part in harmonisation trends in standards following DER technology
Switzerland, and the United Kingdom) for grid connection of DER development. Other standards used by national DSOs are IEC
systems: quantity of guides addressing specific technologies 61400-21 (mainly covering energy performance requirements for
Technology International and National regulations wind turbines), relevant IEC 61000 series (electromagnetic
European standards compatibility), and relevant EN 50065 series (communication).

combustion engine 2 0
energy storage 12 0
fuel cell 6 0 3.2.2 National requirements: National grid connection
hydraulic turbine 9 0 regulations for DER systems in Austria, Germany, Ireland, Latvia,
PV 17 5 Switzerland (German-speaking part) and the United Kingdom, as
wind turbine 16 5
not specified 439 51 seen in Tables 1 and 2, address technical areas and technologies.
For example, as can be read from Table 1, 38 regulations describe

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requirements related to Protection/ Safety area for a DER connection
to the grid.
The coverage of technical areas by national DER-to-grid
regulations in Table 1 shows some correlation with the technical
areas covered by international and European standards. It can be
noted that Communication, Cyber security and Electromagnetic
compatibility areas, being widely addressed by standardisation
organisations, do not get much attention in national regulations.
Only specific technical aspects need to be additionally addressed
for grid-connected DER. However, other areas, such as
Commissioning, Design, Installation, Maintenance, Monitoring:
Energy performance, Protection/ Safety, Requirements: Energy
performance, and Test, which address regional grid specific
requirements, are presented broadly by national regulations
(Table 1). A reason for this could be that Communication in
general and Cyber security with regard to smart grids are areas
which are also closely related to other applications than those of
the smart grid. Generally, Communication in the World Wide Web
and in other networks is discussed on an international level and
calls for much less country specific requirements as compared with
grid topologies and other technical aspects characteristic for DER.
Such as international and European standards, national grid
connection regulations for DER are mostly technology-neutral
(Table 2). A small number of national regulations are developed
for wind turbines and PV technologies.
A good example for harmonisation in national regulations, but on a
country scale, can be found in Germany where the VDE (Association
for Electrical, Electronic and Information Technologies) provides
general technical regulations for connection of DER to the
electricity grid. Individual DSOs then adapt these regulations to
assure extra features for DER needed for local electricity grid.
4 Conclusions
Current studies on guides relevant to DER connection to the
electricity grid conclude that the harmonisation of basic
connection requirements will foster the transition from (only)
centralised electricity generation systems to systems which
consider both centralised and distributed generation. This transition
will reduce the share of centralised generators in our electricity
systems. Thus, to maintain high power quality and high electricity
system reliability, additional sources for electricity grid support
services are needed. This is precisely why an active involvement
of DSOs is required for the energy management through advanced
new functions of grid connected DER systems. Specific regional
technical features of DER systems are considered to be out of
harmonisation.
Furthermore, standardisation activities should focus on
performance requirements for electricity system reliability, high
power quality, etc. without becoming too prescriptive and slow
down innovative technology development. New technical features
for advanced grid support purposes shall better be addressed in
grid connection guides that are easier to update and allow for a
non-prescriptive specification of DER performance requirements.
The DER grid connection guides are identified and collected in the
‘Technical grid connection guides for distributed electricity
generation systems’ database (http://dergridrequirements.net)
maintained by DERlab e.V.
The identified guides indicate high harmonisation activities in
standard development by international and European
standardisation organisations. Standards relevant to
Communication, and Electromagnetic compatibility areas are well
developed for the current needs of smart grids and do not require a
high involvement of national DSOs. Only a few gaps in
standardisation are reported in these areas.
Other technical areas, namely Commissioning, Design,
Installation, Maintenance, Monitoring: Energy performance,
Protection/ Safety, Requirements: Energy performance, and Test,
are areas where DER grid connection requirements are widely
covered by technical regulations of national DSOs.
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A good example of harmonisation are the adapted standards by
national DSOs: EN 50160, and EN 50438. EN 50160 defines
voltage ranges in the electricity grid. EN 50438 covers energy
performance requirements and protection functions for
micro-generators (with phase current up to and including 16A).
Such standardisation activities may indicate that general grid
connection requirements for DER could be covered by a set of
standards. Moreover, the latest standardisation request of the
European Commission to CEN-CENELEC-ETSI (mandate M/490)
indicates a strong political trend towards harmonised European
standards. The standardisation objective as listed in the mandate is
to continuously develop and update a set of consistent standards
within a common European framework to ensure interoperability
of smart grid actors (including DER systems) from basic
connectivity to complex distributed business applications [7]. In
this standardisation process a need for a high flexibility is required
to accommodate some differences between EU member states
approaches to smart grids deployment [7].
Albeit, another option is developing a harmonised distribution
code which, such as the ENTSO-E network code for generators
[6], could cover the requirements for specific technical areas. The
ENTSO-E network code, similar to the aforementioned standards,
describes general energy performance requirements for power
generators; however, small generators in the Continental Europe
synchronous area up to 1 MW are not yet considered to participate
significantly in electricity system reliability and power quality. For
further development of network codes, EDSO proposes closer
collaboration between TSOs and DSOs to determine how
distributed generators should behave in the future [33]. This is a
positive trend which may foster feasible DER integration and
active DER contribution in system reliability and power quality
matters. In addition, to ensure the alignment of network codes and
standardisation efforts, EDSO have stressed the importance in an
early involvement of the European standardisation bodies in the
network code development [34].
The decentralisation of electricity generation is an on-going and
long-term process just as the harmonisation of DER grid
connection requirements, which is a parallel and dependent
activity. Current activities for harmonisation in this field are
mainly relevant to energy management in DER systems.
5 Acknowledgment
The work presented here has been carried out in the frame of the
DEA-Stabil project (Beitrag der Windenergie und Photovoltaik im
Verteilungsnetz zur Stabilität des Deutschen Verbundnetzes)
which is funded by the German Federal Ministry for Environment,
Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety under grant
agreement number FKZ 0325585. The views expressed in this
article are purely those of the authors and do not reflect the official
policy or position of DERlab e.V. or German Federal Ministry for
Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety.
6 References
1 EPIA: ‘Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics 2013–2017’, 2013, pp. 1–58
2 EWEA: ‘Wind in power: 2012 European statistics’, 2013, pp. 1–14
3 Commission of the European Communities: A European Strategic Energy
Technology Plan (SET-Plan), 2007, pp. 1–14
4 European Parliament and Council: ‘Directive 2009/28/EC’, Off. J. Eur. Union,
2009, L 140, pp. 16–62
5 ENTSO-E, EDSO for Smart Grids: ‘The European Electricity Grid Initiative
(EEGI)’, 2010, pp. 1–45
6 ENTSO-E: ‘ENTSO-E Network Code for Requirements for Grid Connection
Applicable to all Generators’, 2013, pp. 1–85
7 European Commission: ‘Standardization Mandate to European Standardisation
Organisations (ESOs) to support European Smart Grid deployment’, 2011, pp. 1–8
8 EURELECTRIC: ‘DSO Priorities for Smart Grid Standardisation’, 2013, pp. 1–24
9 ACER: ‘Framework Guidelines on Electricity Grid Connections’, 2011, pp. 1–14
10 EURELECTRIC: ‘Network Codes for System Operation’, 2012, pp. 1–11
11 CEN-CENELEC-ETSI: ‘Final report of the CEN/CENELEC/ETSI Joint Working
Group on Standards for Smart Grids’ 2011, pp. 1–141
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12 Kotsampopoulos, P., Hatziargyriou, N., Bletterie, B., Lauss, G.: ‘Review, analysis
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IET Renew. Power Gener., 2015, Vol. 9, Iss. 8, pp. 1087–1092
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2015