INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

LESSON 2-4
ENE151
Engr. ELIZABETH EDAN M. ALBIENTO
LESSON 2

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 2.1 Surveying Measurements
• Measurements
– process of determining the extent, size or
dimensions of a particular quantity in
comparison to a given standard
– In surveying, measurements are usually
concentrated on
• Angles
• Elevations
• Times
• Lines
• Areas
• Volumes

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 2.1 Surveying Measurements
1. Direct Measurements
2. Indirect Measurements

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 2.1 Surveying Measurements
1. Direct Measurements
– comparison of the measured quantity with a
standard measuring unit or units employed
for measuring a quantity of that kind.
– Common examples:
• Applying a wire or tape to a line
• Determining a horizontal or vertical angle with a
transit
• Fitting a protractor between two intersecting lines
to determine the intersection angle.

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 2.1 Surveying Measurements
2. Indirect Measurements
– when it is not possible to apply a measuring
instrument directly to a quantity to be measured
– The observed value is determined by its
relationship to some other known values.
– Examples:
• The total length of a line would be an indirectly
observed distance if it is determined by a summation
of a series of directly measured short segments.
• In the stadia and subtense bar method, horizontal and
vertical distances are indirectly obtained since it
makes use of optical system for relating a short
known length to the angle it subtends at the distance
to be determined.

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 2.2 Meter
• It is the international unit of linear measure.
• Proposed sometime in 1789 by French scientists.
Originally, it was defined as 1/10,000,000 of the earth’s
meridional quadrant.
• In May 20, 1875, a treaty was signed in Paris by
representatives of 18 countries (13 from Europe, 4 from
the American Continent and 1 from Middle East). It was
based on iron meter bar standardized in Paris in 1799. The
meter was defined as the distance between two lines
engraved across the surface (nears the ends) of a bar with
an X-shaped cross-section, composed of 90% Platinum
and 10 % Iridium, when the temperature of the bar is 0
degrees Celsius.

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 2.2 Meter
• In October 1960, the meter was redefined at the 11th
General Conference on Weights and Measures and agreed
upon by 36 countries. It is now defined as a length equal
to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red light
produced by burning the element krypton (with atomic
weight of 86) at a specified energy level in the spectrum.

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2.3 International System of Units (SI)
• The International Bureau of Weights and
Measures promulgated in 1960 the
International System of Units, generally
known as SI.
• SI units are now adopted by the most
countries in Europe, Middle East, Africa,
and In Asia. The United States of America
has started to adopt the International System
of Units, although with great hesitation.

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2.3 International System of Units (SI)
• On January 1, 1983, the English System
was officially phased out in the
Philippines and only the modern metric
system was allowed to be used. Metric
conversion or change-over was signed
into law on December 1978 by former
Pres. Ferdinand E. Marcos.

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 2.3 International System of Units (SI)

• Units in SI of major concern to surveying:

MEASUREMENTS UNITS NOTE
Linear Measure meter (m) kilometer (km) for
longer distances

Areas square meter (sq.m or m2) Hectares (ha) for larger

areas

Volume cubic meter (cu.m or m3)

Plane Angles radian (rad) degree, minutes and
seconds (˚ ‘ “) are also
acceptable in SI

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 2.4 Units of Measurements
• Commonly used prefixes are added to basic
names:
 mega - 1,000,000
 kilo - 1,000
 hecto - 100
 deca - 10
 deci - 0.1
 centi - 0.01
 milli - 0.001
 micro - 0.000001
 nano - 0.000000001

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 2.4 Units of Measurements
1. Linear, Area and Volume
a. Linear:
 1 kilometer (km) = 1,000 meters
 1 meter (m) = 1,000 millimeters
 1 meter (m) = 10 decimeters
 1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters
 1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters

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 2.4 Units of Measurements
1. Linear, Area and Volume
b. Area:
 1 hectare = 10,000 sq.m
 1 hectare = 100 ares
 1 are = 100 sq.m
 1 sq.km = 1,000,000 sq.m
 1 sq.km = 100 hectares

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 2.4 Units of Measurements
2. Angular Measurements
SI Unit: Radian (rad)
 2π rad = 360˚
 1 rad = 57˚ 17’ 44.81”
 1˚ = 0.01745 rad

Note: In the Philippines, the sexagesimal units

(˚ ‘ “) are used with SI for angular
measurements because of their practical
importance and our familiarity with it.

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 2.4 Units of Measurements
2. Angular Measurements
a. Sexagesimal Units
 are degree (˚), minutes (‘), seconds (“)
 1/360th of a circle
 1˚ = 60’
 1’ = 60”
 1˚ = 3600”

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 2.4 Units of Measurements
2. Angular Measurements
b. Centesimal Units
 Unit: gradian (grad, g in calculator)
 Many countries in Europe and Middle East
use the centesimal system where grad is the
angular unit.
 1/400th of the circle
 400 grads = 360˚

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 2.5 Significant Figures
1. One Significant Figure 2. Two Significant Figures
Examples: Examples:
 100  24
 400  0.24
 9  0.020
 8000  0.000065
 0.001  0.0024
 0.000005  3.6

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 2.5 Significant Figures
3. Three Significant Figures 4. Four Significant Figures
Examples: Examples:
 365  7654
 12.3  32.25
 3.65  0.8742
 10.1  15.00
 0.000249  0.00006712
 0.0120  364.0

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 2.5 Significant Figures

5. Five Significant Figures

Examples:
 12345
 0.86740
 100.00
 46.609
 40.000
 155.28

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 2.5 Significant Figures
• Rule 1:
- Zeroes between other significant figures are significant
Examples:
 12.03
 35.06
 4009
• Rule 2:
– For values less than one, zeroes immediately to the right of
the decimal are not significant
Examples:
 0.00325
 0.000468
 0.0230

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 2.5 Significant Figures
• Rule 3:
- Zeroes placed at the end of decimal numbers are significant
Examples:
 169.30
 366.00
 11.000

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 2.6 Rounding Off Numbers
1. Digit is less than 5
- When the digit to be dropped is less than 5, the
number is written without the digit.
Examples:
a. Round off to the nearest hundredth
 24.244 -> 24.24
b. Round off to the nearest tenths
 24.244 -> 24.2

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 2.6 Rounding Off Numbers
2. Digit is equal to 5
- When the digit to be dropped is exactly 5, the nearest
even number is used for the preceding digit.
Examples:
a. Round off to the nearest hundredth
 26.175 -> 26.18 (since 7 is odd number)
 156. 285 -> 156.28 (since 8 is even number)

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 2.6 Rounding Off Numbers
3. Digit is greater than 5
- When the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, the
number is written with the preceding digit increased
by one.
Examples:
a. Round off to the nearest hundredth
 226.276 -> 226.28
b. Round off to the nearest tenths
 226.276 -> 226.3

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LESSON 3

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 3.2 Surveying Field Notes
 Constitute the only reliable and permanent record of
actual work done in the field
 If the notes are incorrect or incompletely done, or are
obliterated, much or all of the time, money and effort
in the gathering of survey data are wasted.
 The field notes become the official record of the
survey.
 It is for this reason that notes must be complete,
legible, concise and comprehensive, and logically
arranged according to recognized practice.
 A need to rerun, extend, or otherwise make use of
previous surveys may be required for a related project.

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3.3 The Field Notebook

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 3.4 Types of Notes
1. Sketches
- A good sketch will help to convey a correct impression.

2. Tabulation
- A series of numerical values observed in the field are best
shown in a tabulated format.
- Tabulated form of keeping conveys the required
information in a simple and definite manner.

3. Explanatory Notes
- Provide a written description of what has been done in the
field.
- These employed to make clear what the numerical data and
sketches fail to do.

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 3.4 Types of Notes
4. Computation
- Calculation or one kind or another form a large part of
the work of surveying.
- Most surveying-type computations are made
algebraically by the use of simple arithmetical steps and
trigonometric functions.

5. Combination of the above

- The practical used in most extensive surveys is a
combination of the above types of notes.

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 3.5 Information Found in Field
Notebooks
1. Title of the Fieldwork or Name of Project
2. Time of Day and Date
3. Weather Conditions
4. Names of Group Members and Their
Designations
5. List of Equipment, Materials and Tools

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 3.6 Field Survey Party

1. Chief of Party 8. Rear Tapeman

2. Assistant Chief of Party 9. Flagman
3. Instrumentman 10. Rodman
4. Technician 11. Pacer
5. Computer 12. Axeman/ Lineman
6. Recorder 13. Aidman
7. Head Tapeman 14. Utilitymen

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LESSON 4

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 4.1 Errors

• Error
- the difference between the true and measured value
of a quantity.
- These may be caused by the type of equipment used
or by the way in which the equipment is employed.
- It may also be caused by the imperfections of the
senses of the person undertaking the measurement
or by natural causes.

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 4.2 Mistakes

• Mistakes
- inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some
aspect of surveying works were done with carelessness,
poor judgment, improper execution
- Mistakes are also caused by a misunderstanding of the
problem, inexperience, or indifference of the surveyor.
Examples:
 Reading the wrong graduation on the tape
 Omitting a whole length of tape
 Misplacing of decimal point
 Incorrect recording of field notes

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 4.3 Types of Errors

1. Systematic Errors
- This type of error is one which will always have the
same sign and magnitude as long as field conditions
remain constant and unchanged.
- It will repeat itself in other measurements, still
maintaining the same sign, and thus will
accumulate.
- It is also called Cumulative Error

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 4.3 Types of Errors

2. Accidental Errors
- These errors are purely accidental in character.
- Accidental errors are caused by factors beyond the
control of the surveyor and are present in all
surveying measurements.
Example:
 Failure of the tapeman to exert the correct amount
of pull on the ends of a tape during measurement.

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 4.4 Source of Errors

1. Instrumental Errors
- These errors are due to imperfections in the
instrument used, either from faults in their
constructions or improper adjustments between the
difference parts prior to their use.
Examples:
 Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect legth
 Using a levelling rod with painted graduation not
perfectly spaced.

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 4.4 Source of Errors

2. Natural Errors
- These are caused by variations in the phenomena of
nature such as changes in magnetic declination,
temperature, humidity, wind, refraction, gravity and
curvature of the earth.
- Natural errors are beyond the control of man.
Examples:
 The effect of temperature variation on the length of
a steel tape
 Errors in the readings of the magnetic needle due to
variations in magnetic declination

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 4.4 Source of Errors

3. Personal Errors
- These errors arise principally from limitations of the
senses of sight, touch and hearing of the human
observer which are likely to be erroneous or
inaccurate.
Examples:
 Error in determining a reading on a rod which is out
of plumb during sighting
 Error in the measurement of a vertical angle when
the cross hairs of the telescope are not positioned
correctly on the target

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 4.5 Accuracy and Precision

• Accuracy
- Indicates how close a given measurement is to the
absolute or true value of the quantity measured.

• Precision
- Refers to the degree of refinement and consistency
with which any physical measurement is made

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 4.5 Accuracy and Precision

Good precision but poor accuracy Good accuracy but poor precision

Good precision and good accuracy Poor precision and poor accuracy

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Laboratory Activity
Pacing
 Pacing
• 3 Trials:
100 meters

Trial 1 = A = No. of paces

Trial 2 = B = No. of paces
Trial 3 = C = No. of paces
𝐴+𝐵+𝐶
 Average # of Paces = 3
END