Survey-I

UNIT 1
Introduction
Definition
Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of points on, above or beneath the
surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurement of distances direction and
elevation.
It also includes the art of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear
measurement .
The application of surveying requires skill as well as the knowledge of mathematics, physics etc.
The purpose of surveying is to determine the dimension and contours of any part of the earth
surface i.e. to prepare plan or map, establish boundaries of the land, measure area volume and
select a suitable site for an engineering project. Both plans and maps are graphical
representation on horizontal plane. Plan is large scale representation and map is small scale
representation. A person performing such measurement is known as Surveyor.

Primary division of survey

The surveying may primarily be defined as follows:
Plane surveying
Geodetic surveying

Plane surveying:
The surveying in which earth surface is assumed as a plane and the curvature of earth is ignored
are known as plane survey. The lines connecting any two points on earth’s surface is treated as
straight lines and angles made by these lines is plane angle.
Surveying covering an area of 260 km2 may be treated as plane survey because the difference in
length between arc and its subtended chords on earth surface for a distance of 18.2 km is only
10cm.
Uses:
Plane survey are used for layout of highway, railway, canals, fixing boundaries, pillars,
construction of bridges, factories etc.

Geodetic survey:
The survey in which the curvature of the earth is taken into account and higher degree of
accuracy in linear as well as angular observation is achieved are known as geodetic survey
If the survey extends over a large area i.e. more than 260 km2 then the line connecting any
two points are arcs. The angles between curve lines are spherical angles
Uses:
Since the geodetic survey requires more accuracy and precision thus it helps to prepare maps,
boundaries of the countries, for fixing minor control points for plane survey.
Classifiaction on the basis of nature of field
I. Land Surveying
ii. Marine Surveying
iii. Astronomical Surveying
iv. Underground Survey

i. Land Surveying:
Land Surveying further consists of
a. Topographical Surveying
b. Cadastral Surveying
c. City Surveying

a. Topographical Surveying:
This survey is conducted to obtain data to make a map indicating inequalities of land surface by
measuring elevation and to locate the natural and artificial features of earth e.g. rivers, hills
b. Cadastral Surveying:
This survey is conducted in urban and rural areas to plot the details such as boundaries of fields,
houses and property lines. These are also known as public land survey.
c. City Surveying:
An estensive survey of the area in and around the city for fixing reference monuments, locating
and improving property lines is called city surveying.

ii. Marine Surveying:

It deals with the survey of water bodies like streams, lakes , coastel water and consists data of
water bodies. It also determines the shape of the area underlying the water surface to access
the factors affecting navigation, water supply, subaqueous construction etc.

iii. Astronomical Surveying:

This survey is the survey related to the observations of the heavinely bodies such as any planets
sun or star etc.
iv. Underground Survey:
This survey is conducted under the surface of the earth to construct the plans, fixing the points
and direction of tunnels etc.

Classifiaction on the basis of instrument used:

i. Chain Survey
ii.Leveling Survey
iii. Theodolite Survey
iv. Traverse Survey
v. Triangulation Survey
vi. Tacheometric Survey
vii. Plane Tabe Survey
viii. Eectromagnetic distance measurement (EDM) Survey
viii. Total Station Survey
Principle of Survey
1. Working from whole to the part.
2. Location of point by measurement from two control or reference points.

Working from whole to the part:

The main principal of surveying whether plane or geodetic is to work from whole to the part.
To achieve this first of all sufficient number of primary control points are established with
higher precision in and around the area to be detail-surveyed. Minor control points are then
established by less precise method and details can be located using these minor control points
by running minor traverse. The main idea of working from whole to the part is to prevent the
accumulation of errors and to control and localise minor errors within the framework of the
control points. If survey is carried out from part to the whole, the errors would expand to
greater magnitude and the work would be unctrollable.
Location of point by measurement from two control or reference points:
The relative positions of points to be surveyed should be located by measurement from at least
from two points of reference, the positions of which have already been fixed. Let P and Q be
the reference points on the ground. The distance PQ can be measured accurately and positions
of P and Q can be plotted on the sheet to some scale. The points P and Q will serve as reference
points for fixing the other unknown point say R.

P P
3m P
5m S 90° R R

Q 4m Q Q

(a) (b) (c)

In fig (a) the distance PR and QR can be measured and point R can be plotted by swinging two length PR
and QR

In fig (b) the point R can be plotted by using set square and measuring distance SR

In fig (c) angle PQR and length QR can be measured point R is plotted by means of protector or
trigonometrically.
 UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
There are two kinds of measurements used in plane surveying;
1. Linear measure, i.e., horizontal or vertical distances.
2. Angular measure, i.e., horizontal or vertical angles.
1. Linear Measures.
The units of measurement of distances, have been recommended as metre and centimetre for
the execution of surveys.

(a) Basic units of length in metric system:

1 kilometre=10 hectametres
1 hectametre=10 decametres
1 decametre=10 metres
1 metre=10 decimetres
1 decimetre=10 centimetres
1 centimetre=10 millimetres

(b) Basic units of area in metric system:

1 hecta-are=10 deca ares
1 deca-are=10 ares
1 are=100 sq. metres

(c) Basic units of volume in metric system:

1 cub. metre.= 1000 cub. Decimeters
1 cub. Decimeter=1000 cub. Centimeters
1 cub. Centimeter=1000 cub. milimetres

Before 1956, F.P.S. (Foot, pound, second) system was used for the measurement of lenghts,
areas and volumes. These units which are known as British units, are:

(a) Basic units of length in F.P.S. System:

1 nautical mile= 6080 feet
1 cable length=120 fathoms
1 fathom=6 feet
1 mile=8 furlongs
1 furlong=10 chains
1 chain(66 feet)= 4 poles
1 rod, pole or 1 sq. perch=5.5. yards
1 yard=3 feet
1 foot=12 inches
(b) Basic units of area in F.P.S. System :
1 acre.= 10 sq. chains
1 sq. chain=484 sq. yards
1 sq. mile=640 acres
1 acre=4 roods
1 rood=40 sq. rods
1sq. rod or pole=30.25 sq. yard
1sq. yard=9 sq. feet
1sq. foot=144 sq. inch

(c) Basic units of volume in F.P.S. System :

1 cu. Yard=27 cu. Feet
1 cu. foot.= 1728 cu. inches

Units of area used in Nepal

Mountain Region
1 Ropani =16 Aana=5476 sq ft
1 Aana= 4 Paisa =342.25 sq ft
1Paisa = 4 Daam=85.5625 sq ft
Terai Region
1 Bigha= 20 katha =72900 sq ft
1 Katha =20 Dhur= 3645 sq ft
1 Dhur =182.25 sq ft =16.93 sq m

Conversion Factors for Lengths

Metres,Yards,Feet, Inches
Metres Yards feet inches

1 1.0936 3.2808 39.37

0.9144 1 3 36

0.3048 0.3333 1 12

0.0254 0.0278 0.0833 1

Conversion Factors for Areas
Sq. metres,Sq. yards, Sq. feet, Sq. inches
Sq. sq. yards sq. feet sq. inches
metres
1 1.196 10.7639 1550

0.8361 1 9 1296

0.0929 0.1111 1 144

0.00065 0.00077 0.0069 1

Conversion Factors for Areas

Ares, acres, sq. metre and sq. yards
Ares Acres sq. sq. yards
metre
1 0.0247 100 119.6

40.469 1 4046.9 4840

0.01 0.000247 1 1.196

0.0084 0.00021 0.8361 1

Conversion Factors for Volumes

Cub. metres, cub. yards, gallons
1 1.308 219.969
0.7645 1 168.178
0.00455 000595 1
2. Angular Measures. An angle may be defined as the difference in directions of two
intersecting lines, or it is the inclination of two straight lines. The unit of a plane angle is
‘radian’. Radian is defined as the measure of the angle between two radii of a circle which
contain an arc equal to the radius of the circle [Fig. 1.3]. The popular systems of angular
measurements, are:
(i) Sexagesimal System of Angular Measurements
In this system the circumference of a circle, is divided into 360 equal parts, each part is known
as one degree. 1/60th part of a degree is called a minute and 1/60th part of a minute, is called a
second. i.e.
1circumference = 360 degrees of arc
1° = 60 minutes of arc
1 minute = 60 seconds of arc.
(ii) Centesimal System of Angular Measurements
In this system, the circumference of a circle, is divided into 400 equal parts, each part is known
as one grad. One hundredth part of a grad is known as centigrade and one hundredth part of a
centigrade is known as centi-centigrade i.e.,
1 circumference = 400 grads
1 garde= 100 centigrade
1 centigrade = 100 centi−centigrade.
From the ancient times, sexagesimal system is widely used in different countries of the world.
Most complete mathematical tables are available in this system and most of surveying
instruments i.e., theodolites, sextants etc., are graduated according to this system. However,
due to facility in computation and interpolation, the centesimal system for angular
measurements is gaining popularity in the western countries these days.

Conversion Factors from one System to other

Degrees Grades Minutes Centigrade Seconds Ctien-

centigrade
1 1.1111 60 111.11 3600 11111
0.9 1 54 100 3240 10000
0.0167 0.01852 1 1.8518 60 185.18
0.0090 0.0100 0.5405 1 32.4 100
0.00027 0.0003 0.0054 0.0100 1 3.08640
0.00009 0.0001 0.0054 0.0100 0.324 1

MAP and PLAN SCALES

Considering the actual surface dimensions, drawings are made to smaller scale of the area. It is
never possible to make its drawing to full size. This operation is generally known as ‘drawing to
scale’. The scale of a map/plan may be defined as the fixed proportion which every distance
between the locations of the points on the map/plan, bears to the corresponding distances
between their positions on the ground. The representation is called a map if the scale is small
while it is called a plan if the scale is large.
For an example, if 1 cm on a plan represents a distance of 5 metres on the ground, the scale of
the plan is said to be 1 cm = 5 m.
Scale used in maps may be 1cm=200m, 1cm=5km, 1cm=10km etc.
The scale of a map or pan is also sometimes expressed by a fraction generally called,
‘Representative Fraction’ (R.F.). Scales of the maps or plans are represented by the following
two methods:
(i) Numerical scales. (ii) Graphical scales.

1. Numerical scales. Numerical scales are further divided into two types, i.e.,
(a) Engineer’s scale (b) Fraction scale.
(a) Engineer’s scale. The scale on which one cm on the plan represents some whole number of
metres on the ground, is known as Engineer’s scale. For example, 1 cm = 5 m ; 1 cm = 10 m, etc.
(b) Fraction scale. The scale on which an unit of length on the plan represents some number of
the same unit of length on the ground is known as Fraction Scale. For example, 1 : 500; 1 : 1000;
1 : 5,000, etc.
To convert an engineer’s scale into fraction scale, multiply the whole number of metres by 100.
Similarly, a fraction scale may be converted into engineer’s scale by dividing the denominator
by 100 and equating the quotient to 1 cm.
Example 1.1. The engineer’s scale of a drawing, is stated to be 1 cm = 4 m. Convert this to
fraction scale.
Solution.
Engineer’s scale is 1 cm = 4 m
Fraction scale is 4 × 100 or 1 : 400. Ans.
Example 1.2. The fraction scale of a map is stated to be 1 : 50,000 Convert this to Engineer’s
scale.
Solution.
1 unit on plan = 50,000 units on the ground
1 cm on plan = 50,000 cm on the g round
or 1 cm on plan = 500 m on the ground
Hence, Engineer’s scale is 1 cm = 500 m. Ans

2. Graphical scales. A graphical scale is a line subdivided into plan distances corresponding to
some convenient units of length on the surface of the earth.

Scale and their types

Scale is defined as the fixed proportion which every distance between locations of the points on
the map bears to the corresponding distances between their positions on the earth’s surface.
Primary considerations in choosing the scale for a particular project are those to which the map
will be put and the extent of the territory to be represented. For most of the engineering
projects, the scale varies from 1 cm = 2.5 – 100 m.
CLASSIFICATION OF SCALES
The scales drawn on the maps or plans, may be classified as under :
(i) Plain scale
(ii) Diagonal scale
(iii) Scale of chords
(iv) Vernier scale
1. Plain Scales. A plain scale is one on which it is possible to measure only two dimensions, i.e.,
metres and decimetres; kilometers and hectametres; miles and furlongs, etc.
Plain Scales as Recommended by IS : 1491 – 1959
Full Size 1 : 1
50 cm to a metre 1 : 2
40 cm to a metre 1 : 2.5
20 cm to a metre 1 : 5
10 cm to a metre 1 : 10
5 cm to a metre 1 : 20
2 cm to a metre 1 : 50
1 cm to a metre 1 : 100
5 mm to a metre 1 : 200
2 mm to a metre 1 : 500
1 mm to a metre 1 : 1000
0.5 mm to a metre 1 : 200

Example 1.3. Construct a plain scale whose R.F. is 1 : 50,000, to measure miles and furlongs.
Solution.
50,000 yards = 1 yd
= 36′′
= 36 × 2.54
36∗2.54
1 yard =
50000
36∗2.54
1 mile or 1760 yds = = × 1760
50000
= 3.219 cm.
To have the length of the scale more than 18 cm, multiply 3.219 by 6.
The length representing 6 miles
= 3.219 × 6 = 19.314 cm.
Take a length of 19.314 cm and divide it into 6 equal parts, each part representing one mile.
Subdivide the left hand division into 8 equal parts, each part representing one furlong. Place
zero of the scale between the undivided part and divided part and mark the readings on the
scale as shown in Fig.
Example 1.4. Construct a plain scale 1 cm = 250 m and show 3
kilometres and 7 hectametres thereon.
Solution.
250 m = 1 cm
1
1000 m = x1000
250
= 4 cm
Take a 24 cm length and divide it into 6 equal parts, each part representing 1 kilometre.
Subdivide the left hand part into 10 divisions, each representing one hectametre. Place the zero
of the scale between the sub divided part and undivided part and mark the scale as shown
in Fig.
To measure a distance of 3 kilometres and 7 hectametres, place one leg of the divider at 3
kilometres and the other at 7 hectametres, as shown in Fig.
2. Diagonal Scales. On a diagonal scale, it is possible to measure three dimensions such as
kilometres, hectametres and decametres; or yards, feet and inches, etc.
Principle of ‘a Diagonal Scale.’ The construction of a diagonal scale is based on the principle
of similar triangles in which corresponding sides are proportional.

3. Scale of Chords. A scale of chords is used to measure or to set off angles. It is marked either

on a rectangular protractor or on an ordinary box wooden scale.

4. Vernier Scales. In 1631, Pierre Vernier invented a device for the purpose of measuring a
fractional part of a graduated scale. It consists of two approximating scales, one of them is fixed
and is called the primary scale, the other is movable and is called the vernier. The fineness of
reading or the least count of a vernier is equal to the difference between the smallest division
on the main scale and the smallest division on the vernier.

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