11

GENERAL
BIOLOGY 1
Learner’s Module

STEM

This book was collaboratively developed and reviewed by educators.

We encourage teachers and other education stakeholders to send their
feedback, comments and recommendations.

THESSA VEE C. RIO

SUBJECT TEACHER
 1
1. INTRODUCTION
THE WORLD OF THE CELL

This module is divided into three lessons: (1) cell structure and classification, (2) cell cycle, and (3)
transport mechanism which are the major topics of cellular biology. Students will be looking into the
cellular structure, function, and processes that are important to sustain life. They will immersed in
various activities and hands-on tasks that will allow them to explore the significance of transport,
respiration, and bioenergetics.

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 1
INTRODUCTION TO CELL
LESSON BIOLOGY

I. Content Standard The Learners demonstrate understanding of:

 Cell theory
 Cell structure and functions
 Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic cells
 Cell types
 Cell modifications
II. Performance The Learners should be able to construct a 3D model of a
Standard plant/animal/bacterial cell using recyclable materials
III. Learning  Explain the postulates of the cell theory
Competencies  Describe the structures and function of major and
subcellular organelles
 Distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells according to
their distinguishing features
 Classify different cell types (of plant/animal tissues) and
specify the functions of each
 Describe some cell modifications that lead to adaptation
to carry out specialized functions (e.g., microvilli, root
hair)
IV. Learning Outcome The Learners will be able to:
 Explain the postulates of the cell theory
 Describe the structures and function of major and
subcellular organelles
 Distinguish prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells according to
their distinguishing features
 Classify different cell types (of plant/animal tissues) and
specify the functions of each
Describe some cell modifications that lead to adaptation
to carry out specialized functions (e.g., microvilli, root
hair)

INTRODUCTION TO
LESSON MAP CELL BIOLOGY

THE CELL THEORY

CELL ORGANELLES

CELL TYPES AND

MODIFICATIONS

PRE-
ASSESSMENT STLCFI
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Name of Student:_______________________ Date: _____________

Grade and Section: ______________________ Score: ____________

A. Identify the discoveries of the following scientists:

1. Robert Hooke –

2. Anton von Leeuwenhoek –

3. Matthias Schleiden –

4. Robert Brown –

5. Theodore Schwann –

B. Define the following terms:

1. Cell –

2. Organelles –

3. Cytoplasm –

4. Eukaryotes –

5. Unicellular –

6. Prokaryotes –

7. Mitochondrion –

8. Multicellular –

9. Chloroplast –

10. Organism -

ESSENTIAL
QUESTIONS STLCFI
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 1. What is cell? What are its
organelles, functions and types?
2. What is an organism?
3. What are the cell theories?
4. Who are the scientists that

LESSON
DEVELOPMENT WITH

Figure 1. Drawing of the structure of cork as seen by

Robert Hooke using a microscope
 THE CELL THEORY

Prior to the invention of the very first microscope, everything that could not be seen by the naked eye
was unexplainable. In 1665, Robert Hooke was able to observe in a piece of cork specimen structures
which appear as tiny compartments similar to small rooms that are fitted to each other (Figure 1). Hooke
coined the word “cell” to describe these chamber-like structures and later became famous. Hooke
thought that only plants and fungi were the only ones made up of cells. Until 1676, Anton von
Leeuwenhoek published his observations on tiny living organisms which he named animalcules. It was
believed that Leeuwenhoek

was the first to observe under his microscope the structure of a red blood cell of different animals as
well as sperm cell. Between the Hooke-Leeuwenhoek discoveries up to kid-nineteenth century, very
little cell advancements were made. It was probably due to the widely-accepted, traditional belief on the
theory of spontaneous generation which supposes that living things may arise from non-living matter;

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for instance, maggots and flies can exist from rotting meat. It was only refuted when Loius Pasteur’s
experiment disproved that theory.

One of the leading botanists in hid time, Robert Brown in 1831 was able to compare diverse kinds of
plant specimens under the microscope. He markedly indicated that there is one common thing about
them – they are all composed of cells, and inside the cell is a dark dense spot which he termed as
nucleus. A few years later, German botanist Matthias Schleiden (1838) concluded that all plant parts are
made of cells. Theodore Schwann (1839), also a botanist and
a close friend of Schleiden stated that all animals’ tissues are
composed of cells, too. In 1858, Rudolf Virchow concluded
that all cells come from pre-existing cells.

The discoveries made by Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden,

Schwann, Virchow, and others led to the formulation of the
cell theory. The cell theory is universal for all living things,
no matter how simple or complex, tiny or huge it is. This
theory can be summed up into three basic components: (1) all
living organisms are composed of one or more cells; (2) the
cell is the basic unit of life in all living things; and (3) all
cells come from pre-existing cells.

The three postulates of the cell theory offer the basis on how
an object is considered as a living thing. All living things are
fundamentally made up of cell; this entails no exception no
matter how simple or complex that organism is or to what
environment it is exposed to or what course of evolution it
has gone through. An organism can be unicellular (one-
celled) or multicellular. A single-celled organism can
perform all the essential functions which enable it to grow,
survive, and reproduce. Multicellular organisms are more Figure 1.2 Illustration of Virchow's cell
complex in structures and function but the mechanism in how theory
it is able to live is still the same with the simple life forms. Strongly related to this is the second
postulate which states that the cell is the basic unit of life. The cell operates similar to a complete
machine which has many compartments that perform different but interrelated and interconnected
functions. The cell is a completely functional entity that possesses characteristics which distinguish it
from inanimate objects. Finally, all cells come from pre-existing cells, which signifies that cells cannot
be spontaneously created but it will always be a product of reproduction from a pre-existing cell
(Mazzarello 1999)

ACTIVITY 1 TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Name of Student:_______________________ Date: _____________

Grade and Section: ______________________ Score: ____________

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Answer the activity below.
A. Who is the scientist that gave the following statement and state how they had come up with the
statement?
1. Thousands of tiny empty chambers in cork are called cells
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
______________
2. Tiny living organisms are observed
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
______________
3. All plants are made up of cells
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
______________
4. All animals are made up of cells
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
______________
5. All cells come from pre-existing cells
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
______________

 CELL ORGANELLES

All living organisms are composed of one or many cells. The cell is the building block of life,
which is able to control and execute several functions in all types of organisms. The cell is generally
microscopic, but its size varies from one organism to another and also from the parts of the organism
itself. Cell structures can only be observed under high magnification electron microscope and re
separated internally into numerous membranous compartment called organelles (little organs). These
organelles perform a variety of functions like production of proteins, storage of important materials,
harvesting energy, repairing cell parts, digestion of substances, and maintaining the shape and
structure of the cell, among others. Since the organelles are compartmentalized, one system does not
interfere with functions of the other systems but their roles are interdependent.

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 Figure 1.3 Illustration of the cell mambrane showing the peripheral and embedded
proteins and carbohydrate molecule in the lipid bilayer
Starting from the outside, a
cell membrane encloses the cell and separates it from external environment. It actively regulates the
kind of substance that goes in and out of the cell. The cell membrane consists of a bilayer of
phospholipid with integral (embedded) and peripheral (attached) proteins, as well as enzymes,
receptors proteins, and glycoproteins (Figure 1.3). One important feature of the membrane is its
fluidity. Lipid molecules can move laterally across the membrane together with the irregularly
arranged proteins (mosaic), thereby referred to as fluid mosaic. It is also selectively permeable to
allow some molecules to pass through the membrane such as H2, CO2, and O2 and prevent polar
molecules and ions to enter or exit the cell freely. This does not mean that these molecules are
incapable of moving across the membrane. Specialized transmembrane proteins enable the fast

A jelly-like substance which is mainly composed of water with dissolved substances such as salt
and proteins is called cytoplasm. The cytoplasm is responsible for the fluid nature of the cell’s internal
environment and that which allows the organelles to suspend dynamically. The nucleus, which is the
control center of the cell, is enclosed in a double membrane which selectively permits certain materials or
compounds (e.g., mRNA) to exit. The double membrane is separated approximately 50 nm. The outer
membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. In the nucleus, a long strand of DNA molecule
is present which wounds around histone proteins to form a helical structure, termed as chromatin strand.
During cell division, these chromatin strands further become condensed and thicken to form
chromosomes. These chromosomes are visible when stained and viewed in a light microscope. Within the
nucleus, a sub-organelle known as nucleolus is present (Figure 1.4a). It is where the subunits of the
ribosomes are assembled and include the synthesis and maturation of ribosomal RNA for release in the
cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Around 10, 000 ribosomes per minute are needed by the cell,
which means that the nucleolus should produce huge amount of ribosomal subunits to sustain protein
synthesis in the cell. The nucleolus is easily recognized under the light microscope as a slightly darker
region.

STLCFI
Figure 1.4(a) a diagram of showing nucelus
7 the basic parts; (b) TEM section of
the nucleus showing the darker stained nucleus
 Millions of ribosomes are present in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell. This is the main structure
involved in protein synthesis. Each ribosome is made up of two subunits coming from the nucleolus. The
subunits from the nucleolus will be associated in the mRNA molecule forming the functional unit for
protein synthesis. Ribosomes, subsequently move across the mRNA strand and new ribosomes
continuously attach to the end of the strand forming a polyribosome or polysome.

The cell’s endomembrane system is composed of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi bodies,
lysosomes, transport vesicle, vacuoles, and other membrane-bound components. The functions of these
organelles are connected from the synthesis of materials, transporting, packaging, metabolism, and even
detoxification of substances. Their structures are different and so with the individual tasks they perform.

Figure 1.5 TEM image of a lung tissue showing cell parts

such as nucleus, mitochondria, and ER Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) is a membranous system of interconnected tubules (Figure 1.5) which served as the
transport system of the cell. It is composed of two types based on the presence or absence of attached
ribosomes: the smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)
appears grainy in structure in the electron micrograph, thus named as rough. It is responsible in the
production of secretory proteins such as glycoproteins; it is also where membranes are produced for the
cell and its expanding membrane forms transport vesicles, which is important in the transit of products
being made by the ribosomes attached in the rough ER. On the other hand, the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (smooth ER) lacks ribosomes on its outer surface. Various metabolic processes such as
metabolism of carbohydrates, lipid synthesis, and detoxification of drugs, chemicals, and poisons are
performed in this organelle.

Golgi bodies (or Golgi

apparatus/Golgi complex)
consist of stacks or piles of
flattened sacs called cisternae,
which functions in the
packaging, sorting, and
refining of products that the
cells are making. For example,
the products of ER will be
modified by the Golgi
apparatus and then transported
to other destinations in the
cell.

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Figure 1.6(a) Golgi8 apparatus secretory pathway in a diagram and (b) TEM
micrograph
 Vacuole is one organelle that is larger in plants than in animal cells. The vacuole has the ability to enlarge
as plant cells absorb water. The central vacuole or tonoplast serves as the main compartment for storing
essential organic and inorganic compounds. It has also a disposal site for substances that are not needed
by the cell or that could harm the cell.

Figure 1.7 Model of endosymbiosis theory

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 Lysosome is an exclusive organelle for animal cells which carries out intercellular digestion. It
contains hydrolytic enzymes that are used to digest all kinds of macromolecules. It also recycles
intercellular materials through autophagy, where organelles that are damaged will be digested and the
resulting monomers will be reused by the cell for repair, maintenance, and making of necessary cellular
components.

Eukaryotic cells which will be further discussed in the next section contain organelles that can
convert energy to another usable form that the cell may be able to utilize. According to one theory of
cellular evolution, mitochondrion and chloroplast are considered autonomous organisms which were
engulfed by an ancient cell. These two organelles have their own DNA and ribosomes. This is known as
the endosymbiotic theory (Figure 1.7). Eukaryotic cells can have only one or many mitochondria and/or
chloroplast depending on the function, activity, and the nature of the cell.

Mitochondrion (pl. mitochondria) is the powerhouse of the cell where cellular respiration takes
place. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the usable form of energy for the cell to perform its functions. It
is generated by metabolizing sugars, fat and other energy sources with the presence of oxygen. The
mitochondrion has outer and inner membranes. The outer membrane is smooth while cristae (inner
membrane) have infoldings giving large surface area for metabolic activities (Figure 1.8). The matrix is
one of the two compartments of cristae containing different enzymes, DNA, and ribosomes. These
enzymes catalyse the process of cellular respiration.

Figure 1.8 Diagram of the mitochondrion showing the inner and

outer membrane where ATP production occurs

Chloroplast is only found in the plant cell and other photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms; it is
the site for food production. By capturing light or solar energy, the chloroplast converts it to organic
compounds such as sugar from carbon dioxide and water. Chloroplast contains the green pigment
chlorophyll which functions in glucose production. The chloroplast’s internal structure is composed of
flattened sacs called thylakoids and each stacks is called granum (pl. grana). Stroma is the fluid outside
the thylakoid where enzymes, the chloroplast’s DNA, and ribosomes are found (Figure 1.9).

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Figure 1.9 An example of a typical chloroplast structure in
some plant groups

Other structures present in the cell are the

components of the cytoskeleton which establishes
the form of the cell and holds the organelles in
place. The cytoskeleton is composed of
microfilaments, microtubules (Figure 1.10), and
intermediate filaments. Microfilaments are made
up of actin molecules which form the fibers of
approximately 7 – 8 nm diameter; whereas,
microtubules are composed of tubulin forming a
hollow cylinder of 25 nm in diameter. In terms of
size, the intermediate filaments are around 8 – 10
nm that make it “intermediate” in size. Unlike
microtubules and
microfilaments, the intermediate Figure 1.10 Micrograph of the microtubule in a
filament is rigid and resists gel-fixated cell
stretching.

Some cells also possess cilia and

flagella which are cellular
projections that are used for
movement of cell over a surface.
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Figure 1.11 (a)11illustration of the cross section of an axoneme; (b) electron
micrograph of the axoneme of a green algae Chlorophyta
Structure is similar for both flagella and cilia as shown in the cross section of the axoneme, the central
strand of the flagellum or cilium (Figure 1.11); however, the length and frequency mark the difference.
Flagellar length ranges from 20 to 100 μm, which is numerous and found all over the cell surface.
Flagella and cilia are covered by the plasma membrane and are connected to the cell by an array of
microtubules arranged as axoneme. This is composed of nine pairs or doublet of microtubules arranged
in cylindrical form. Fine fibers connect the doublet and each doublet contains dynein arms (protein that
appears as two short arms of the doublet). Movement using flagella and cilia is a result of the sliding of
adjacent microtubule doublets. The dynein arm initially attaches to the adjacent doublet, changes its
conformation, and then dissociates. Flagella creates a propelling motion; whereas, cilia beat back and
forth to move the cell. These structures can both exist in the same cell or may be present either as
flagella only or cilia only.

ACTIVITY 2 TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Name of Student:_______________________ Date: _____________

Grade and Section: ______________________ Score: ____________

Answer the following questions below:

1. What are the functions that the vacuole can perform?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
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 2. Differentiate the functions of microfilament, microtubules and intermediate
filaments.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________

3. What is the function of the chloroplast in plant cell? Why is it absent in animal
cells?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________
4. What does the cell wall serve in a plant cell?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

 CELL TYPES

The difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic

organisms is said to be the most important
distinction among the groups of living things.
Deriving from the name itself, eu means “true”
while karyon means “nucleus”. The main difference
is that in eukaryotic cells, chromosomes are enclosed
inside the nucleus while the prokaryotes’ DNA (pro
means “before”) is found in a region called nucleoid
that has no membrane. However, both types of cells
possess cytoplasm. In prokaryotes, aside from not
having a true nucleus, a semi-rigid cell wall is
present and membrane-bound organelles with
specialized functions are absent.
Figure 1.12 Diagram of the structure of a typical
bacteria cell All prokaryotic organisms are unicellular
(single-celled) which include the members of
Kingdom Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. They are much simpler in cellular structure (Figure 1.12) and
may occur singly, in pairs, chains, clusters, aggregates, or colonies. Prokaryotic organisms are extremely

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microscopic ranging from 1 –10 μm in diameter compared to eukaryotic cells that are bigger with 10—
100 μm in diameter. Some species are rod-shaped ( bacilli), spherical (cocci), spiral, etc.(Figure 1.13).

Figure1.13 Examples of microbial cell shape

All multicellular organisms including humans, which are composed of complex or many cells,
are examples of eukaryotic cells. Kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia are the members of
eukaryotic living things. Being generally larger in size(but still microscopic), eukaryotes’ cellular
structures perform variety of functions. Plasma membrane and cell wall are found in both cell types;
however, their composition and structure are highly dissimilar. Different eukaryotic organisms have
varying features in terms of the composition, structure, and function of the cell organelles. For instance,
fungal cell is different to plant cell in many aspects.

ACTIVITY 3 TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Name of Student:_______________________ Date: _____________

Grade and Section: ______________________ Score: ____________

Answer the following questions:

1. Are animal cells and plant cells eukaryotic or prokaryotic? Why do you say so?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________
2. Are bacterial cells eukaryotic or prokaryotic? Explain your answer.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
________

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 3. What cellular structures do both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have in common?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____
4. In terms of physical features (e.g., size, size and shape), how do these two types of cells differ?
__________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
5. Cite examples of organisms that are prokaryotes?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
__________

RUBRICS IN ANSWERING ESSAY QUESTIONS

4 3 2 1
FEATURES
EXPERT ACCOMPLISHED CAPABLE BEGINNER
Quality of  It is written in  It is written in  It had a little  It had no
Writing an an interesting style or voice style or voice
extraordinary style and  Give some  Gives no new
voice and style voice information information
 Very  Somewhat but poorly and very
informative informative organized poorly
and well- and organized organized
organized
Grammar  Virtually no  Few spelling  A number of  So many
Usage and spelling, and spelling, spelling,
Mechanics punctuation or punctuations punctuation punctuation
grammatical errors, minor or and
errors grammatical grammatical grammatical
error errors errors that it
interferes
with the
meaning

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 CHAPTER TEST

Name of Student:_______________________ Date: _____________

Grade and Section: ______________________ Score: ____________

I. Identify the following questions below. Write your answer on the blank before each number.
_____________________ 1. Where does the prokaryote’s’ DNA located?
_____________________ 2. It establishes the form of the cell and holds the organelles
in place.
_____________________ 3. An enzyme that is used to digest all kinds of
macromolecules.
_____________________ 4. The usable form of energy for the cell to perform its
function.
_____________________ 5. The site for food production of a plant cell.
_____________________ 6. It is responsible in the production of secretory proteins in
the cell.
_____________________ 7. The scientist who was able to compare diverse kinds of
plant specimen under the microscope.
_____________________ 8. He was able to observe in a piece of cork specimen
structures which appear as tiny compartments.
_____________________ 9. An organism that can perform all the essential functions
which enable it to grow, survive, and reproduce.
_____________________ 10. What do you call the building blocks of life?
_____________________ 11. It is one of the important features of the membrane.
_____________________ 12. A jelly-like substance which is mainly composed of water
with dissolved substances such as salt and proteins.
_____________________ 13. What do you call a long strand of DNA in the nucleus?

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 _____________________ 14. How many ribosomes are needed by the cell?
_____________________ 15. What do you call a microbial cell that is rod-shaped?

II. Enumeration. Give what is asked.

1. Give at least 5 plant organelles.
2. Give at least 3 examples of a microbial cell shape.
3. What are the 3 cell theories?
4. What are the 5 components of the cell membrane?
5. Give at least 4 components of the cell’s endomembrane system.

SUMMARY

This lesson is about the introduction to cell biology. You learned to:

 Explain the postulates of the cell theory

 Describe the structure and function of major and subcellular organelles
 Distinguish prokaryotic from eukaryotic cells according to their distinctive features
 Classify different cell types and specify the function(s) of each
 Describe some cell modifications that lead to adaptation to carry out specialized functions

REFERENCE

BOOK:

Rea, M.A., et al., General Biology 1: First Edition. Rex Bookstore, Inc., Sta.
Mesa Heights, Quezon City, 2017

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 2
CELL CYCLE
LESSON
I. Content The Learners demonstrate understanding of:
Standard  Cell Cycle (MIitosis and Meiosis)
II. Performance The Learners should be able to construct a 3D model of a
Standard plant/animal/bacterial cell using recyclable materials
III. Learning  Characterize the phases of the cell cycle and their control
Competencie points
s  Describe the stages of mitosis/meiosis given 2n=6
 Explain the significance or applications of mitosis and
meiosis, and their role in the cell-division cycle)
IV. Learning The Learners will be able to:
Outcome  Characterize the phases of the cell cycle and their control
points
 Describe the stages of mitosis/meiosis given 2n=6
 Explain the significance or applications of mitosis and
meiosis, and their role in the cell-division cycle)

THE CELL CYCLE

LESSON
MAP

MITOSIS

MEIOSIS

CELL CYCLE, CELL

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DEATH AND DISEASES
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 PRE-
ASSESSMENT

Name of Student:_______________________ Date: _____________

Grade and Section: ______________________ Score: ____________

A. Define the following terms:

1. Mitosis –

2. Meiosis –

3. Chromatin –

4. Chromosomes –

5. DNA –

6. Mitotic spindle –

7. Kinetochore –

8. Crossing over –

9. Silent mutation –

10. Aneuploidy –

B. Give what is asked.

1. What are the stages of mitosis?

2. What are the stages of interphase?

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 ESSENTIAL
QUESTIONS

1. What is mitosis? Meiosis?

2. What are the stages of the two
kinds of cell division?
3. What are the differences of
the stages between mitosis and
meiosis?

LESSON
DEVELOPMENT WITH

 CELL CYCLE

Active eukaryotic cell undergo a series of phases

to make new cells and sustain the demand of a
living organism. The observable phase under the
microscope where you see the chromosomes and
nuclei is the M phase or mitosis phase. The M
phase is very short in comparison to the larger
time that the cell is undergoing the interphase.
STLCFIFigure 2.1 A schematic diagram of the
20 cell cyle showing the G 1, S, G 2 , M, and
G 0 Phase
During the interphase, DNA exists as chromatin rather than as chromosomes. The interphase is divided
into three phases. (Figure 2.1)

The first stage of the interphase is the G 1

phase (gap 1). This is the “decision-making
step” when the cell decides if it will start the
cell cycle or rest or permanently exit the cell
cycle to become a differentiated cell (G0
phase) (Figure 2.1; 2.2 a-b). If the cell
decides to pass through the G1 phase, then it
will commit to undergo the S phase and
finish the remainder of the cell cycle. In the
next phase, the S (synthesis) phase, DNA
replication occurs where the nucleus
Figure 2.2 illustration of Allium cepa becomes larger with twice the amount of
(onion) cells in different phases of the DNA. Then, the G2 phase is where further
cell cycle with (a) non-dividing cells, growth and final preparation for mitosis
(b) nuclei preparing fro division, and happen (Figure 2.2c). The M phase that
dividing cells showing mitotic figures, follows the G2 phase, the cell undergoes a
pair of daughter-cells shortly after physical division via cytokinesis. The
division cytoplasmic membrane separates (in case of
the animal cell) or new membrane becomes
deposited (plant cell) to create two new cells (Figure 2.2e).
It is important to understand that at the start of the cell cycle, a eukaryotic cell is usually diploid (2n).
Despite the fact that the DNA content doubles during S phase, the replicated strand is only a duplicate
copy of the other; thus is termed as sister chromatids. These are not considered as separate chromosomes.
This will then be divided into each of the daughter cells at the end of M phase or mitosis.
Mitosis begins with prophase where chromatin in the nucleus supercoils or condenses to form
chromosomes (Figure 2.3). These chromosomes are then recognizable under the light microscope. Look
at Figure 2.4 to understand the different morphology that the DNA will take during various stages of
compaction in cell reproduction.

Figure 2.3 Diagram of chromosomes showing the telomere and

centromere regions

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Figure 2.4. The major structures of DNA compactioon showing DNA, the nucleosome, the 10 nm "beads-on-
a-string fiber, the 30 nm fiber, and the metaphase chromosome

The condensed chromosome is made up of two identical sister chromatids that are densely packed and
constricted in a region termed as centromere. This is also the phase when mitotic spindle starts to form
on the outside of the nucleus. The mitotic spindle involved in this process originates from the
centrosome, which is composed of paired centrioles that have been duplicated during interphase. Asters
radiate on the peripheral of these centrosomes, hence pushing the duplicated centrosomes apart. The
transition stage from the prophase to metaphase is known as prometaphase. During prometaphase, the
nuclear envelope starts to break down allowing the spindle to interact with the chromosomes. The
spindle fibers then bind to the kinetochore (found on the centromere region). When the kinetochores of
the sister chromatids are attached to the spindle fibers, the chromosomes move midway between poles
until it aligns at one plate, the metaphase plate. Therefore, the next stage is known as metaphase. The
equilibrium “central” positioning of the chromosomes means that one of the sister chromatids has
attached to the other chromosome. (Figure 2.5)

Figure 2.5 illustration of microtubule attached to the

kinetochore of the chromosome during the metaphase
The next stage of mitosis is when the
sister chromatid separates and moves apart toward the opposite poles of the cell. This newly separated
chromatid is called chromosomes. As the poles move further apart, the cell elongates the spindle.

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Telopahse begins when the chromosomes at the end of each pole decondense. A new nuclear envelope
forms and chromosome further decondenses into a chromatin.

In order to finally create two new cells, cytokinesis should take place. This is not a compulsory phase
since some cells finish cell division with multiple copies of chromosome set such as the liver cell. For
some animal cells, cytokinesis is initiated during anaphase where the plane of cleavage is set at the right
angle to the mitotic spindles. The cell then divides in half from the action of actin filaments that
constitute the contractile rings along the cleavage plane. This process should be correctly done in animal
cell to ensure that the cell divides at the correct plane and the division happens at the right time when the
sister chromatids have separated. In plant cells, due to the absence of centrosome in plants, the fibers are
barrel-shaped instead of spindle-shaped. The cell wall of the plant is also rigid; thus, cleavage formation
is not possible to occur. Plant cell uses a densely fibrous phragmoplast fiber that grows out toward the
“old” cell wall (equivalent to the cleavage plane in animal cells). Membrane vesicles are then produced
from the phragmoplast which travel or slide across the fiber to form a new sheet of cytoplasmic
membrane which is known as the cell plate (Ledbetter et al. 1963). The cell plate then thickens and
separates the two new cells. It is during prophase that the plant cell decides at which plane the new plate
will form (Figure 2.6).

Figure 2.6 Illustration of plant cell during cytokinesis. The

phragmoplast and cell plate assemble in the center of the
cell. The phragmoplast enlarges in a donut shape toward
the outside of the cell then the cell plate transforms into
the new cell wall

ACTIVITY 1 TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Name of Student:_______________________ Date: _____________

Grade and Section: ______________________ Score: ____________

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Complete the table below to summarize the significant events that happen in each stage of the cell
division. The first phase is done for you.

PHASE STAGE DESCRIPTION

Cells increase in size. Organelles are being built. DNA synthesis
starts.
G2 (Gap 1)
Interphase
G1 to S Checkpoint. Am I large enough? Do I need to divide?
DNA replication commences resulting in each chromosome
Synthesis
having two sister chromatids
G2 (Gap 2) Cells continue to grow and protein synthesis continues in
preparation for mitosis

S to G2 Checkpoints: Is my DNA copy correct? Am I ready to

divide?
Prophase

Mitosis

Metaphase M Checkpoint: Are chromosomes lined up in the middle?

Anaphase

Telophase

 MEIOSIS

A special type of cell division which is

exclusively for gametes (sperm and egg cell) is
called meiosis. Meiosis consists of two sets of
cell division (Meiosis I and Meiosis II) resulting
in four daughter cells having only half of the
number of chromosomes of its parent cell
(haploid). In humans, the chromosomes are
reduced to only half of the set of the
chromosome number (23) so that when the
gametes undergo fertilization, it will add up and
return to its original complete set of
chromosomes.
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Figure 2.7 Diagram of stages of meiosis
What differentiates mitosis from meiosis is in terms of three important events. First, meiosis allows the
exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes when they line up side by side during
prophase I (synapsis). This exchange of genetic material is called crossing over which can occur
between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. Secondly, the independent assortment of
the chromosomes increases the genetic variability among the daughter cells produced during meiosis
(Figure 2.7). For instance, if there are n pairs of chromosomes in the parent cell, independent assortment
produces 2n possible combinations in its daughter cells. Thus, a limitless number of genetic
combinations are possible in the resulting cells of meiosis. Lastly, alleles of the same gene separate
during meiosis. These characteristics increase the genetic variability in the offspring and are important
in understanding genetics and evolution in sexually reproducing organisms.

ACTIVITY 2 TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Name of Student:_______________________ Date: _____________

Grade and Section: ______________________ Score: ____________

The steps in meiosis are summarized in the table below. Draw each event in the box on the left
column. Make sure to show the following parts: cell membrane, spindle fiber, chromosome, and
centrosome, together with other essential parts of the cell division. Illustrate using 1 cell with 4
chromosomes as the starting point (2n=4).

Illustration Phase Events

Create tetrads (XX) by pairing
homologous chromosomes. This is
Prophase I where crossing over occurs

Tetrads line up along the metaphase

plate. This phase is when independent
Metaphase I assortment takes place.

Anaphase I The homologous chromosomes move

to opposite ends of the cell

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 Equal number of chromosomes is
observed in each of the nuclei
Telophase I

Divide the cell membrane so that you

have two daughter cells. These
daughter cells are now haploid (n),
Cytokinesis I wherein the number of chromosomes
has been halved

Each of the two cells should contain

the chromosomes made up of sister
Prophase II chromatids

Align the chromosomes along the

middle of each of your cells

Metaphase II

Separate the sister chromatids then

move one sister chromatid from each
chromosome to opposite sides of your
Anaphase II cell

At this stage, you should now have

four nuclei, with two single
chromatids in each of the cells.
Telophase II

Divide the cell membranes so that you

have four daughter cells.

Cytokinesis II

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 CELL CYCLE, CELL DEATH AND DISEASES

Recall that mitosis is a process in the cell cycle that forms identical daughter cells and retains a similar
copy of DNA. Errors in mitosis lead to an incorrect copy of the DNA which may produce benign or
deadly functional consequences depending in the error. We cannot stress more on the importance of the
checkpoint that the cell does in the cell division and cell cycle to maintain the physiological processes of
the organism. (Hartwel and Weinert 1989). The positive correlation with the malfunction of these
processes to the onset of major diseases such as cancer, stroke, atherosclerosis, inflammation, and some
neurodegenerative disorders is increasingly proven in various studies. Thus, more work is geared toward
further understanding of the cycle of life and death of cells to link this to development of these diseases
(Zhivotovsky and Orrenius 2010).

MITOSIS AND CANCER

DNA contains the hereditary material in nearly all organisms. In the process of copying the DNA, two
types of error may arise: (1) silent mutation when the DNA is improperly copied and (2) missense
mutation, which causes a change in the sequence bringing an impact with the associated function.
Missense mutations, when carried over to the next cells, can multiply and aggravate over time. This then
leads to cell cycle disruption and formation of tumors (infinitively dividing cell). When the normal
checkpoints in the cell cycle are ignored or overridden by a cancer cell, the affected cells undergo
uncontrolled cell division (Evan and Vousen 2001)

CHROMOSOME ABNORMALITIES

Another group of disorders that is linked to cell cycle is aneuploidy. Aneuploidy is a disorder when a
cell has an incorrect number or set of chromosomes. This occurs due to nondisjunction of homologous
chromosomes during metaphase I in meiosis when the mitotic checkpoint failed and the spindle fiber did
not attach to the center of the chromosome. This leads to nondisjunction, failure of the paired
chromosomes to separate. Thus, this results in having one daughter cell with an excess number of
chromosomes while the other daughter cell has a missing copy of a chromosome. In humans where 46 is
the complete set of chromosomes, Down syndrome has an extra chromosome (number 13) making the
organism to have 47 total chromosomes while Turner syndrome lacks one on its sex chromosomes (44
autosomes and X) or 45 chromosomes. These two are common disorders under aneuploidy.

EFFECTS ON ORGANELLES

What happens to the cell organelles if the cell cycle fails to work properly? In cancer cells, where the
checkpoints are overridden, the cell organelle becomes unregulated. Organelles can repair itself if the
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damage occurs during cell division. However, when cell division does not stop, there is no opportunity
for organelles to recover which may eventually lead to cell death.

ACTIVITY 3 TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Name of Student:_______________________ Date: _____________

Grade and Section: ______________________ Score: ____________

Answer the following questions:

1. Why are cancer cells considered abnormal cells?

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________

2. What goes wrong during the cell cycle in cancer cells?

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________

3. What are the main causes of cancer?

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________

4. What makes dome genes related to increased cancer risk?

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________

6. What other types of diseases are caused by malfunctioning of the cell during cell cycle?

____________________________________________________________________________________
______

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RUBRICS IN ANSWERING ESSAY QUESTIONS

4 3 2 1
FEATURES
EXPERT ACCOMPLISHED CAPABLE BEGINNER
Quality of  It is written in  It is written in  It had a little  It had no
Writing an an interesting style or voice style or voice
extraordinary style and  Give some  Gives no new
voice and style voice information information
 Very  Somewhat but poorly and very
informative informative organized poorly
and well- and organized organized
organized
Grammar  Virtually no  Few spelling  A number of  So many
Usage and spelling, and spelling, spelling,
Mechanics punctuation or punctuations punctuation punctuation
grammatical errors, minor or and
errors grammatical grammatical grammatical
error errors errors that it
interferes
with the
meaning

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 CHAPTER
TEST

Name of Student:_______________________ Date: _____________

Grade and Section: ______________________ Score: ____________

I. Identify the following questions below. Write your answer on the blank before each number.

_____________________1. This is the decision-making step of the interphase stage.

_____________________2. It increases the genetic variability among the daughter cells

produced during meiosis.

_____________________3. A special type of cell division which is exclusive for gametes.

_____________________4. A stage of meiosis in which crossing over occurs.

_____________________5. A genetic abnormality in which the DNA is improperly copied.

_____________________6. An error in mitosis in which a cell has an incorrect number or set

of chromosome.

_____________________7. A stage of interphase where further growth and final preparation

for mitosis happen.

_____________________8. A stage of mitosis in which the DNA exists as a chromatin rather

than as a chromosomes.

_____________________9. Where does a membrane vesicle produced?

_____________________10. A stage of meiosis in which the cell pinches in the middle.

II. Give what is asked.

1. What are the stages of mitosis?
2. What are the 3 stages of interphase?
3. What are the 2 errors that may occur during mitosis?

III. Answer the following questions briefly and clearly.

1. What happens to the cell organelles if the cell cycle fails to work properly?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

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2. Why it that G1 phase is called the decision-making step in interphase?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

3. Why is cytokinesis not a compulsory phase?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

4. Briefly explain the 3 important events of meiosis.

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
5. Describe the fibers attached to the plant cell compared to the animal cell.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

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SUMMARY
This lesson is all about the Cell Cycle. You learned to:

 Characterize the phases of the cell cycle and their control points
 Describe the stages of mitosis and meiosis
 Explain the significance and applications of mitosis and meiosis
 Identify disorders and diseases that result from the malfunction of the cell during the cell cycle

REFERENCES

BOOK:
Rea, M.A., et al., General Biology 1: First Edition. Rex Bookstore, Inc., Sta.
Mesa Heights, Quezon City, 2017

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