Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 44 (2020) 253–262

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhtm

Mediation effects of job satisfaction and work engagement on the T

relationship between organisational embeddedness and affective
commitment among frontline employees of star–rated hotels in Accra
Emmanuel Twumasi Ampofo
Department of Human Resources & Organisational Development, School of Business, College of Humanities & Social Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The current study draws on social exchange theory to examine the effects of organisational embeddedness and its
Organisational embeddedness dimensions of fit, links and sacrifice on affective commitment, and mediating effects of job satisfaction and work
Job satisfaction engagement on the relationships. A convenient sample of 274 full‒time frontline employees were selected from
Work engagement four 4–star and one 5‒star hotels in Ghana, at two separate times. PROCESS Macro was employed to test hy­
Affective commitment
potheses. Results of the study show that organisational embeddedness and all its dimensions were positively
related to affective commitment. Job satisfaction and work engagement partially mediated the effects of orga­
nisational embeddedness, and organisational links, fit and sacrifice on affective commitment. Theoretical and
practical implications of the findings are discussed.

1. Introduction between organisational embeddedness dimensions and affective com­

In Ghana, the hospitality and tourism sector, which the hotel in­
dustry forms a predominant constituent, has become one of the sig­
nificant pillars of the economy. In 2016, the sector contributed USD
2967.1 million to Ghana's gross domestic product, and offered about
693,000 jobs (World Travel & Tourism Council, 2017). Given the
growth in tourism in Ghana, there has been an influx of hotels in the
country, which has resulted in increased competition in the hotel in­
dustry (Amissah, Gamora, Deria, & Amissahb, 2016). For hotel orga­
nisations to attain sustainable competitive urge, they have to compre­
hend the need to retain frontline employees who have stronger
emotional bond with the organisation, as such employees offer custo­
mers with high levels of quality services, and show greater orientation
toward customers (Afsar, Shahjehan, & Shah, 2018; Lombardi, Sassetti,
& Cavaliere, 2019). Affective commitment, which reflects an employ­
ee's emotional bond with his or her organisation, has been found to
influence important work outcomes, including task performance and
employee turnover (Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, & Topolnytsky,
2002).
Past research has linked organisational embeddedness, which re­
presents a web of work factors that keep employees in their jobs, to
several non‒turnover outcomes (e.g., Lee, Mitchell, Sablynski, Burton,
& Holtom, 2004). One such outcome is affective commitment. To date,
there appears to be just two studies that have examined the relationship
mitment. Ferreira and Coetzee (2013) found that organisational fit in­
creases affective commitment of native population in South Africa,
while Robinson, Kralj, Solnet, Goh, and Callan (2014) found that or­
ganisational sacrifice enhances affective commitment of frontline hotel
employees in Australia. All the studies concentrated on the effects of
organisational embeddedness dimensions of fit, links and sacrifice on
affective commitment, without considering organisational embedded­
ness as a predictor of affective commitment. Also, the two previous
studies were conducted in countries other than Ghana, which limits
generalisation of findings. In addition, understanding mediation effects
on the nexus between organisational embeddedness and affective
commitment, and organisational embeddedness dimensions and affec­
tive commitment has been overlooked in literature.
To address these limitations in literature, the current study aims to
examine the relationship between organisational embeddedness and
affective commitment, and organisational embeddedness dimensions
and affective commitment, and the potential mediation effects of job
satisfaction and work engagement on the relationships. Social Exchange
Theory (SET) can provide useful explication for the aforementioned
potential relationships. SET suggests that an employment relationship is
an exchange between employees and their employers, where each party
feels morally obliged to recompense the other for benefits received
(Blau, 1964). Lee et al., (2004) argued that individuals become em­
bedded in their organisations as a result of several work factors,

E-mail address: yawampofo73@gmail.com.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.06.002
Received 11 April 2020; Received in revised form 3 June 2020; Accepted 4 June 2020
1447-6770/ © 2020 CAUTHE - COUNCIL FOR AUSTRALASIAN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY EDUCATION. Published by Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.
E.T. Ampofo
including perks, social ties with co–workers, and access to development
opportunities. Because highly embedded employees possess accrued
work resources, they may feel indebted to the organisation, and
therefore tend to repay the organisation by manifesting positive atti­
tudinal outcomes, such as job satisfaction, work engagement and af­
fective commitment.
The current study's results make at least three contributions to re­
search. First, the study extends existing knowledge by examining the
relationship between organisational embeddedness and affective com­
mitment. This line of investigation is important, because individuals
who are embedded in the organisation and therefore intend to stay,
may not necessarily be affectively committed to the organisation.
Highly embedded individuals may feel ‘stuck’ in the organisation when
they perceive that it is hard to escape from a poor social exchange re­
lationship with their superiors (Sekiguchi, Burton, & Sablynski, 2008).
Allen, Peltokorpi, and Rubenstein (2016) found that highly embedded
employees in adverse work environments, characterised by abusive
supervision and job insecurity, were more likely to exhibit negative
health outcomes, but they were unlikely to leave the adverse environ­
ment.
Second, the study extends existing knowledge on organisational
embeddedness dimensions and affective commitment by replicating
past research in Ghana, a sub–Saharan collectivistic country. This in­
quiry is important, as factors that embed individuals in the organisation
are usually context–specific and collectivist society has significant im­
pact on employees’ embedding process (Jiang, Liu, McKay, Lee, &
Mitchell, 2012; Mallol, Holtom, & Lee, 2007; Ramesh & Gelfand, 2010).
Third, the study contributes to literature by examining the potential
mediation effects of job satisfaction and work engagement on the re­
lationship between organisational embeddedness and affective com­
mitment, and organisational embeddedness dimensions and affective
commitment. Highly embedded individuals may not necessarily be in­
volved in their jobs, or be satisfied with the jobs, which in turn could
affect their affective commitment. Holtom, Burton, and Crossley (2012)
found that embedded but disgruntled employees are likely to demon­
strate deviant behaviours. Also, embedded but unenthusiastic, languid
and unfocussed employees may exhibit undesirable outcomes such as
lower affective commitment.
2. Theory and hypotheses development
2.1. Social exchange theory
SET is grounded on the norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960), which
suggests that an employee who obtains benefits is likely to be morally
obligated to repay his or her employer (Haar & Roche, 2010). In return
for their work efforts, employees expect rewards from their employers,
and the inverse is true. Therefore, failure to experience reciprocity may
lead employers to decrease the benefits offered to employees, or may
cause employees to reduce their work efforts (Birtch, Chiang, & Van
Esch, 2016). Although social exchange is premised on a mutual ex­
change, what is to be reciprocated is not precise and mandatory (Haar &
Roche, 2010). For example, after attending an expensive employ­
er‒sponsored training course an employee may decide to leave the
organisation. On the other hand, an employee may not receive expected
rewards (e.g., promotion, bonus) after exerting considerable effort to
complete a strategically important project. SET can explain the study's
proposed relationships, because employees receive several work re­
sources such as pay, skills‒training and social support, from the orga­
nisation to increase their embeddedness, thereby making them feel
indebted to the organisation. To return same favours, employees may
demonstrate positive attitudes, such as job satisfaction, work engage­
ment, and affective commitment.
254
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 44 (2020) 253–262
2.2. Organisational embeddedness and affective commitment
Mitchell, Holtom, Lee, Sablynski, and Erez (2001) theorised that
employees become embedded in their jobs as a result of work factors
(organisational embeddedness) and non‒work factors (community
embeddedness). This study concentrates on organisational embedded­
ness, because job satisfaction, work engagement, and affective com­
mitment are outcomes that are largely influenced by work factors, as
opposed to non‒work factors. Mitchell et al. (2001) posited that the
focal employee is attached to the organisation in three ways, namely:
links― formal or informal ties between the employee and people in the
work organisation; fit― an employee's perceived compatibility with the
organisation, and; sacrifice― material and psychological benefits that
would be lost if the employee left his or her job. In accordance with
preceding research (Akgunduz & Sanli, 2017; Ampofo, Coetzer, &
Poisat, 2018; Zhang et al., 2019), organisational embeddedness is
viewed in this study as a state of resource abundance, since links re­
present relational resource, fit denotes a sense of belonging resource,
and sacrifice represents the primacy of resource loss. Despite the ability
of organisational embeddedness to predict work outcomes in different
cultures (e.g., Coetzer, Inma, Poisat, Redmond, & Standing, 2018; Lee
et al., 2004), research has evidenced that organisational embeddedness
has greater impact on employees in collectivistic society than those in
individualistic society (Jiang et al., 2012). It is expected in the study
that organisational embeddedness will influence the behaviours of
employees in the hotel industry in Ghana, because Ghana is a col­
lectivistic country (Hofstede, 2001).
On the other hand, Meyer and Allen (1991) identified three com­
ponents of organisational commitment: continuance, normative and
affective commitment. However, this study focusses on affective com­
mitment, because of its strongest effect on important work outcomes
(Meyer et al., 2002). Affective commitment has been found to increase
citizenship behaviours, and customer orientation (Lombardi et al.,
2019; Meyer et al., 2002), and lower intentions to leave (DiPietro,
Moreo, & Cain, 2020). Hence, examining predictors of employee af­
fective commitment is a worthwhile line of inquiry.
Drawing on SET (Blau, 1964), it is expected that organisational
embeddedness will predict employee affective commitment. Employees
who are highly embedded in their jobs may have a lot of positive work
experiences or resources, such as benefits, co–worker support, salary,
bonuses, access to skills training, and perks, all of which are offered by
the organisation. Such employees are likely to demonstrate same level
of care and gratitude to the organisation, by increasing their emotional
attachment towards the organisation. Thus, as embeddedness increases
in the organisation, employees’ feelings of moral obligation to the or­
ganisation also increases through affective commitment. Embedded
individuals may feel that the generosity and care shown by the orga­
nisation can be reciprocated when they show the affection to stay in the
organisation. Hence, it is hypothesised that:
H1. Organisational embeddedness is positively related to affective
commitment.
Organisational fit literature indicates that organisations play key
role in enhancing employees' fit with the organisation by adopting
strategies such as organising skills training and career development
programs (Karatepe, 2016; Robinson et al., 2014). As organisation–­
provided strategies that strengthen organisation–fit increases, em­
ployees are likely to feel morally obligated to pay back the organisation
by enhancing their affective commitment. When an organisation pro­
vides a working milieu that promotes supervisor and coworker support,
employees may feel that the organisation and its members care about
them, and thus feel morally obligated to return the care by increasing
their emotional attachment to the organisation. Given that fit and links
are instrumental resources (Kiazad, Seibert, & Kraimer, 2014), em­
ployees who are fitted in the organisation and have many interpersonal
bonds in the organisation are likely to acquire additional work
E.T. Ampofo
resources, which might increase their feelings of indebtedness to the
organisation. Because job benefits are ends in themselves (Kiazad et al.,
2014), employees who receive benefits from the organisation are likely
to show appreciation to organisation, and reciprocate through affective
commitment. Earlier studies have demonstrated that organisational fit
and sacrifices predicted employee affective commitment (Ferreira &
Coetzee, 2013; Robinson et al., 2014). He, Lai, and Lu (2011) found that
coworker relationship and managerial support enhance hotel em­
ployees’ affective commitment. Accordingly, it was hypothesised that:
H2. Organisational links, fit and sacrifice are positively related to
affective commitment.
2.3. Mediating effects of job satisfaction and work engagement
Job satisfaction can be defined as the positive emotional response
resulting from the assessment on an employee's job as achieving or
fulfilling important work values (Locke, 1976). In the present study, job
satisfaction is defined as the pleasurable emotional response that
emanates from an employee's appraisal of the work-related resources
received from the organisation as being fulfilling. Job satisfaction is an
important topic in hotel industry, because of its relationship with other
outcomes, such as job performance, turnover intention, and affective
commitment (e.g., Koo, Yu, Chua, & Han, 2019; Ozturk, Hancer, & Im,
2014). To enhance job satisfaction, it is important to comprehend fac­
tors that influence job satisfaction (Cheung, Wu, & Chi, 2019; Ferreira,
Martinez, Lamelas, & Rodrigues, 2017). Research indicates the im­
portance of work resources, such as incentives, promotion and social
support, in impacting employee job satisfaction (Karatepe, 2009; Koo,
Yu, Chua, Lee, & Han, 2019). The mediating effect of job satisfaction
has been established in the hotel literature (e.g., Ferreira et al., 2017;
Koo et al., 2019). However, research on job satisfaction as a mediator in
the relationship between organisational embeddedness and affective
commitment is scarce, which this study seeks to address.
On the other hand, work engagement represents “a positive, ful­
filling, work‒related state of mind that is characterised by vigor, ded­
ication, and absorption” (Schaufeli, Salanova, Gronzález‒;Romá and
Bakker, 2002, p. 74). Vigor reflects high levels of energy and un­
relenting efforts toward a work goal even when there are difficulties;
dedication denotes pride, enthusiasm, importance, and inspiration at
the workplace, and absorption represents full attentiveness of the mind
at work, which makes detachment from work hard over time (Schaufeli,
Salanova, González-Romá, & Bakker, 2002). Work engagement has
been found to be positively related to important work outcomes, in­
cluding job satisfaction, extra‒role performance, organisational com­
mitment, lower intentions to leave and be late, and lower absenteeism
(Karatepe, 2013; Karatepe, Rezapouraghdam, & Hassannia, 2020; Lee &
Ok, 2016). Accordingly, job and personal resources have been identi­
fied as factors that increase employee work engagement (Bakker &
Demerouti, 2008). In line with past research (Zhang et al., 2019), this
study argues that organisational embeddedness comprises abundant
work resources that can enhance employees’ work engagement.
Based on SET (Blau, 1964), when employees perceive that the or­
ganisation has provided them with resources to increase their level of
embeddedness in the organisation, they are likely to reciprocate by
demonstrating positive attitudinal outcomes, such as job satisfaction
and work engagement. Given their amount of accrued work resources
(Zhang et al., 2019), highly embedded employees are unlikely to show
negative attitudes such as work disengagement and job dissatisfaction,
as they may perceive those attitudes are morally wrong after the fa­
vours offered by the organisation. Thus, as embeddedness increases,
employees' moral duty to recompense the organisation with positive
attitudinal outcomes increases. Hotel employees’ organisational em­
beddedness has been found to be significantly associated with work
engagement (Karatepr & Ngeche, 2012), and job satisfaction (Ferreira
et al., 2017).
255
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 44 (2020) 253–262
In turn, when employees become satisfied with the resources they
receive from the organisation, they feel obliged to repay with a positive
attitude toward the organisation by demonstrating higher affective
commitment (Haar & Spell, 2004; Weng, McElroy, Morrow, & Liu,
2010). Employees who enjoy the generosity and care of the organisa­
tion may feel morally obligated to pay back by manifesting attitudes
and behaviours that benefit the organisation, including affective com­
mitment (Kim, Aryee, Loi, & Kim, 2013). In their study of hotel em­
ployees in Turkey, Ozturk et al. (2014) found that job satisfaction po­
sitively influenced affective commitment. In their study of hotel
employees, Lee and Ok (2016) found significant and positive relation­
ship between job satisfaction and organisational commitment.
Additionally, when employees are engaged in their work, they are
likely to develop greater emotional attachment to the organisation
when they realise that the organisation helped them acquire the work
resources that are accumulated (Ibrahim, Suan, & Karatepe, 2019).
Conversely, disengaged employees may feel emotionally detached from
the organisation, as they may perceive that the organisation has refused
to offer them work resources. Lee and Ok's (2016) study found that
hotel employees' work engagement was significantly and positively
related to their organisational commitment. It is thus hypothesised that:
H3. Job satisfaction mediates the relationship between organisational
embeddedness and affective commitment.
H4. Work engagement mediates the relationship between
organisational embeddedness and affective commitment.
According to SET (Blau, 1964), employees who are provided with
resources (e.g., access to job–relevant skills training programs, and
support for higher education) to augment their organisational fit are
likely to feel cared for and respected by the organisation, and thus feel
obligated to return same gesture by manifesting high levels of job sa­
tisfaction and work engagement. Employees who receive instrumental
and emotional support from the organisation and its members (cow­
orkers and supervisors) are unlikely to recompense with undesirable
attitudes such as job dissatisfaction and work disengagement. Rather,
they may feel morally obligated to extend equal social support to the
organisation by increasing their job satisfaction and work engagement.
Employees with several organisational benefits (e.g., bonus, perks) may
see the organisation as generous and caring, and therefore feel morally
obligated to demonstrate same generosity and care to the organisation
through job satisfaction and work engagement. In an empirical study,
Koo et al. (2019) found that material rewards including promotion,
incentives and special leave positively influence hotel employees' job
satisfaction. Karatepe (2009) found that work social support amplified
hotel employees' job satisfaction. Employee training, which increases
organisation fit, has been found to be positively related to hotel em­
ployee job satisfaction (Chiang, Back, & Canter, 2005). Studies by Suan
and Nasurdin (2016) and Ibrahim et al. (2019) found that supervisor
support was positively related to hotel employees’ work engagement.
As earlier indicated, engaged and satisfied employees are likely to re­
compense the organisation through affective commitment (e.g., Lee &
Ok, 2016; Ozturk et al., 2014). Based on these arguments, it is hy­
potheised that:
H5. Job satisfaction mediates the effects of organisational links, fit and
sacrifice on affective commitment.
H6. Work engagement mediates the effects of organisational links, fit
and sacrifice on affective commitment.
2.4. Research model
Fig. 1 illustrates the research model. From the model, organisational
embeddedness and all its dimensions of fit, links and sacrifice increase
affective commitment. The model also proposes that job satisfaction
and work engagement mediate the effects of organisational
E.T. Ampofo
Fig. 1. Research model.
embeddedness and organisational embeddedness dimensions on affec­
tive commitment. Lastly, the model suggests that demographic vari­
ables, including education, gender, marital status, and age, are con­
trolled to avert statistical confounds.
3. Methodology
3.1. Research design
In the present study, a two-phase design was employed to gather
quantitative data. The time lag between the two phases was five
months. The purpose for using this design was to mitigate participants’
socially desirable responses (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff,
2003).
3.2. Participants and procedures
Prior to the main study, 20 surveys were pretested through personal
interviews, which helped to make a few amendments to the layout and
formatting of the survey. Data were collected from full‒time frontline
employees, who worked as waiters or waitresses, front‒desk agents,
bartenders, reservations agents and bell attendants in the hotel industry
in Ghana, a sub-Saharan African country. Specifically, data for the
current study were collected in the capital city of Ghana: Accra.
Part‒time frontline employees were excluded, because they are not
entitled to benefits, such as retirement benefits. Managers were also
excluded because of factors such as status and decision‒making power
that make it difficult for them to leave their jobs. Management of 7
four‒star and 3 five‒star hotels were contacted to explain the purpose
of the study and obtain consent for data collection. However, consent
was obtained from management of 4 four‒star hotels, which has a total
population of 472 frontline employees. Given hotel employees’ un­
predicted working hours and shift systems (Amissah et al., 2016), the
current study adopted convenience sampling procedure.
In this study, two surveys were used at two separate times in order
256
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 44 (2020) 253–262
to remedy against potential effects of common method bias [CMB]
(Podsakoff et al., 2003). Codes were assigned to the two surveys with
aim of tracking returns and responses from participants. Time one
survey assessed participants' demographic characteristics and their
views on organisational embeddedness, while time two survey mea­
sured participants’ views on job satisfaction, work engagement and
affective commitment. CMB effect was further mitigated by assuring
participants that there are no right or wrong responses, indicating that
participation is voluntary, and asking participants to avoid revealing
their identity on the survey (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Participants were
not given any monetary reward as an incentive.
Three hundred and sixty four employees participated in the Time
one survey. The response rate was 77%. After five months, the Time
two survey commenced, and surveys were administered to Time one
survey participants. In Time two, 276 were completed and returned,
which indicates 76% response rate. Nevertheless, two surveys were
excluded from the analysis because of insufficient variation in re­
sponses. Overall, this study recorded 274 successful responses in both
surveys.
3.3. Measures
Affective commitment was assessed with Meyer and Allen's (1997)
six–item scale. A sample items is “This organisation has a great deal of
personal meaning for me”. Response options are from 1 (strongly dis­
agree) to 5 (strongly agree). Affective commitment had a Cronbach's α
score of 0.892 in this study. Job satisfaction was measured using three
items from Mitchell et al. (2001). A sample item is “All in all, I am
satisfied with my job”. Response options ranges from 1 (strongly dis­
agree) to 7 (strongly agree). The current study reported Cronbach's α
score of 0.874 for job satisfaction. Organisational embeddedness was
measured by using nine items from Holtom, Mitchell, Lee, and Tidd
(2006). Within these nine items, links, fit, and sacrifice are assessed
with three items each. Sample items include “My job utilises my skills
and talents well” (fit), “I work closely with my co‒workers” (links), and
E.T. Ampofo Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 44 (2020) 253–262

Table 1
Results for reliabilities and confirmatory factor analysis.
Scale items FL α CR AVE MSV SQRT of AVE

Affective commitment .892 .895 .590 .170 .768

I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this organisation. .725
I really feel as if this organisation's problems are my own. .597
I do not feel like ‘part of the family’ at this organisation. (R) .848
I do not feel ‘emotionally attached’ to this organisation. (R) .900
This organisation has a great deal of personal meaning for me. .685
I do not feel a strong sense of belonging to this organisation. (R) .814
Job satisfaction .874 .876 .704 .189 .839
All in all, I am satisfied with my job. .838
In general, I don't like my job. (R) .761
In general, I like working here. .911
Work engagement .883 .870 .532 .220 .729
When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work. .599
I am enthusiastic about my job. .746
My job inspires me. .846
I am proud of the work that I do. .853
I feel happy when I am working intensely. .671
I am immersed in my work. .617
Organisational embeddedness .869 .779 .543 .220 .737
My job utilises my skills and talents well. .802
I feel like I am a good match for my organisation. .921
If I stay with my organisation, I will be able to achieve most of my goals. .829
I am a member of an effective work group. .813
I work closely with my co‒workers. .819
On the job, I interact frequently with my work group members. .805
I have a lot of freedom on this job to pursue my goals. .777
I would sacrifice a lot if I left this job. .696
The prospects for continuing employment with this organisation are excellent. .845

Note: FL = factor loadings; α = reliability; AVE = average variance extracted; MSV = maximum shared variance; ASV = average shared variance; CR = composite
reliability; SQRT = square root; R = reverse score.

“I would sacrifice a lot if I left this job” (sacrifice). Response options are
coded as 1 (strongly disagree) and 5 (strongly agree). In the present
study, the Cronbach's α score for organisational embeddedness was
0.869. Work engagement was assessed with Schaufeli, Bakker, and
Salanova (2006) nine–item Utrecht Work and Engagement Scale. The
scale measures three components of work engagement: vigour, ded­
ication, and absorption. Sample items include “At my work, I feel
bursting with energy” (vigour), “I am enthusiastic about my job”
(dedication), and “I am immersed in my work” (absorption). Response
options ranges from (0 = never to 6 = always). This study reported
Cronbach's α of 0.883 for work engagement. Age, gender, marital
status, and education were controlled because of their confounding
effects on affective commitment (Maia, Bastos, & Solinger, 2016; Wang,
2015).
3.4. Data analysis
Data were analysed in four phases. Preliminary data analysis was
first performed in SPSS to examine the missing values, reverse scoring,
linearity and multicollinearity. Secondly, confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA) was performed in AMOS to assess model fit statistics, and validity
and reliability of observed variables (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, &
Tatham, 2010; Hu & Bentler, 1999). Thirdly, in order to ascertain
whether the hypothesised model has the best fit statistics and should be
used for further analysis in the study, alternative models were gener­
ated and their fit statistics were compared to the hypothesised model.
Fourthly, descriptive statistical analysis and correlational analysis were
performed to determine the mean, standard deviations of and inter­
relationships among the variables. Finally, Hayes’ (2013) PROCESS
Macro in SPSS was used to test the potential mediation effects, because
of its ability to determine all paths (i.e. total, direct, and indirect ef­
fects) concurrently without any issues through a bootstrapping proce­
dure, addressing some weaknesses related with the Sobel test
(Huertas‒Valdivia, Llorens‒Montes, & Ruiz‒;Moreno, 2018; Zhao,
Lynch Jr, & Chen, 2010). In this study, the sample size was
bootstrapped to 5000 to check validity, and 95% bias‒corrected con­
fidence interval was used in order to adjust any bias in the bootstrap
estimate (MacKinnon, Lockwood, & Williams, 2004).
3.5. Ethical considerations
As earlier indicated, the consent of management of the hotels were
sought and approved prior to questionnaire administration. Also, the
ethical principle of voluntary participation and withdrawal was strictly
adhered to in the present study. This was explicitly indicated on the
questionnaire. Moreover, ambiguity was minimised by ensuring that
survey items were carefully constructed and thoroughly edited before
administered to participants. In addition, participants were assured that
the study was solely for academic purpose and to inform practice.
Therefore, management would not have access to the completed in­
dividual surveys. In this study, participants were asked not to indicate
anything, such as names and address, on the questionnaire that might
disclose their identity. To further increase confidentiality, a cover letter
was attached to the questionnaire and put into an envelope and self‒­
administered to each participant. Questionnaires were sealed upon
completion and handed over to the researcher. Ethical clearance pro­
tocol number 18628 was obtained from Edith Cowan University in
2017.
4. Results
4.1. Participants’ profile
Of the 274 frontline hotel employees who successfully participated
in both surveys, 64% were male and 36% were female. In addition, 63%
were married while 37% were not married. Moreover, 31% of the
participants were below 30 years, 44% were between the ages of 30 and
40, 17% were between the ages of 41 and 50, and 8% between the ages
of 51 and 60. Sixty-five per cent of the participants were senior high
school leavers, and 23% were Bachelor degrees holders. The rest had

257
E.T. Ampofo
Masters degrees.
4.2. CFA and reliabilities
Table 1 presents CFA and reliabilities (Cronbach's α) results. In an
initial CFA, three WE items (“At my work, I feel bursting with energy”,
“At my job, I feel strong and vigorous”, and “I get carried away when I
am working”) were deleted due to poor factor loadings (Hair et al.,
2010). The final CFA demonstrated good fit statistics (χ2 = 344.252,
df = 235, p = .000), CFI = 0.971, TLI = 966, RMSEA = 0.041).
In the current study, the discriminant validity obtained was accep­
table, as AVEs exceed MSV, and inter‒construct correlations are less
than square root of AVEs. Furthermore, an acceptable convergent va­
lidity was obtained, since factor loadings and AVEs exceed 0.50, and
CRs are above AVEs. All scales have α reliabilities above 0.70.
4.3. Alternative models
To determine whether the four–factor model is good for the present
study, two alternative models were performed, and their goodness of fit
indices were compared to the hypothesised model. Results for alter­
native models showed poor fit statistics and chi‒square differences.
Therefore, the four–factor model was retained and used for the analysis.
Table 2 shows results for alternative models.
4.4. Common method bias
In this study, both Harman's single factor and common latent factor
(CLF) analysis were used to test the effect of CMB (Podsakoff et al.,
2003). Results from Harman's single factor test showed no CMB con­
cern, since the first component explained approximately 25% of the
total variance, which is below the 50% threshold. Similarly, results
from CLF analysis indicated that CMB was not a major issue, as the
difference between CFA with CLF and CFA with no CLF was below 0.2.
4.5. Descriptive statistics and correlational analysis
Table 3 shows results for means, standard deviations, and correla­
tions. The associations between organisational embeddedness and af­
fective commitment (r = 0.344, p < .001), organisational embedd­
edness and job satisfaction (r = 0.288, p < .001), organisational
embeddedness and work engagement (r = 0.327, p < .001), work
engagement and affective commitment (r = 0.291, p < .001), job
satisfaction and affective commitment (r = 0.234, p < .001), and job
satisfaction and work engagement (r = 0.386, p < .001) were sig­
nificant and positive.
4.6. Total, direct and mediation effects
Table 4 presents results for total, direct and mediating effects. Re­
sults show significant and positive relationship between organisational
embeddedness on affective commitment (β = .341, LLCI = 0.274,
ULCI = 0.542), which confirms H1. Also, significant and positive re­
lationships was found between organisational links and affective com­
mitment (β = 0.294, LLCI = 0.162, ULCI = 0.368), organisational fit
Table 2
Results of assessing alternative models.
Factor models Components χ2
Four‒factor OE, JS, WE, AC 344.252***
Two‒factor combined WE, AC, and combined OE, JS 829.954***
One‒factor combined OE, JS, WE, AC 1213.843***
OE = organisational embeddedness; JS = job satisfaction; WE = work engagement; AC = affective commitment; CFI = comparative fit index; χ2 = chi‒square;
df = degrees of freedom; diff = difference; TLI = Tucker Lewis index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation. ***p < .001 (two‒tailed).
258
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 44 (2020) 253–262
and affective commitment (β = 0.290, LLCI = 0.181, ULCI = 0.415),
and organisational sacrifice and affective commitment (β = 0.235,
LLCI = 0.113, ULCI = 0.333). The results support H2.
Additionally, results show that job satisfaction significantly medi­
ated the organisational embeddedness‒affective commitment relation­
ship (B = 0.048, LLCI = 0.004, ULCI = 0.105), which supports H3.
When the mediator job satisfaction was included in the equation, the
relationship between organisational embeddedness and affective com­
mitment was significant (β = 301, LLCI = 0.221, ULCI = 0.499). This
suggests that job satisfaction partially mediated the relationship.
Moreover, the results demonstrate that work engagement significantly
mediated the relationship between organisational embeddedness and
affective commitment (B = .075, LLCI = 0.024, ULCI = 0.141),
thereby confirming H4. When the mediator work engagement was in­
troduced into the equation, organisational embeddedness was sig­
nificantly related to affective commitment (β = 278, LLCI = 0.194,
ULCI = 0.472). This implies that work engagement partially mediated
the relationship.
Results further show that job satisfaction significantly mediated the
relationship between organisational links and affective commitment
(B = .040, LLCI = 0.007, ULCI = 0.085), organisational fit and af­
fective commitment (B = 0.036, LLCI = 0.006, ULCI = 0.080), and
organisational sacrifice and affective commitment (B = 0.036,
LLCI = 0.007, ULCI = 0.075), which support H5. When the mediator
job satisfaction was added to the equation, there were significant re­
lationships between organisational links and affective commitment
(B = 0.250, LLCI = 0.119, ULCI = 0.332), organisational fit and af­
fective commitment (B = 0.256, LLCI = 0.114, ULCI = 0.380), and
organisational sacrifice and affective commitment (B = 0.198,
LLCI = 0.077, ULCI = 0.298). Therefore, job satisfaction partially
mediated the relationships.
Lastly, work engagement significantly mediated the relationship
between organisational links and affective commitment (B = .066,
LLCI = 0.024, ULCI = 0.118), organisational fit and affective com­
mitment (B = 0.060, LLCI = 0.020, ULCI = 0.117), and organisational
sacrifice and affective commitment (B = 0.037, LLCI = 0.004,
ULCI = 0.078). The results therefore support H6. When the mediator
work engagement was added to the equation, there were significant
relationships between organisational links and affective commitment
(β = 0.221, LLCI = 0.091, ULCI = 0.308), organisational fit and af­
fective commitment (β = 0.232, LLC = 0.119, ULCI = 0.356), and
organisational sacrifice and affective commitment (β = 0.196,
LLCI = 0.078, ULCI = 0.293), which reflect that work engagement
partially mediated the relationships.
5. Discussion
The predictive power of organisational embeddedness has been
tested using several non‒turnover work dependent variables (e.g., Lee
et al., 2004). However, little attention has been paid to its linkages with
employees’ affective commitment, and research on mediators in the
relationship between organisational embeddedness and affective com­
mitment, and organisational embeddedness dimensions and affective
commitment is scarce. The current study addressed these limitations of
the literature. Analyses showed that organisational embeddedness
df χ2dff df dff CFI TLI RMSEA
235 – – .971 .966 .041
240 495.702 5 .845 .822 .095
241 869.591 6 .744 .707 .122
E.T. Ampofo Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 44 (2020) 253–262

Table 3
Descriptive statistics and correlations.
Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Age 2.011 .887

2. Gender 1.361 .481 ‒.069
3. Marital status 1.369 .483 ‒.402*** ‒.149
4. Education 1.901 .588 .409 ‒.068 ‒.194
5. Organisational embeddedness 3.54 .816 ‒.024 .027 .044 ‒.059
6. Job satisfaction 4.44 1.636 ‒.006 .087 ‒.061 ‒.110 .288***
7. Work engagement 4.31 1.270 .015 .051 ‒.016 ‒.047 .327*** .386***
8. Affective commitment 3.45 .978 .067 .115 ‒.009 ‒.016 .344*** .234*** .291***

*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001 (two‒tailed).

predicted affective commitment, which was in support of H1. From the
perspective of SET (Blau, 1964), the more work resources that are ac­
cumulated, the greater the feeling of indebtedness to the organisation,
which hotel employees may be morally obligated to repay through af­
fective commitment. When frontline employees perceive that their
hotel organisations are willing to reward them for their efforts, they are
likely to manifest higher affective commitment (Weng et al., 2010). The
findings are unsurprising as data were collected from Ghana, a col­
lectivistic society, where loyalty is paramount, and it overrides most
other societal rules and regulations (Hofstede, 1980).
However, the results shows that, although statistically significant,
the association between organisational embeddedness and affective
commitment is moderately weak (β = 0.341, LLCI = 0.274,
ULCI = 0.542). Thus, highly embedded frontline employees sense of
being ‘stuck’ in the hotel organisation may not be contingent on their
level of affective commitment to the organisation. This invites questions
such as: Will embedded frontline employees remain ‘stuck’ in the hotel
when barriers to leaving (e.g., few job opportunities, employment
contracts) are removed? Will supervisors' breaches of social exchange
relationships, negatively affect embedded frontline employees' sense of
attachment to the hotel organisation? These questions should be ex­
plored in future research.
Furthermore, the results demonstrate that organisational links, fit
and sacrifice are positively related to affective commitment, which
confirmed H2. When frontline employees perceive that organisation‒­
provided resources are valuable to them, they are more likely to show
high levels of job satisfaction and work engagement, which in turn may
affect their affective commitment. The findings support previous find­
ings that organisational fit and sacrifice, and social support predicted
affective commitment (Ferreira & Coetzee, 2013; He et al., 2011;
Robinson et al., 2014). A plausible reason is that individuals from
collectivistic societies are more likely to be emotionally attached to a
group or organisation in which they have developed intimacy with
members (Sinha, 1997).
Additionally, the results of the current study show that the re­
lationship between organisational embeddedness and affective
commitment was partially mediated by job satisfaction and work en­
gagement, thereby supporting H3 and H4. Through the lens of SET
(Blau, 1964), the greater embeddedness that are accrued in the hotel
organisation, the more frontline employees may feel indebted to the
organisation, which may impose moral duty on them to pay back the
organisation by increasing their job satisfaction and work engagement.
In turn, satisfied and engaged frontline employees may recompense
their feelings of indebtedness to the hotel organisation for the abundant
work resources received through affective commitment. The findings
support earlier findings that organisational embeddedness positively
influenced job satisfaction and work engagement (Ferreira et al., 2017;
Karatepr & Ngeche, 2012), and job satisfaction and work engagement
predicted affective commitment (Lee & Ok, 2016; Ozturk et al., 2014).
Finally, the results of this study show that job satisfaction and work
engagement partially mediated the effects of organisational links, fit
and sacrifice on affective commitment, which supported H5 and H6.
The results are in accordance with prior research which suggests that
work-related resources like social support, training, and rewards aug­
mented hotel employees’ job satisfaction and work engagement (Chiang
et al., 2005; Ibrahim et al., 2019; Koo et al., 2019), which in turn lead to
increase their affective commitment (Lee & Ok, 2016; Ozturk et al.,
2014). The results highlight the importance of organisational em­
beddedness dimensions in predicting important work outcomes, such as
affective commitment, through the mechanisms of job satisfaction and
work engagement.
5.1. Theoretical implications and recommendations for future studies
The current study has noted at least five main theoretical implica­
tions. First, the present study extends existing knowledge by showing
that organisational embeddedness predicted affective commitment. The
result is an important extension to organisational embeddedness re­
search, because past studies have not considered that organisational
embeddedness could explicate significant variance in affective com­
mitment. Furthermore, among the two past studies on organisational
embeddedness components and affective commitment, it was only

Table 4
Results for total, direct and mediation effects.
Total effect Direct effect Mediation effect

β SE LLCI ULCI β SE LLCI ULCI B SE LLCI ULCI

OE→JS→AC .341*** .068 .274 .542 .301*** .071 .221 .499 .048 .026 .004 .105
Links→JS→AC .294*** .052 .162 .368 .250*** .054 .119 .332 .040 .020 .007 .085
Fit→JS→AC .290*** .060 .181 .415 .256*** .060 .144 .380 .036 .019 .006 .080
Sacrifice→JS→AC .235*** .056 .113 .333 .198** .056 .077 .298 .036 .017 .007 .075
OE→WE→AC .341*** .068 .274 .542 .278*** .071 .194 .472 .075 .030 .024 .141
Links→WE→AC .294*** .052 .162 .368 .221*** .055 .091 .308 .066 .024 .024 .118
Fit→WE→AC .290*** .060 .181 .415 .232*** .060 .119 .356 .060 .025 .020 .117
Sacrifice→WE→AC .235*** .056 .113 .333 .196** .055 .078 .293 .037 .019 .004 .078

β = standardised coefficient; B = unstandardised coefficient; OE = organisational embeddedness; JS = job satisfaction; WE = work engagement; AC = affective
commitment; SE = standard error; LLCI = lower level confidence interval; ULCI = upper level confidence interval. **p < .01; ***p < .001.

259
E.T. Ampofo
Robinson et al.’s (2014) research that focused on hotel organisations,
particularly from a Western culture, Australia. The current study adds
to the two studies, and also extends knowledge on the relationship
between organisational embeddedness dimensions and affective com­
mitment to the hotel industry in Ghana, a non-Western culture. Also,
this empirical research expands understanding on the organisational
embeddedness‒affective commitment link by demonstrating that the
link was partially mediated by job satisfaction and work engagement.
Although previous studies have explored the mediating effects of hotel
employees' job satisfaction and work engagement (e.g., Ferreira et al.,
2017; Karatepe et al., 2020), there is dearth of literature on how or­
ganisational embeddedness influences affective commitment through
the mechanisms of job satisfaction and work engagement, which makes
the current study important.
Additionally, the present study contributes to the hospitality and
organisational embeddedness literature by demonstrating that job sa­
tisfaction and work engagement partially mediated the nexus between
organisational embeddedness dimensions and affective commitment.
Research on mediating mechanisms in the relationship of organisa­
tional links, fit and sacrifice with affective commitment is lacking. This
is the maiden research that has investigated and identified mediator
variables in the relationship. Future research should consider the pos­
sible mediating role of career satisfaction. As hotel frontline employees
acquire abundant resources, they are more likely to be satisfied with
their career, which, in turn, might increase their affective commitment
(Barnett & Bradley, 2007; Joo & Park, 2010).
Fifth, this research adds to the SET literature by suggesting that
organisational embeddedness imposes a moral obligation on em­
ployees. From the perspective of SET and specifically the notion of re­
ciprocity (Blau, 1964; Gouldner, 1960), embedded frontline employees
are more likely to develop a sense of indebtedness to their hotel orga­
nisation due to the resources they have received from the organisation.
Thus organisational embeddedness could be viewed as a social ex­
change. When employees receive ample resources from the hotel they
work for, they reciprocate with work effort and loyalty. Hotel em­
ployers may decrease employees’ embeddedness when they are not
satisfied in the exchange relationship. SET can also be used to explain
how organisational embeddedness impacts other dependent variables,
such as citizenship behaviour, task performance, and turnover inten­
tions. As frontline employees acquire more resources from their hotel
organisations, they may feel morally obliged to improve their task
performance, perform discretionary tasks, and weaken their intent to
leave.
5.2. Practical implications
The results of this suggest that hotel managers who want to promote
positive job attitudes and a long–term commitment among their em­
ployees should adopt strategies that increase the amount of resources
(links, fit, and sacrifice) that employees have in the organisation.
Management of hotels can enhance organisational fit through on–­
the–job skills training and career development programs (Mitchell
et al., 2001; Robinson et al., 2014). Hotel managers should also employ
realistic job previews during hiring to help newcomers have a better
understanding of the nature of the job and work relationships (Coetzer,
Inma, Poisat, Redmond, & Standing, 2019). Hotel managers should
organise training programs that focus on teaching employees how to
help newcomers fit in (Karatepe, 2016). In addition, managers of hotels
should adopt a zero-tolerance policy on discrimination based on race,
tribe, ethnicity and gender so that employees who are in the minority
would feel comfortable working in the hotel organisation. Therefore,
hotel managers should create and encourage a work environment that
embraces individuals from diverse backgrounds. Hotel managers should
frown on actions and inactions that hinder inclusion of employees in
the workplace.
Organisational links can be strengthened through mentoring,
260
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 44 (2020) 253–262
teamwork, putting employees on long–term projects, fun trips and or­
ganising games such as soccer (Allen et al., 2006). Also, because en­
hanced links in organisation are products of trustworthy supervisors
(Afsar et al., 2018), hotel managers should foster employee trust by
treating employees with reverence especially when they have personal
issues, “walking the talk”, and upholding a fair reward system (Gill,
2008). Employees who trust their supervisors may establish additional
links with their coworkers, because employees would likely turn to
individuals who are in a quality trusting relationship with their su­
pervisors (Creary, Caza, & Roberts, 2015). Regarding sacrifices, hotel
organisations should aim to provide employees with attractive rewards,
such as pay rises, higher bonuses, and greater perks. Also, managers in
the hotel industry should comprehend that HR practices, including
training and empowerment can create the sacrifice to pursue shared
goals rather than self-centeredness (Afsar et al., 2018).
5.3. Methodological limitations
This study notes at least four methodological limitations that should
be addressed in future research. First, the current study employed a
non‒random sampling procedure used in this study, specifically con­
venience sampling procedure, which limits the generalisation of the
findings. To minimise the limitation associated with a non-random
sampling method, the current study adopted a rigorous analytical
technique, that is, Hayes' PROCESS macro to bootstrap samples to
5000 at 95% bias corrected confidence intervals to determine the in­
direct and conditional effects on the relationship (Ampofo et al., 2018;
Preacher & Hayes, 2008). Also, the bias in convenience sampling was
minimised in this study by ensuring that the sample shares the attri­
butes of the population, and the Time one surveys were distributed at
different days and times to increase diversification (Patten & Galvan,
2019; Skowronek & Duerr, 2009). Nonetheless, to generalise the find­
ings, future research should recruit participants using random sampling
procedures. Second, the study focused on some categories of star rated
hotels. Future research should include other star rated hotels and re­
plicate the study in other important sectors of Ghana's economy, such as
banking, oil, and mining. Third, although the current study's analysis
suggests that CMB was not a concern, future research should employ
additional procedural techniques (e.g., collecting data from different
sources and complementing self‒report data with informant report
data) to further mitigate CMB effects (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Fourth, a
future research that employs qualitative design could help shed more
light on how frontline hotel employees' perceptions of job satisfaction
and work engagement link their organisational embeddedness to af­
fective commitment, and help delve deeper and unearth the experiences
of frontline hotel employees regarding links, fit, and sacrifices.
6. Conclusion
Given its ability to explain significant and incremental variance in
non-turnover outcomes (e.g., Ampofo, Coetzer, & Poisat, 2017; Coetzer
et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2004), organisational embeddedness has been
linked to employee affective commitment (Ferreira & Coetzee, 2013;
Robinson et al., 2014). This study aimed to broaden knowledge on the
organisational embeddedness‒affective commitment by examining
possible mediators. First it was found that organisational embeddedness
and its dimensions of fit, links, and sacrifice predict affective commit­
ment. The present study further confirmed that job satisfaction and
work engagement partially mediate the relationship of organisational
embeddedness and its dimensions with affective commitment. The re­
sults concur with the perspective of SET that employees who receive
resources from the hotel in which they work are more likely to re­
ciprocate with positive attitudes. The will to show positive attitudes to
hotel organisations are largely influenced by the work resources that
employees receive from their hotel organisations. The results of this
study add to the few body of literature on the relationship between
E.T. Ampofo
organisational embeddedness and affective commitment. It is expected
that the current study inspires future studies that examine how other
variables, such as career satisfaction, link the effect of organisational
embeddedness on affective commitment.
References
Afsar, B., Shahjehan, A., & Shah, S. I. (2018). Frontline employees' high‒performance
work practices, trust in supervisor, job‒embeddedness and turnover intentions in
hospitality industry. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,
30(3), 1436–1452.
Akgunduz, Y., & Sanli, S. C. (2017). The effect of employee advocacy and perceived or­
ganisational support on job embeddedness and turnover intention in hotels. Journal
of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 31, 118–125.
Allen, D. G., Peltokorpi, V., & Rubenstein, A. L. (2016). When “embedded” means “stuck”:
Moderating effects of job embeddedness in adverse work environments. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 101(12), 1670–1686.
Amissah, E. F., Gamora, E., Deria, M. N., & Amissahb, A. (2016). Factors influencing
employee job satisfaction in Ghana's hotel industry. Journal of Human Resources in
Hospitality & Tourism, 15(2), 166–183.
Ampofo, E. T., Coetzer, A., & Poisat, P. (2017). Relationships between job embeddedness
and employees' life satisfaction. Employee Relations, 39(7), 951–966.
Ampofo, E. T., Coetzer, A., & Poisat, P. (2018). Extending the job embeddedness–life
satisfaction relationship: An exploratory investigation. Journal of Organisational
Effectiveness: People and Performance, 5(3), 236–258.
Bakker, A, B, & Demerouti, E (2008). Towards a model of work engagement. Career
Development International, 13(3), 209–223.
Barnett, R. B., & Bradley, L. (2007). The impact of organisational support for career de­
velopment on career satisfaction. Career Development International, 12(7), 617–636.
Birtch, T. A., Chiang, F. F., & Van Esch, E. (2016). A social exchange theory framework for
understanding the job characteristics–job outcomes relationship: The mediating role
of psychological contract fulfillment. International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 27(11), 1217–1236.
Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley.
Cheung, F. Y., Wu, A. M. S., & Chi, L. C. (2019). Effect of job insecurity, anxiety and
personal resources on job satisfaction among casino employees in Macau: A moder­
ated mediation analysis. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 28(3),
379–396.
Chiang, C. F., Back, K. J., & Canter, D. D. (2005). The impact of employee training on job
satisfaction and intention to stay in the hotel industry. Journal of Human Resources in
Hospitality & Tourism, 4(2), 99–118.
Coetzer, A., Inma, C., Poisat, P., Redmond, J., & Standing, C. (2018). Job embeddedness
and employee enactment of innovation-related work behaviours. International Journal
of Manpower, 39(2), 222–239.
Coetzer, A., Inma, C., Poisat, P., Redmond, J., & Standing, C. (2019). Does job embedd­
edness predict turnover intentions in SMEs? International Journal of Productivity and
Performance Management, 68(2), 340–361.
Creary, S. J., Caza, B. B., & Roberts, L. M. (2015). Out of the box? How managing a
subordinate's multiple identities affects the quality of a manager-subordinate re­
lationship. Academy of Management Review, 40(4), 538–562.
DiPietro, R. B., Moreo, A., & Cain, L. (2020). Well–being, affective commitment and job
satisfaction: Influences on turnover intentions in casual dining employees. Journal of
Hospitality Marketing & Management, 29(2), 139–163.
Ferreira, N., & Coetzee, M. (2013). The influence of job embeddedness on black em­
ployees' organisational commitment. Southern African Business Review, 17(3),
239–255.
Ferreira, A., Martinez, L., Lamelas, J., & Rodrigues, R. (2017). Mediation of job em­
beddedness and satisfaction in the relationship between task characteristics and
turnover: A multilevel study in Portuguese hotels. International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management, 29(1), 248–267.
Gill, A. S. (2008). The role of trust in employee-manager relationship. International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 20(1), 98–103.
Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American
Sociological Review, 25, 161–178.
Haar, J. M., & Roche, M. A. (2010). Family supportive organisation perceptions and
employee outcomes: The mediating effects of life satisfaction. International Journal of
Human Resource Management, 21(7), 999–1014.
Haar, J. M., & Spell, C. S. (2004). Programme knowledge and value of work‒family
practices and organisational commitment. International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 15(6), 1040–1055.
Hair, J., Black, W., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2010). Multivariate data
analysis (7th ed.). New Jersey, Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis:
A regression-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford.
He, Y., Lai, K. K., & Lu, Y. (2011). Linking organisational support to employee commit­
ment: Evidence from hotel industry of China. International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 22(1), 197–217.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture and organisations. International Studies of Management &
Organization, 10(4), 15–41.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture consequences. Comparing values, behaviours, institutions, and
organisations(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Holtom, B. C., Burton, J. P., & Crossley, C. D. (2012). How negative affectivity moderates
the relationship between shocks, embeddedness and worker behaviours. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 80, 434–443.
261
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 44 (2020) 253–262
Holtom, B. C., Mitchell, T. R., Lee, T., & Tidd, S. (2006). Less is more: Validation of a short
form of the job embeddedness measure and theoretical extensions. Atlanta, GA: A paper
presented at the Academy of Management Conference.
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure
analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling:
A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1–55.
Huertas‒Valdivia, I., Llorens‒Montes, F. J., & Ruiz‒Moreno, A. (2018). Achieving en­
gagement among hospitality employees: A serial mediation model. International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 30(1), 217–241.
Ibrahim, S. N. H., Suan, C. L., & Karatepe, O. M. (2019). The effects of supervisor support
and self–efficacy on call center employees' work engagement and quitting intentions.
International Journal of Manpower, 40(4), 688–703.
Jiang, K., Liu, D., McKay, P. F., Lee, T. W., & Mitchell, T. R. (2012). When and how is job
embeddedness predictive of turnover? A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 97(5), 1077–1096.
Joo, B. K., & Park, S. (2010). Career satisfaction, organisational commitment, and turn­
over intention: The effects of goal orientation, organisational learning culture and
developmental feedback. The Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 31(6),
482–500.
Karatepe, O. M. (2009). The effects of involvement and social support on frontline em­
ployee outcomes: Evidence from the Albanian hotel industry. International Journal of
Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 10(4), 326–343.
Karatepe, O. M. (2013). High–performance work practices and hotel employee perfor­
mance: The mediation of work engagement. International Journal of Hospitality
Management, 32, 132–140.
Karatepe, O. M. (2016). Does job embeddedness mediate the effects of coworker and
family support on creative performance? An empirical study in the hotel industry.
Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 15(2), 119–132.
Karatepe, O. M., & Ngeche, R. N. (2012). Does job embeddedness mediate the effect of
work engagement on job outcomes? A study of hotel employees in Cameroon. Journal
of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 21(4), 440–461.
Karatepe, O. M., Rezapouraghdam, H., & Hassannia, R. (2020). Job insecurity, work
engagement and their effects on hotel employees' non‒green and nonattendance
behaviours. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 87.
Kiazad, K., Seibert, S. E., & Kraimer, M. L. (2014). Psychological contract breach and
employee innovation: A conservation of resources perspective. Journal of
Occupational and Organisational Psychology, 87(3), 535–556.
Kim, T. Y., Aryee, S., Loi, R., & Kim, S. P. (2013). Person–organisation fit and employee
outcomes: Test of a social exchange model. International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 24(19), 3719–3737.
Koo, B., Yu, J., Chua, B. L., Lee, S., & Han, H. (2019). Relationships among emotional and
material rewards, job satisfaction, burnout, affective commitment, job performance,
and turnover intention in the hotel industry. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality
& Tourism, 1–31.
Lee, T. W., Mitchell, T. R., Sablynski, C. J., Burton, J. P., & Holtom, B. C. (2004). The
effects of job embeddedness on organisational citizenship, job performance, voli­
tional absences, and voluntary turnover. Academy of Management Journal, 47(5),
711–722.
Lee, J. J., & Ok, C. M. (2016). Hotel employee work engagement and its consequences.
Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 25(2), 133–166.
Locke, E. A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. Handbook of Industrial and
Organisational Psychology, 1, 1294–1343.
Lombardi, S., Sassetti, S., & Cavaliere, V. (2019). Linking employees' affective commit­
ment and knowledge sharing for an increased customer orientation. International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 31(11), 4293–4312.
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the
indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate
Behavioural Research, 39(1), 99–128.
Maia, L. G., Bastos, A. V. B., & Solinger, O. N. (2016). Which factors make the difference
for explaining growth in newcomer organisational commitment? A latent growth
modeling approach. Journal of Organisational Behaviour, 37, 537–557.
Mallol, C. M., Holtom, B. C., & Lee, T. W. (2007). Job embeddedness in a culturally
diverse environment. Journal of Business and Psychology, 22(1), 35–44.
Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1991). A three‒component conceptualisation of organisa­
tional commitment. Human Resource Management Review, 1, 61–89.
Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1997). Commitment in the workplace. Thousand Oaks: Sage
Publications.
Meyer, J. P., Stanley, D. J., Herscovitch, L., & Topolnytsky, L. (2002). Affective, con­
tinuance, and normative commitment to the organisation: A meta‒analysis of ante­
cedents, correlates, and consequences. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61, 20–52.
Mitchell, T. R., Holtom, B. C., Lee, T. W., Sablynski, C. J., & Erez, M. (2001). Why people
stay: Using job embeddedness to predict voluntary turnover. Academy of Management
Journal, 44(6), 1102–1121.
Ozturk, A. B., Hancer, M., & Im, J. Y. (2014). Job characteristics, job satisfaction, and
organisational commitment for hotel workers in Turkey. Journal of Hospitality
Marketing & Management, 23(3), 294–313.
Patten, M. L., & Galvan, M. C. (2019). Proposing empirical research: A guide to the funda­
mentals. Routledge.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method
biases in behavioural research: A critical review of the literature and recommended
remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–904.
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing
and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behaviour Research
Methods, 40(3), 879–891.
Ramesh, A., & Gelfand, M. J. (2010). Will they stay or will they go? The role of job
embeddedness in predicting turnover in individualistic and collectivistic cultures.
E.T. Ampofo
Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(5), 807–823.
Robinson, R. N., Kralj, A., Solnet, D. J., Goh, E., & Callan, V. (2014). Thinking job em­
beddedness not turnover: Towards a better understanding of frontline hotel worker
retention. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 36, 101–109.
Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & Salanova, M. (2006). The measurement of work en­
gagement with a short questionnaire: A cross-national study. Educational and
Psychological Measurement, 66(4), 701–716.
Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., González-Romá, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The mea­
surement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic
approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(1), 71–92.
Sekiguchi, T., Burton, J. P., & Sablynski, C. J. (2008). The role of job embeddedness on
employee performance: The interactive effects with leader–member exchange and
organisation‐based self‐esteem. Personnel Psychology, 61, 761–792.
Sinha, J, B (1997). A cultural perspective on organisational behaviour in India. In P
EarleyC, & M Erez (Eds.). New perspectives on international industrial/organisational
psychology (pp. 53–74). San Francisco, CA: New Lexington Press.
Skowronek, D., & Duerr, L. (2009). The convenience of nonprobability: Survey strategies
262
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 44 (2020) 253–262
for small academic libraries. College & Research Libraries News, 70(7), 412–415.
Suan, C. L., & Nasurdin, A. M. (2016). Supervisor support and work engagement of hotel
employees in Malaysia: Is it different for men and women? Gender in Management,
31(1), 2–18.
Wang, Y. (2015). Examining organisational citizenship behaviour of Japanese employees:
A multidimensional analysis of the relationship to organisational commitment.
International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(4), 425–444.
Weng, Q., McElroy, J. C., Morrow, P. C., & Liu, R. (2010). The relationship between career
growth and organisational commitment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77, 391–400.
World Travel, & Tourism Council (2017). Travel and tourism economic impact. London, UK:
World Travel and Tourism Council.
Zhang, L., Fan, C., Deng, Y., Lam, C. F., Hu, E., & Wang, L. (2019). Exploring the inter­
personal determinants of job embeddedness and voluntary turnover: A conservation
of resources perspective. Human Resource Management Journal, 29(3), 413–432.
Zhao, X., Lynch, J. G., Jr., & Chen, Q. (2010). Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and
truths about mediation analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 197–206.