GENERAL-2074/12/10

1. Introduce the suspension(N-Type) and suspended(D-type) of trail bridges and

suitability of each type over the others.

A typical suspension bridge is a continuous girder suspended by suspension cables, which

pass through the main towers with the aid of a special structure known as a saddle, and end
on big anchorages that hold them. Fig. 1.26 shows the essential structural members and
elements of typical, including tower, hanger, main girder, and the anchorage. The main
forces in a suspension bridge are tension in the cables and compression in the towers. The
deck, which is usually a truss or a box girder, is connected to the suspension cables by
vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers, which are also in tension. The weight is
transferred by the cables to the towers, which in turn transfer the weight to the anchorages
on both ends of the bridge, then finally to the ground.

Fig. 1.26. Image of the suspension bridge.

The curve shape of the suspension cables is similar to that of arch. However, the suspension
cable can only sustain the tensile forces, which is different from the compressive forces in
the arch. Also because of this, the cable will never “buckle” and highly efficient use of high
strength steel materials becomes possible. The use of suspension bridges makes longer
main spans achievable than with any other types of bridges, and they are practical for spans
up to around 2 km or even larger.
Cable-stayed bridges and suspension bridges may appear to be similar, but are quite
different in principle and in their construction.
In suspension bridges, large main cables (normally two) hang between the towers and
are anchored at each end to the ground. The main cables, which are free to move on
bearings in the towers, bear the load of the bridge deck. Before the deck is installed, the
cables are under tension from their own weight. Along the main cables smaller cables or
rods connect to the bridge deck, which is lifted in sections. As this is done, the tension in the
cables increases, as it does with the live load of traffic crossing the bridge. The tension on
the main cables is transferred to the ground at the anchorages and by
downwards compression on the towers.

 Difference between types of bridges

Suspension bridge Cable-stayed bridge, fan design

In cable-stayed bridges, the towers are the primary load-bearing structures that transmit
the bridge loads to the ground. A cantilever approach is often used to support the bridge
 deck near the towers, but lengths further from them are supported by cables running
directly to the towers. By design, all static horizontal forces of the cable-stayed bridge are
balanced so that the supporting towers do not tend to tilt or slide and so must only resist
horizontal forces from the live loads.
Advantages

 Longer main spans are achievable than with any other type of bridge.
 Less material may be required than other bridge types, even at spans they can
achieve, leading to a reduced construction cost.
 Except for installation of the initial temporary cables, little or no access from below is
required during construction and so a waterway can remain open while the bridge is
built above.
 They may be better able to withstand earthquake movements than heavier and
more rigid bridges.
 Bridge decks can have deck sections replaced in order to widen traffic lanes for
larger vehicles or add additional width for separated cycling/pedestrian paths.
Disadvantages

 Considerable stiffness or aerodynamic profiling may be required to prevent the

bridge deck vibrating under high winds.
 The relatively low deck stiffness compared to other (non-suspension) types of
bridges makes it more difficult to carry heavy rail traffic in which high concentrated live
loads occur.
 Some access below may be required during construction to lift the initial cables or to
lift deck units. That access can often be avoided in cable-stayed bridge construction.

2. What are administrative classifications of roads in Nepal?

According to Nepal Road Standard 2070, the roads in Nepal can be classified as follows:
 Administrative Classification
 National Highways
 Feeder Roads
 District Roads
 Urban Roads
 Technical/Functional Classification
 Class I
 Class II
 Class III
 Class IV
Administrative Classification

Administrative classification of roads is intended to assign national importance & level of

government responsible for the overall management and financing methods.
1. National Highways
These are the major roads running east to west & north to south of the country.
2. Feeder Roads
 These are the roads connecting the district headquarters, major economic centers &
tourism centers to national highways or other feeder roads.
3. District Roads
These are the roads within a district, serving areas of production & markets, and connecting
with each other & with the main highways.
4. Urban Roads
These are the road within an urban municipality.

In Nepal, the overall management of national highways & feeder roads comes under the
responsibility of the Department of Road (DOR). And these roads are collectively called
Strategic Road Network (SRN). The district roads & urban roads fall under the responsibility
of the Department of Local Infrastructure Development & Agricultural Roads (DOLIDAR).
And these roads are collectively called Local Road Network (LRN).
Technical / Functional Classification

Nepal Rural Road Standard 2071

According to Nepal Rural Road Standard 2055, 2nd revision 2071, the rural roads in Nepal
are classified as below:
 District Road Core Network (DRCN)
 Village Road
1. District Road Core Network (DRCN)
It is an important road joining a VDC HQ's office or nearest economic center to the district
headquarters, via either a neighboring district headquarters or the Strategic Road Network.
2. Village Road
Smaller roads not falling under District Road Core Network category are Village Roads,
including other Agricultural Road.
Nepal Urban Road Standard 2076
According to Nepal Urban Road Standard 2076, the urban roads are classified as follows:
 Arterial Roads (Path)
 Sub-arterials Roads (Sadak)
 Collector Roads (Marg)
 Local Roads (Upa-Marg)
1. Arterial Roads (Path)
These are the roads generally meant for through traffic usually on a continuous route.
2. Sub-arterial Roads (Sadak)
These are the roads of the somewhat lower levels of travel mobility than the arterial roads.
3. Collector Roads (Marg)
A collector road is one intended for collecting & distributing traffic to and from local roads &
also providing the access to arterial/sub-arterial roads.
4. Local Roads (Upa-Marg)
A local road is one primarily intended for access to the residence, business, and other
abutting property.

3. What are the objects of highway planning and its phases?

The objectives of highway planning are:

(i) Planning a highway network for safe, efficient and fast movement of people and goods.

(ii) Keeping the overall cost of construction and maintenance of the roads in the network to
a minimum.

(iii) Planning for future development and anticipated traffic needs for a specific design
period.

(iv) Phasing road development programmes from considerations of utility and importance
as also of financial resources.

(v) Evolving a financing system compatible with the cost and benefits.

To fulfill these objectives, the following principles have to be borne in mind:

(i) The proposed road links should be a part of the planned road network for the
state/nation.

(ii) The importance of the road shall be based on the traffic demand, and hence its type
should fall under the standard classification.

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(iii) The maintenance needs of the roads should receive prompt attention by setting aside
funds for this purpose.

(iv) Statutory provisions for traffic regulation should be in place.

4. What are the types of improvement in alignment of existing road may be carried out?

5.What are the advantages and disadvantages of oxidation ponds for treatment of sewage?
Advantages

 The stabilization pond reduces the biological oxygen demand up to 90% naturally.
 It is a simple method to operate or does not require sophisticated equipment.
 Oxidation pond is a practical and effective method for the wastewater treatment of
domestic and trade wastes in tropical areas.
 The operation of a stabilization pond does not require much labour-power.
 It is an economical method for the treatment of wastewater from small and isolated
units.
Disadvantages

 The construction of a stabilization pond requires more land area.

 The maintenance is quite intricate.
 Sometimes, it gives a foul smell and mosquito menace during the process if not
appropriately maintained.
 There may get a chance of effluent seepage into the ground water, which can
ultimately cause ground water pollution.