Road Classification in Nepal | Nepal Road Standard

2070
at September 19, 2021

Roads in Nepal are classified according to different guidelines & standards developed by
the government of Nepal. The major guidelines are Nepal Road Standard 2070 (NRS
2070), Nepal Rural Road Standard 2071 (NRRS 2071), Nepal Urban Road Standard 2076
(NURS 2076), etc.
Nepal Road Standard 2070
According to Nepal Road Standard 2070, the roads in Nepal can be classified as follows:
 Administrative Classification
 National Highways
 Feeder Roads
 District Roads
 Urban Roads
 Technical/Functional Classification
 Class I
 Class II
 Class III
 Class IV
Administrative Classification

Administrative classification of roads is intended to assign national importance & level of

government responsible for the overall management and financing methods.
1. National Highways
These are the major roads running east to west & north to south of the country.
2. Feeder Roads
These are the roads connecting the district headquarters, major economic centers &
tourism centers to national highways or other feeder roads.
3. District Roads
These are the roads within a district, serving areas of production & markets, and connecting
with each other & with the main highways.
4. Urban Roads
These are the road within an urban municipality.

In Nepal, the overall management of national highways & feeder roads comes under the
responsibility of the Department of Road (DOR). And these roads are collectively called
Strategic Road Network (SRN). The district roads & urban roads fall under the responsibility
of the Department of Local Infrastructure Development & Agricultural Roads (DOLIDAR).
And these roads are collectively called Local Road Network (LRN).
Technical / Functional Classification

Nepal Rural Road Standard 2071

According to Nepal Rural Road Standard 2055, 2nd revision 2071, the rural roads in
Nepal are classified as below:
 District Road Core Network (DRCN)
 Village Road
1. District Road Core Network (DRCN)
It is an important road joining a VDC HQ's office or nearest economic center to the district
headquarters, via either a neighboring district headquarters or the Strategic Road Network.
2. Village Road
Smaller roads not falling under District Road Core Network category are Village Roads,
including other Agricultural Road.
Nepal Urban Road Standard 2076
According to Nepal Urban Road Standard 2076, the urban roads are classified as follows:
 Arterial Roads (Path)
 Sub-arterials Roads (Sadak)
 Collector Roads (Marg)
 Local Roads (Upa-Marg)
1. Arterial Roads (Path)
These are the roads generally meant for through traffic usually on a continuous route.
2. Sub-arterial Roads (Sadak)
These are the roads of the somewhat lower levels of travel mobility than the arterial roads.
3. Collector Roads (Marg)
A collector road is one intended for collecting & distributing traffic to and from local roads &
also providing the access to arterial/sub-arterial roads.
4. Local Roads (Upa-Marg)
A local road is one primarily intended for access to the residence, business, and other
abutting property.

What are the Factors Controlling Highway Alignment?

at August 03, 2021
What is Highway Alignment?
The process of establishing the centerline of a road is called highway alignment or Road
alignment. It the direction through which the highway will pass. Highway alignment can be
divided into two parts as Horizontal Alignment & Vertical Alignment. The horizontal
alignment is seen in the plan of the road & it consists of the straight path, horizontal curves,
etc. The vertical alignment is observed in the longitudinal profile of the road & it contains
verticle curves, gradients, etc.
What are the Requirements of Highway Alignment?
An ideal highway alignment may fulfill the following criteria:
 Short: The route between any two points should be the shortest route.
 Safety: The alignment should satisfy the safety requirements.
 Comfort: The alignment should have easy curves & gradients.
 Economy: The cost of construction should be economic.
What are the Factors Controlling Highway Alignment?
There are various factors to be considered while selecting a road alignment. Additionally,
there are some special considerations to be followed while selecting alignments in hill
roads. In general, the following factors are to be considered while choosing a highway
alignment.
1. Government Plannings

Since a road project involves heavy investments, it should comply with government
requirements & planning.
2. Obligatory Points

Obligatory points are the governing points that control the highway alignment. These can be
classified into two types viz. the points thorough which alignment should always pass (or
positive obligatory points) & the points through which the alignment should never pass (or
negative obligatory points). Ex: Highway alignment should always pass through the bridge
site. In the case of mountains in the alignment, there may be options either to go round the
hill or to construct a tunnel. Moreover, the highway alignment should never pass through the
National Parks, Conservation Areas, Protected Areas, dense forest, costly agricultural
lands, etc. In the case of an intermediate town, the highway alignment may get deviated
slightly in order to connect the town.
3. Traffic Flow Pattern

The traffic flow pattern can be known from the origin & destination study (O&D Study). The
lines are drawn in the data obtained from the origin & destination study & then, proper
alignment is fixed.
4. Geometric Design

The road alignment is also affected by the geometric design. The horizontal curves, vertical
curves, gradients, sight distance, etc should meet the requirements of geometric design
standards.
5. Monotony
Due to very long straight paths in flat terrain, the driver may become monotonous & this
may lead to accidents. Thus, small horizontal curves should be provided in suitable intervals
to avoid monotony.
6. Economy

The alignment should be selected in such a way that the construction cost, maintenance
cost & operation cost of the road is minimum. Excessive cuttings & fillings, the necessity of
complex structures, etc should be avoided.
7. Railway Crossings

A highway alignment should cross the railway alignment preferably at a right angle.

Difference Between Flexible Pavement & Rigid

Pavement
at January 02, 2022

SN Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

1 Consists of bituminous materials Consists of cement concrete which

may be plain, reinforced or
prestressed

2 Negligible flexural strength Considerable flexural strength

3 Load transfer by grain to grain Load transfer by slab action

action

4 Temperature variation due to Temperature variation produces heavy

atmospheric condition do not temperature stresses
produce stresses

5 It has self healing properties (i.e. It doesn’t have self healing properties
coming to its original shape)
 6. Frequent maintenance is Very little maintenance is needed
necessary

7 Design life is about 10-20 years Design life is about 40 years

8 Low initial cost Initial cost is high

9 Stage construction is possible Stage construction is not possible

(i.e. minimum thickness is
provided at initial period & then
overlying can be done as the
traffic volume increases)

10 Water may enter through the Practically impermeable to water

pores & cracks in its surface except at joints where mud pumping
may occur

11 Need more street lighting for It produces glare on sunlight

night visibility

12 More tractive resistance Less tractive resistance

13 Can be opened to traffic shortly 28 days of curing is needed for cement

after construction concrete pavement before opening to
traffic

14 Corrugations are developed No corrugation are developed

What are the Special Considerations for Hill Road

Alignment?
at August 13, 2021
What is Hill Road?
According to Nepal Rural Road Standards (2055), 2nd Revision 2071, the terrain is
classified as Terai & Hills based on the topography of the country. The Terai covers the
plain & rolling terrain having a cross slope of 0 to 25%. Hill covers the mountainous & steep
terrain having a cross slope of 25 to 60% and more. The road passing through the hilly
terrain with a cross slope of 25% or more is generally termed as Hill Road. A hill road
usually consists of either a river route or a ridge route.

What are the Factors Affecting the Alignment of Hill

Roads?
There are various factors affecting road alignment. Moreover, there are some special
considerations to be followed while selecting a hill road alignment. The major factors to be
considered while deciding the alignment of hill roads are as follows:
1. Geological Stability

The road alignment should pass through a stable hill slope. The area should not be prone to
erosion, landslides, rockfall, etc.
2. Availability Of Construction Materials

Availability of construction materials near the construction site will reduce the transportation
cost of materials thus making the project economical.
3. Cross Drainage Structures
Due to numerous watercourses present in the hilly regions, there may be the necessity of
intense cross drainage works. The alignment should be so selected in such a way that the
number of cross-drainage structures required becomes minimum.
4. Geological Structures

Excessive cutting of hard rock will be expensive. So, such areas should be avoided as
much as possible from the road alignment.
5. Geometric Design

The alignment should be chosen to minimize the ineffective rise & fall, steep gradients,
number of hairpin bends, etc. Also, the geometric design parameters should comply with
the design guidelines & standards for hilly regions.
6. Altitude Of The Road

 Rainfall (or Snowfall) ∝ Altitude

 Atmospheric Pressure ∝ 1Altitude1Altitude
 As the altitude decreases, the number of cross drainage works required increases.

Importance & Requirements of Highway Drainage

at October 20, 2021

Water has detrimental effects on the good performance of road & should be drained off as
soon as possible. The process of quick removal of water out of surface & sub-surface
region of the road is called Highway Drainage. The surface & sub-surface water of the road
should quickly pass into the longitudinal drains if a proper highway drainage system is
present. The surface water passes into longitudinal drains via gravity flow due to the cross-
slope provided on the road surface. The subsurface water first goes into the perforated
cross drains & then into the longitudinal drains, both being under the road surface in the
areas of heavy rainfall. The surface drainage system prevents the surface water from
percolating down to the sub-surface layers. The sub-surface drainage system takes the
sub-surface water out of the subsurface layers.
What is the Importance of Highway Drainage?
The provision of a proper drainage system provides the following important functions:
1. It arrests the moisture variation in the subsurface layers thus preventing the reduction
in bearing capacity of subgrade soil.
2. It prevents the erosion of side slopes.
3. It prevents the failure of formation slope caused by the poor drainage system.
4. It prevents the stripping of bitumen from aggregates in flexible pavements.
5. It prevents the mud pumping in rigid pavements.
6. It prevents the skidding of vehicles caused by a reduction in friction coefficient.
7. It prevents the frost action caused by the accumulation of water.
What are the Requirements of a Good Highway
Drainage System?
A good highway drainage system should fulfill the following requirements:
1. The surface water on the carriageway and shoulder should be drained off effectively
as soon as possible.
2. The surface water from the adjoining land should be prevented from entering into the
roadway.
3. The groundwater table should be maintained well below the bottom surface of the
subgrade soil.
4. The capillary rise & seepage water should be controlled effectively.
5. The longitudinal drains & cross drains should have sufficient capacity to carry the
collected water.
6. The longitudinal drains & cross drains should have sufficient bed slope for gravity flow.
7. The flow of water across the road surface & in the drains should not cause erosion.
8. Complex & costly cross drainage structures should be avoided as much as possible.

Basics of Tunnel Engineering | Methods of Tunneling

at August 07, 2021
Tunnels are underground passages used for transportation purposes. Tunnels are the
underground routes driven without disturbing the overlying soil to bypass the obstacles
safely. Tunnels can be used to carry passengers & freights, water, sewers, gases, etc.
Tunnels are constructed in various shapes & sizes. The shape of the tunnel cross-section is
governed by the nature & type of soil to be penetrated while the size of the tunnel depends
on the usage to which it is subjected. The economy of tunnel construction depends on the
relative cost of open cuts vs. tunneling. The tunnel becomes more economical than an open
cut beyond a certain depth.
Advantages of Tunneling
 It reduces the route distance & travel time
 It provides easy gradients in hilly terrain
 Surace activities are not disturbed
 It remains free from the weather actions like rainfall, snow, etc
 The tunnel becomes more economical than an open cut beyond a certain depth.
Disadvantages of Tunneling
 The initial cost of construction may become higher
 Construction of tunnel requires skilled manpower & sophisticated equipment
 Strick supervision is necessary during construction
 Higher safety precautions are necessary during construction
 Construction of tunnel requires more time than open cuts
 A tunnel may collapse during an earthquake
Terminologies related to Tunnel Engineering
 Tunnel Portal: The tunnel entrance is called a tunnel portal.
 Crown: It is the topmost point of the tunnel cross-section.
 Invert: It is the lowest point of the tunnel cross-section.
 Adit: It is a horizontal or near-horizontal passage that provides access to a tunnel. It may
be used for the purpose of the auxiliary entrance, ventilation, drainage, etc.
 Shaft: It is a vertical passage from the ground surface that provides access to a tunnel. It
may be used to transfer the centerline from the ground surface into the tunnel.
 Tunnel Linings: These are the supports erected during & after tunnel construction to
ensure a safe working environment inside the tunnels. Stone masonry, brick masonry,
timber, steel, etc are used as tunnel lining materials.
 Mucking: Mucking means the removal of blasted debris from the tunnel interior to a
good distance outside the tunnel entrance.
 Faces of Operation or Attack: It is the surface from which a boring operation is carried
out.
 Pilot Tunnel: It is a small tunnel driven, parallel & close to the proposed main tunnel, to
explore geological conditions & assist in final excavation.
Classification of Tunnels
A. Based On Purpose

1. Traffic Tunnel
 Highway Tunnel
 Railway Tunnel
 Pedestrian Tunnel
2. Conveyance Tunnel
 Power Tunnel
  Water Supply Tunnel
 Sewer Tunnel
B. Based On Shape/Cross-Section

1. Circular Tunnel
2. D Shaped Tunnel
3. Horse Shoe Tunnel
4. Square or Rectangular Tunnel
5. Elliptical Tunnel
Methods of Tunneling
During tunnel construction, tunnels are lined with suitable materials parallelly with the boring
operations. Tunnels are usually lined with timber, steel, cast iron, masonry, or concrete with
suitable outlets to let out the enclosed subsoil water behind the linings. Other items of work
include the provision of ventilation, drainage, lighting, etc. Tunneling may have to be done in
the hard rock or soft soil based on which the method of tunneling differs. Hard rock is
considered as a fully self-supporting soil that does not require much support except where a
loose rock is occasionally met. On the other hand, soft soils like running grounds (eg: water-
bearing sands) require instant supports all around. So, different methods of tunneling based
on the nature of the soil to be penetrated are listed below:
A. Tunneling In Soft Soils

1. Fore Poling Method

2. Needle Beam Method
3. Shield Method
4. Compressed Air Method
5. Liner Plate Method
6. Army Method
7. American Method
B. Tunneling In Hard Rock

1. Full Face Method

2. Top Heading Benching
 3. Bottom Heading & Stopping
4. Drift Method
5. Pilot Tunnel Method
For the detailed description of each method of tunneling listed above, the readers are kindly
requested to go through ref 1.

References
1. Srinivasan, R.(1958). Harbour, dock and tunnel engineering. India: Charotall Book
Stall

Methods of Soil Compaction | Types of Soil

Compaction
at July 21, 2021

Compaction of soil is necessary for various types of foundations used in civil engineering

constructions. It improves the engineering properties of soil. Compaction is the process of
reducing air voids in soil by means of mechanical compressions. During compaction, the air
is expelled from the voids in the soil. It increases the dry density of soil, improves shear
strength & hence stability and bearing capacity. The various methods of soil compaction are
as follows:
 Tamper / Rammer
 Hand Operated Tamper
 Mechanical Tamper
 Roller
 Smooth Wheeled Roller
 Pneumatic Tyred Roller
 Sheep Foot Roller
 Vibrator
Compaction by Tamper / Rammer
Tampers may be of two types viz. Hand Operated Tamper & Mechanical Tamper. Tamper
can be used for the compaction of any type of soil. It is typically preferred when compaction
is to be done in small areas and narrow constricted zones.
Compaction by Roller
Roller may be smooth wheeled or pneumatic tyred or sheep footed. Each type of roller is
preferred for a specific soil type. Smooth Wheeled Roller is generally used for compaction
of a granular base of the highway. Pneumatic Tyred Roller is used for cohesive as well as
cohesionless soils. The Sheep Foot Roller is used when the soil to be compacted is
cohesive in nature.
Compaction by Vibrator
Vibrators are mostly suitable for the compaction of granular soils. There are also vibrator-
mounted rollers available for soil compaction & are called vibratory rollers.

Hence, methods employed for soil compaction in the field solely depend upon the type of
soil to be compacted, dry density required to be achieved, & economic considerations.

What are the Criteria for Selection of Ideal Bridge

Site?
at July 16, 2021

It is necessary to select an ideal bridge site at which the bridge can be made economically.
As construction of a bridge requires a heavy investment, the bridge site should be selected
wisely. A poor bridge site may increase the project's cost, making it susceptible to damage,
in the long run, thus decreasing the life span of bridges. Thus, the following are the factors
that require attention while selecting a bridge site.

1. The river reach should be straight.

2. There should be uniform & steady flow in the reach.
3. The river banks should be stable.
4. The width of the river channel should be minimum.
5. The site should be sufficiently away from the confluence point.
6. There should not be the necessity for extensive river training works.
7. There should be the availability of hard strata or non-erodible foundations for the
bridge.
8. There should be no excessive scouring & silting at the bridge site
9. There should be a minimum obstruction to natural waterways.
10. The bridge axis & river flow direction should be at a right angle.
 11. The bridge axis should align with the centerline of the approach road.
12. The bridge should be absolutely on level. If it has to be in gradient, it should comply
with that of the roadway at both ends of the bridge.
13. There should be sufficient clearance for high flood level (HFL).
14. Absence of excessive underwater construction works.
15. There should be the availability of construction materials.

Principles & Techniques of Bioengineering for Civil

Engineers
at July 09, 2021

In a broader sense, Bioengineering is the use of life science & engineering to solve human
life problems. Here, in this article, we are using the term bioengineering in the context of
civil engineering & it basically refers to soil bioengineering. So, Bioengineering can be
defined as the use of vegetative measures & small civil engineering structures in order to
reduce the shallow seated instability. The living plants or non-living plant materials are used
alone or in conjunction with small civil engineering structures for slope stabilization &
erosion control. It utilizes locally available resources & is a cost-effective method.
Principles of Bioengineering
Initially, stability is obtained from the small civil engineering structures. The strength of
those structures decreases gradually. After the handover point, stability is derived from the
vegetative measures. This can be depicted from the graph shown below:
Functions of Bioengineering
Engineering functions performed by vegetation on a slope are as follows:

 Catch
 Armor
 Reinforce
 Anchor
 Support
 Drain
Advantages of Bioengineering
 Immediate slope stabilization & erosion control
 Utilization of locally available resources (local tools, local manpower, local materials)
 It is a cost-effective method
 No need for frequent maintenance
 It also provides an opportunity for wildlife habitat
 It also improves the aesthetic beauty of the site
Commonly Used Techniques of Bioengineering
 Fascine: Bundle of live branches laid in shallow trenches
 Palisade: Woody cuttings planted across the slope.
 Wattling: Fence made out of vegetative materials.
 Bamboo Planting: Planting of bamboo for soil conservation
 Grass Planting: Planting of grass across the slope
 Brush Layering: Layers of woody cuttings planted in line following the contour
 RipRap: Stone pitching with vegetation interplanted between them
 Retaining Wall: Wall built to resist the pressure of earth filling or backing
 Toe Wall
 Breast Wall or Revetment Wall
 Check Dam: Dams constructed across the gullies to retard the flow
 Gabion Wall: Walls made up of gabion wire filled with stones
 Stone Masonry: Masonry construction using stones & mortar 
 Jute Netting: Protecting the slope with standard jute mesh
 Rock Netting: Wire mesh of reliable material used to control the rockfall
 Rock Bolting: Reinforcement of rock slope by inserting steel bars
 French Drain: Subsurface drainage channel filled with aggregates

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