Part III - Section 3 – Compressors

Buyer Guide - Compressors

Table of Content

1. Definition of Compressor

2. Operating Principles and Classification

3. Supporting Equipment in a Compressor System

4. Basic Terminology

5. Industry Specification

6. Major Vendors and Suppliers

Part III - Section 3 – Compressors
 

1. Definition of Compressors:

The purpose of compressors is to move air and other gases from place to place. Gases, unlike liquids, are
compressible and require compression devices, which although similar to pumps, operate on somewhat
different principles. Compressors, blowers, and fans are such compression devices.

2. Operating Principles and Classification

Compressor move air and gases by adding mechanical energy to the gases (compress it). There are two
main methods used to compress gas: intermittent and continuous. The intermittent mode of compression is
cyclic in nature, in that a specific quantity of gas is ingested by the compressor, acted upon, and discharged,
before the cycle is repeated. The continuous compression mode is one in which the gas is moved into the
compressor, acted upon, moved through compressors, and discharged without any interruption of the flow at
any point in the process.

Compressors using the intermittent compression mode are referred to as positive displacement compressors,
of which there are two distinct types: reciprocating and rotary. Continuous-type compressors are also
characterized by two major types: dynamic and ejector.

Pumps and Compressors

 Both pumps and compressors move a fluid from one energy level to
  another.

 A pump moves an incompressible fluid - a liquid. For our purposes, the

volume of a liquid does not change with pressure and temperature.

 A compressor moves a compressible fluid - a gas or air. The volume of a

gas changes with pressure, temperature and gas composition.

 The principles of dynamic machines apply both to pumps and

compressors. However, since gases are compressible, the volume flow
rate and hence the gas velocity in a passage is affected. 

There are three basic designs for compressors:

a. Dynamic
b. Positive displacement
c. Thermal.

Dynamic compressors include centrifugal (radial flow) and axial (straight-line) flow compressors. Dynamic
compressors accelerate airflow by drawing air in axially and spinning it outward (centrifugal compressors) or
in a straight line (axial flow compressors).

Positive displacement compressors include rotary and reciprocating compressors. Positive displacement
compressors compress gas into a smaller volume and discharge it at higher pressures.

Thermal compressors use ejectors to direct high-velocity gas or steam into the process stream, entraining the
gas, then converting the velocity into pressure in a diffuser assembly
Part III - Section 3 – Compressors
 

Figure 1: Pumps moving liquid from low elevation to higher elevation

Figure 1: Chart of Compressor Types

 
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2.1 Dynamic Compressors

In dynamic compressors, energy is transferred from a moving set of blades to the gas. The energy takes the
form of velocity and pressure in the rotating element, with further pressure conversion taking place in the
stationary elements. Because of the dynamic nature of these compressors, the density and molecular weight
have an influence on the amount of pressure the compressor can generate. The dynamic compressors are
further subdivided into three categories, based primarily on the direction of flow through the machine. These
are radial, axial, and mixed flow. The radial-flow, or centrifugal compressor is a widely used compressor and
is probably second only to the reciprocating compressor in usage in the process industry

2.1.1 Centrifugal (radial-flow) Compressors

The operating principles, design and components of centrifugal compressors are similar to those in centrifugal
pumps. Briefly summarized as below:

 Gas enters a centrifugal compressor at the suction inlet and is accelerated radially by moving
impellers.
 Centrifugal compressors have moving elements: drive shaft and impeller.
 The impeller discharges into a circular, narrow chamber called the diffuser
 More sensitive to density and fluid characteristics
 Designed to operate at speeds in excess of 3000 rpm
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 Can be single stage or multistage (refer to pump section for concept of “stage”)
 Single stage – designed for high gas flow rates and low discharge pressure
 Multi stage – designed for high gas flow rates and high discharge pressure
 Can transferring wet product gas (rather than positive displacement)

Figure 2: Centrifugal compressor  

 
Figure 3: Multi-stage centrifugal compressor  
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Based on design of casing, centrifugal compressors can be further classified as horizontal or vertical split or
barrel casing design (refer to pumps section for reference),

Based on impeller design, compressors can be classified as overhung or between-bearing. Impellers designs
of these are similar to those in corresponding pump types.

Another common type of compressor is manufactured in an integrally geared configuration. It is basically an

overhung style machine mounted on a gear box and uses the gear pinion shaft extension to mount an
impeller (see Figure 4). The casing is also attached to the gear box. This style is built in both the single and
multistage configuration. The most common form of multistage is the plant air compressor, which also has
intercoolers included as part of machine package.

Figure 4 shows an exploded view of an integrally-geared compressor. It consists of three impellers, the first
located on one pinion, which would have a lower speed than the other pinion that has mounted the remaining
two impellers. This arrangement is common to the plant air compressor. Configurations such as this are used
in process air and gas services

Bull Gear

Vanes & Impeller

Gearbox
Figure 4: Integrally-geared compressor

Figures 5 and 6 depict the two most common forms of in-out arrangements. This arrangement is also referred
to as a compound compressor. In these applications, the flow out of the compressor is taken through an
intercooler and back to the compressor. The arrangement is not limited to cooling because some services use
this arrangement to remove and scrub the gas stream at a particular pressure level. Provision for liquid
removal must be made of one of the gas components reach saturation temperature in the process of cooling.
Figure 6 shows a double-cooled or double compound compressor. This arrangement is used mostly when the
gas being compressed has a temperature limit. The limit may be imposed by the materials of construction or
where the gas becomes more reactive with an increase in temperature and thus sets the limit in a given
application.
 Part III - Section 3 – Compressors
  Figure 5: Diaphragm of an in-out arrangement with intercooling

Figure 5: Diaphragm of an in-out arrangement with intercooling

 
Figure 6a: Diaphragm of double-flow compressor with 2 inlets

Figure 6: Diaphragm of a double-cooled centrifugal compressor

The arrangement shown in Figure 6a is referred to as a double-flow compressor As indicated in the figure, the
flow enters the case at two points, is compressed by one or more stages at each end, and then enters the
double-flow impeller. The flow passes through each individual section of the double-flow impeller and joins at
the diffuser.

2.1.2 Axial-flow Compressors

Axial compressors are large-volume compressors that are characterized by the axial direction of the flow
passing through the machine. The energy from the rotor is transferred to the gas by blading (see Figure 7).
Typically, the rotor consists of multiple rows of unshrouded blades. Before and after each rotor row is a
stationary (stator) row. For example, a gas particle passing through the machine alternately moves through a
stationary row, then a rotor row, then another stationary row, until it completes the total gas path. A pair of
rotating and stationary blade rows define a stage. One common arrangement has the energy transfer
arranged to provide 50% of the pressure rise in the rotating row and the other 50% in the stationary row. This
design is referred to as 50% reaction.
Part III - Section 3 – Compressors
 
Axial compressors are smaller and are significantly more efficient than centrifugal compressors when a
comparison is made at an equivalent flow rating. The exacting blade design, while maintaining structural
integrity, renders this an expensive piece of equipment when compared to centrifugals.

Figure 7: Axial compressor

 
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Axial Flow Compressors are:

 Normally used for jobs where highest flow and pressure required
 Request twice as many stages as centrifugal perform (8% to 10%)
 Primary application of axial compressors involves transfer of clean gas such as air
 Internal component are sensitive to corrosion, pitting and deposits
 More lighter, more efficient and smaller than centrifugal pumps
 Main purpose is in gas turbine applications

The advantages of axial compressors:

 They have higher efficiency

 They have higher capacity (flow rate)
 They are in smaller size

The disadvantages of axial compressors:

 They limited operating range

 They are more subjected to corrosion
 They are subjected to deposits
 They have higher capital costs
 They have lower heads

2.1.3 Mixed-flow Compressors

The mixed-flow compressor is a relatively uncommon form. At first glance, the mixed-flow compressor very
much resembles the radial-flow compressor. A bladed impeller is used, but the flow path is angular in
direction to the rotor; that is, it has both radial and axial components. Because the stage spacing is wide, the
compressor is used almost exclusively as a single-stage machine. The energy transfer is the same as
described for radial-flow compressors.
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Figure 8: Mixed-flow compressor

2.2 Positive Displacement Compressors

2.2.1 Reciprocating Compressors

The reciprocating compressor is probably the best known and the most widely used of all compressors. It
consists of a mechanical arrangement in which reciprocating motion is transmitted to a piston which is free to
move in a cylinder. The displacing action of the piston, together with the inlet valve or valves, causes a
quantity of gas to enter the cylinder where it is in turn compressed and discharged, Action of the discharge
valve or valves prevents the backflow of gas into the compressor from the discharge line during the next
intake cycle. When the compression takes place on one side of the piston only, the compressor is said to be
single-acting. The compressor is double-acting when compression takes place on each side of the piston.
Configurations consist of a single cylinder or multiple cylinders on a frame. When a single cylinder is used or
when multiple cylinders on a common frame are connected in parallel, the arrangement is referred to as a
single-stage compressor. When multiple cylinders on a common frame are connected in series, usually
through a cooler, the arrangement is referred to as a multistage compressor.
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Figure 9: Reciprocating compressor

The reciprocating compressor is generally in the lower flow end of the compressor spectrum. Inlet flows range
from less than 100 to approximately 10,000 cfm per cylinder. It is particularly well-suited for high pressure
service. One of the highest pressure applications is at a discharge pressure of 40,000 psi. Above
approximately a 1.5-to-l pressure ratio, the reciprocating compressor is one of the most efficient of all
compressors

The reciprocating compressor is a positive displacement, intermittent flow machine and operates at a fixed
volume in its basic configuration. One method of volume variations is by speed modulation. Another, more
common method, is the use of clearance pockets, with or without valve unloading. With clearance pockets,
the cylinder performance is modified. With valve unloading, one or more inlet valves are physically open.
Capacity may be regulated in a single- or double-acting cylinder with single or multiple cylinder configuration.

A unique feature of the reciprocating compressor is the possibility of multiple services on one compressor
frame. On a multistage frame, each cylinder can be used for a separate gas service. For example, one
cylinder may be dedicated to propane refrigeration, while the balance of the cylinders may be devoted to
product gas.

Lubrication of compressor cylinders can be tailored to the application, The cylinders may be designed for
normal hydrocarbon lubricants or can be modified for synthetic lubricants. The cylinder may also be designed
for self lubrication, generally referred to as nonlubed, A compromise lubrication method that uses the
nonlubed design but requires a small amount of lubricant is referred to as the mini-lube system.

An unusual nonlubed compressor is a labyrinth piston compressor, shown in Figure 10. The piston does not
touch the sides of the cylinder that is equipped with a series of circumferential labyrinths operating with close
clearance to the cylinder wall. Efficiency is sacrificed (due to gas bypass) in order to obtain a low
maintenance cylinder. This design is mentioned primarily because it is unique and not widely manufactured.
Part III - Section 3 – Compressors
 

 
Figure 10: labyrinth piston compressor

Another feature necessary to the reciprocating compressor is cylinder cooling. Most process compressors are
furnished with water jackets as an integral part of the cylinder. Alternatively, particularly in the smaller size
compressors, the cylinder can be designed for air cooling

2.2.1.1 Classification

Reciprocating compressors can be classified into several types. One type is the trunk or automotive piston
type (see Figure 11). The piston is connected to a connecting rod, which is in turn connected directly to the
crankshaft. This type of compressor has a single-acting cylinder and is limited to refrigeration service and to
smaller air compressors. Most of the smaller packaged refrigeration system compressors are of this type, The
compressors may be single or multistage. Approximate capacity is 50 tons in water-chilled refrigeration
service and 75 scfm in air service.
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Figure 11: Trunk type reciprocating compressor

The more common type of compressor used in process service is the crosshead type, as shown in Figure 12.
The piston is driven by a fixed piston rod that passes through a stuffing or packing box and is connected to a
crosshead. The crosshead, in turn, is connected to the crankshaft by a connecting rod. In this design, the
cylinder is isolated from the crankcase by a distance piece. A variable length or double distance piece is used
to keep crankcase lubrication from being exposed to the process gas. This design has obvious advantages
for hazardous material. The cylinder can be either single- or double-acting. The double-acting construction
uses both sides of the piston and compresses on both strokes of the piston during one revolution. Except for
very small compressors, most reciprocating compressors furnished to the process industry use the double-
acting configuration.
 Part III - Section 3 – Compressors
 

Figure 12: Crosshead type reciprocating compressor

2.2.1.2 Arrangement

The trunk type compressor is generally arranged with the cylinder vertical in the basic single-stage
arrangement. In the vertical, "in line," multistage configuration, the number of cylinders is normally limited to
two. Most multi-cylinder arrangements are in pairs in the form of a V, usually at 45° from the vertical. These
compressors usually have up to eight cylinders and are normally used in compressing organic refrigerants.
The few single-acting crosshead compressors are normally single stage machines with vertical cylinders. The
more common double-acting type, when used as a single-stage, commonly has a horizontal cylinder. The
double-acting cylinder compressor is built in both the horizontal and the vertical arrangement. There is
generally a design trade-off to be made in this group of compressors regarding cylinder orientation. From ring
wear consideration, the more logical orientation is vertical; however, taking into account size and the ensuing
physical location as well as maintenance problems, most installations normally favor the horizontal
arrangement.

There is wide variation in multistage configuration. The most common is the horizontally opposed. Probably
the next most common is the vertical arrangement. Other variations include V, Y, angle or L type. These later
arrangements are not too common and are mentioned only to complete possible configurations. Another
modification is the tandem-cylinder arrangement, which is almost always horizontal. In this configuration, the
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cylinders are oriented in line with one another with the innermost cylinder having a piston rod protruding from
both ends. This outboard rod in turn drives the next cylinder. While somewhat compact and more competitive
in price than the side-by-side arrangements, it is not too popular with maintenance people.

2.2.1.3 Drive Methods

Another feature of reciprocating compressors that is somewhat unique when compared to the rest of the
compressor family is the number of available drive arrangements, which is almost as complex as the cylinder
arrangements. In single and multistage arrangement small compressors, particularly the trunk type, are
usually V-belt driven by electric motors. The single-acting crosshead type and the small, double-acting,
single-stage compressor are also driven in a similar manner. Larger, multistage, trunk type compressors can
be sized to operate at common motor speeds and therefore are direct coupled. The larger, crosshead,
double-acting, multistage compressors present the most variations in drive arrangements. If it has an integral
electric motor sharing a common shaft with the compressor, it is called an engine type. These compressors
can also be directly coupled to a separate electric motor in a more conventional manner. Gear units may be
involved in the drive train where speed matching is required. Multiple frames are sometimes used with a
common crankshaft in a compound arrangement to use a common driver. Variable frequency motor drives
are becoming more popular because of the ability to provide capacity control.

Reciprocating compressors are available with a large variety of other drivers, which include the piston engine,
steam turbine, or, in rare cases, gas turbine. Next in popularity to the electric motor is the piston engine. The
arrangement lends itself to skid mounting, particularly with the semi-portable units found in the oilfield. The
unit is also popular as a “lease" unit, which may be lifted onto a flat-bed trailer and moved from one location to
another as needed. The engine is either direct-coupled or, as with smaller compressors, it may be belt-
connected.

A variation of the smaller, skid-mounted, engine-driven compressor is larger, engine-driven version in the
form of the integral engine compressor. The compressor and the engine share a common frame and
crankshaft. When the engine cylinders are vertical or in a V configuration and the compressor cylinders are
horizontal, the machine is called an angle engine compressor

A more rare form of driver is the steam cylinder. Most arrangements combine the steam driver and
compressor on the same frame with the steam cylinder opposite the compressor cylinder. Each cylinder's
connecting rod is connected to a common throw on the crankshaft. A flywheel is used to provide inertia. For
air service, the units are built as single- and two-stage units, with other combinations available for process
service.

2.2.2 Rotary Compressors

Rotary compressors as a group make up the balance of the positive displacement machines. This group of
compressors has several features in common despite differences in construction. Probably the most
important feature is the lack of valves as used on the reciprocating compressor. The rotary is lighter in weight
than the reciprocator and does not exhibit the shaking forces of the reciprocating compressor, making the
foundation requirements less rigorous. Even though rotary compressors are relatively simple in construction,
the physical design can vary widely. Both multiple- and single-rotor construction is found. Rotor design is one
of the main items that distinguishes the different types. Size and operating range is another area unique to
each type of rotary. The following sections cover some of the more common rotary compressors in detail.

2.2.2.1 Rotary Lobe

A rotary lobe compressor consists of identically synchronized rotors. The rotors are synchronized through use
of an external, oil-lubricated, timing gear, which positively prevents rotor contact and which minimizes
meshing rotor clearance to optimize efficiency. This feature also allows the compressor to be oil free in the
gas path. The rotors of the two-lobe compressor each have two lobes. When the rotor rotates, gas is trapped
between the rotor lobes and the compressor casing. The rotating rotor forces the gas from the gas inlet port,
along the casing, to the gas discharge port. Discharge begins as the edge of the leading lobe passes the
edge of the discharge port. The trailing lobe pushes the entrapped gas into the discharge port, which
compresses the gas against the backpressure of the system. Rotary lobe compressors are usually supplied
with noise enclosures or silencers to reduce their characteristic high noise level. A schematic of a two-lobe
rotary compressor is shown in Figure 13.
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Figure 13: Rotary Lobe compressor  

The suction to the unit is located where the cavity made by the lobes is largest. As the lobes rotate, the cavity
size is reduced, causing compression of the vapor within. The compression continues until the discharge port
is reached, at which point the vapor exits the compressor at a higher pressure.

2.2.2.2 Rotary Vane

A sliding-vane rotary compressor uses a series of vanes that slide freely in longitudinal slots that are cut into
the rotor. Centrifugal force causes the vanes to move outward against the casing wall. The chamber that is
formed between the rotor, between any two vanes, and the casing is referred to as a cell. As the rotor turns,
an individual vane passes the inlet port to form a cell between itself and the vane that precedes it. As an
individual vane rotates toward the end of the inlet port, the volume of the cell increases. The increase in the
cell volume draws a partial vacuum in the cell. The vacuum draws the gas in through the inlet port. When a
vane passes the inlet port, the cell is closed, and the gas is trapped between the two vanes, the rotor and the
casing. As rotation continues toward the discharge port, the volume of the cell decreases. The vanes ride
against the casing and slide back into the rotor. The decrease in volume increases the gas pressure. The high
pressure gas is discharged out of the compressor through the gas discharge port. Sliding-vane rotary
compressors are characterized by a high noise level that results from the vane motion. A schematic of a
sliding vane rotary compressor is shown in Figure 14.
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Figure 14: Rotary Vane compressor

2.2.2.2 Rotary Liquid Ring

Liquid ring rotary compressors consist of a round, multi-blade rotor that revolves in an elliptical casing. The
elliptical casing is partially filled with a liquid, which is usually water. As the rotor turns, the blades form a
series of buckets. As the rotor turns, the buckets carry the liquid around with the rotor. Because the liquid
follows the contour of the casing, the liquid alternately leaves and returns to the space between the blades.
The space between the blades serves as a rotor chamber. The gas inlet and discharge ports are located at
the inner diameter of the rotor chamber. As the liquid leaves the rotor chamber, gas is drawn into the rotor
chamber through the inlet ports. As the rotor continues to rotate, the liquid returns to the rotor chamber and
decreases the volume in the chamber. As the volume decreases, the gas pressure increases. As the rotor
chamber passes the discharge port, the compressed gas is discharged into a gas/liquid separator and then to
the process. A typical liquid ring rotary compressor is shown in Figure 15-16.

Figure 15: Rotary Liquid Ring compressor

 
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Figure 16: Diaphragm of Rotary Liquid Ring compressor

2.2.2.3 Rotary Screw Compressor

Another name for the screw compressor is helical-lobe compressor. “Screw” is the most common name, even
though all the names are interchangeable.

The single-stage design consists of a pair of rotors that mesh in a onepiece, dual-bore cylinder. The male
rotor usually consists of four helical threads that are spaced 90 degrees apart. The female rotor usually
consists of six helical grooves that are spaced 60 degrees apart. The rotor speed ratio is inversely
proportional to the thread-groove ratio. In the four-thread, six-groove, screw compressor, when the male rotor
rotates at 1800 rpm, the female rotor rotates at 1200 rpm. The male rotor is usually the driven rotor, and the
female rotor is usually driven by the male rotor. A film of foil is normally injected between the rotors to provide
a seal between the rotor and to prevent metal-to-metal contact. An oil-mist eliminator, installed immediately
downstream of the compressor, is required for plant and instrument air service. However, designs are
available that do not require lubrication.

Figure 17: Crew compressor

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Figure 18: Crew compressor

Screw compressors that do not require lubrication are commonly referred to as "dry screw-type compressors".

The inlet port is located at the drive-shaft end of the cylinder. The discharge port is located at the opposite
end of the cylinder. Compression begins as the rotors enmesh at the inlet port. Gas is drawn into the cavity
between the male rotor threads and female rotor grooves. As rotation continues, the rotor threads pass the
edges of the inlet ports and trap the gas in a cell that is formed by the rotor cavities and the cylinder wall.
Further rotation causes the male rotor thread to roll into the female rotor groove and to decrease the volume
of the cell. The decrease in the volume increases the cell pressure. Oil is normally injected after the cell is
closed to the inlet port. The oil seals the clearances between the threads and the grooves, and it absorbs the
heat of compression. Compression continues until the rotor threads pass the edge of the discharge port and
release the compressed gas and oil mixture. A typical single stage screw compressor is shown in Figure 19.

 
Figure 19: Crew compressor
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3. Supporting Equipment in a Compressor System

In addition to driver (turbine, electric motor…etc) there are numerous miscellaneous and smaller components
in compressor system. Some of which are briefly mentioned below:

Intercooler and after cooler heat exchanger

 - compression of gases create heat in compressor
 - control high temperature
 - intercooler lower the temperature as gas is discharge
 out of first stage of compressor
 - as the gas is compressed (create more heat), discharge
 into after cooler before go to receiver

Anti-surge

Surge (or stall) is an operating instability that can occur in dynamic (axial and centrifugal) compressors (but
not in other positive displacement compressors). Dynamic compressor therefore is normally equipped with
anti-surge device.

Safety valve

 - used to relieve excess pressure that could damage operating

 equipment
 - sized to handle specific flow rates

Silencers
 - most compressor exceed OSHA standards noise pollution
 - muffle some of the damaging noise produced by compressor
 - should be mounted on the inlet and outlet of a compressor

Demister
 - designed to remove liquid droplets from gas
 - function as a cyclone
 - heavier component fall to the bottom of the demister and removed
 - clean gas escapes out the discharge line on the top of the demister

Dryer
 - for dry air service, discharge of a compressor is run through
 a dryer
 - filled with moisture adsorbing chemicals called desiccant dryer
 (alumina, mol sieves and silica gel)
 - operation uses parallel or series dryer
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Figure 20: Compressor in the system

 
Figure 21: An integrally-geared Compressor Skid
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4. Basic Terminology

 Flow rate: m3/hr (1cfm = 0.5886 m3/hr)

 Pressure ratio: ratio of absolute discharge press. /absolute inlet pressure
 Absolute press: = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
 Atmospheric pressure: = pressure exerted by atmosphere
 At sea level atms press: = 1.033 kg/cm2 A = 1.013 barA = 14.696 pisA = 760 mmHg= 1atms
 1 kg/cm 2 =14.22 psi, 1 Mpa (mega pascal) = 10.1 bar
 0 deg.cel. = 273 deg. K

5. Industry Specification:

Like pumps, standards for oil and gas application compressors are mostly regulated by API, below are most
popular standards/specifications:

o API 617 7th Axial and Centrifugal Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry

o API 618 Reciprocating Type Positive Displacement Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas
Industry

o API 619 Rotary Type Positive Displacement Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry

6. Major Vendors and Suppliers:

Manufacturers:

a. Man Diesel and Turbo (http://mandieselturbo.com/0000002/Home.html) –

b. Dresser-Rand (http://www.dresser‐rand.com/literature/gfc/) –

c. Cooper Cameron (http://www2.c‐a‐m.com/content/cs/index.cfm) –

d. Kawasaki (http://www.khi.co.jp/english/machinery/product/gas/module.html) – Centrifugal

Compressor

e. Compair (http://www.compair.com/)

f. Siemens (http://www.energy.siemens.com/hq/en/compression-expansion/compressor-packages/)

g. Kobelco (http://www.kobelco-comp.co.jp/e/index.html) – Screw Compressor

h. Atlas Copco (http://www.atlascopco.co.uk/ukus/products/Industries/)

i. Ingersoll Rand (http://www.ingersollrandproducts.com/IS/Category.aspx-am_en-12769)

j. GE (http://www.geoilandgas.com/businesses/ge_oilandgas/en/our_brands/ac_compressor.htm)

Packager/Integrator

a. Alpha ECC
b. Oakwell International
c. Petra
d. Bestwide
e. McPec
f. Applied Engineering