The Centrifugal Pump

GRUNDFOS
RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY
The Centrifugal Pump

The Centrifugal Pump
5
All rights reserved.
Mechanical, electronic, photographic or other reproduction or copying from this book or parts
of it are according to the present Danish copyright law not allowed without written permission
from or agreement with GRUNDFOS Management A/S.
GRUNDFOS Management A/S cannot be held responsible for the correctness of the information
given in the book. Usage of information is at your own responsibility.
6
Preface In chapter 3 you can read about how to adjust the
pump’s performance when it is in operation in a system.
The theoretical basis for energy conversion in a centrifu-
gal pump is introduced in chapter 4, and we go through
how affinity rules are used for scaling the performance
In the Department of Structural and Fluid Mechanics
of pump impellers. In chapter 5, we describe the differ-
we are happy to present the first English edition of the
ent types of losses which occur in the pump, and how
book: ’The Centrifugal Pump’. We have written the book
the losses affect flow, head and power consumption. In
because we want to share our knowledge of pump hy-
the book’s last chapter, chapter 6, we go trough the test
draulics, pump design and the basic pump terms which
types which Grundfos continuously carries out on both
we use in our daily work.
assembled pumps and pump components to ensure
that the pump has the desired performance.
’The Centrifugal Pump’ is primarily meant as an inter-
nal book and is aimed at technicians who work with
The entire department has been involved in the devel-
development and construction of pump components.
opment of the book. Through a longer period of time we
Furthermore, the book aims at our future colleagues,
have discussed the idea, the contents and the structure
students at universities and engineering colleges, who
and collected source material. The framework of the
can use the book as a reference and source of inspira-
Danish book was made after some intensive working
tion in their studies. Our intention has been to write
days at ‘Himmelbjerget’. The result of the department’s
an introductory book that gives an overview of the hy-
engagement and effort through several years is the book
draulic components in the pump and at the same time
which you are holding.
enables technicians to see how changes in construc-
tion and operation influence the pump performance.
We hope that you will find ‘The Centrifugal Pump’ use-
ful, and that you will use it as a book of reference in you
In chapter 1, we introduce the principle of the centrifu-
daily work.
gal pump as well as its hydraulic components, and we
list the different types of pumps produced by Grundfos.
Enjoy!
Chapter 2 describes how to read and understand the
pump performance based on the curves for head, pow-
Christian Brix Jacobsen
er, efficiency and NPSH.
Department Head, Structural and Fluid Mechanics, R&T
7
Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction to Centrifugal Pumps................11 2.5.4 Geodetic pressure difference......................... 36

2.6 Energy equation for an ideal flow................................37
1.1 Principle of centrifugal pumps. ......................................12
2.7 Power............................................................................................... 38
1.2 The pump’s hydraulic components.............................13
2.7.1 Speed. ............................................................................. 38
1.2.1 Inlet flange and inlet.............................................14
2.8 Hydraulic power....................................................................... 38
1.2.2 Impeller..........................................................................15
2.9 Efficiency. ...................................................................................... 39
1.2.3 Coupling and drive.................................................17
2.10 NPSH, Net Positive Suction Head.................................40
1.2.4 Impeller seal................................................................18
2.11 Axial thrust.................................................................................. 44
1.2.5 Cavities and axial bearing................................ 19
2.12 Radial thrust. .............................................................................. 44
1.2.6 Volute casing, diffuser and
2.13 Summary........................................................................................45
outlet flange. ..............................................................21
1.2.7 Return channel and outer sleeve. ................23
1.3 Pump types and systems................................................... 24 Chapter 3. Pumps operating in systems............................ 47
1.3.1 The UP pump..............................................................25
1.3.2 The TP pump...............................................................25 3.1 Single pump in a system.................................................... 49
1.3.3 The NB pump..............................................................25 3.2 Pumps operated in parallel.............................................. 50
1.3.4 The MQ pump............................................................25 3.3 Pumps operated in series. ..................................................51
1.3.5 The SP pump.............................................................. 26 3.4 Regulation of pumps. ............................................................51
1.3.6 The CR pump. ............................................................ 26 3.4.1 Throttle regulation.................................................52
1.3.7 The MTA pump......................................................... 26 3.4.2 Regulation with bypass valve.........................52
1.3.8 The SE pump...............................................................27 3.4.3 Start/stop regulation. ..........................................53
1.3.9 The SEG pump. ..........................................................27 3.4.4 Regulation of speed...............................................53
1.4 Summary ..............................................................................................27 3.5 Annual energy consumption . ........................................ 56
3.6 Energy efficiency index (EEI).............................................57
3.7 Summary....................................................................................... 58
Chapter 2. Performance curves ............................................29
2.1 Standard curves . ..................................................................... 30

2.2 Pressure...........................................................................................32
Chapter 4. Pump theory.......................................................... 59
2.3 Absolute and relative pressure.......................................33
2.4 Head ............................................................................................. 34 4.1 Velocity triangles.....................................................................60
2.5 Differential pressure across the pump .....................35 4.1.1 Inlet.................................................................................. 62
2.5.1 Total pressure difference ..................................35 4.1.2 Outlet.............................................................................. 63
2.5.2 Static pressure difference..................................35 4.2 Euler’s pump equation........................................................ 64
2.5.3 Dynamic pressure difference. .........................35 4.3 Blade shape and pump curve..........................................66
8
4.4 Usage of Euler’s pump equation. ................................... 67 6.2.4 Calculation of head............................................. 102
4.5 Affinity rules................................................................................ 68 6.2.5 General calculation of head..................... 103
4.5.1 Derivation of affinity rules............................... 70 6.2.6 Power consumption. .......................................... 104
4.6 Pre-rotation..................................................................................72 6.2.7 Rotational speed................................................... 104
4.7 Slip......................................................................................................73 6.3 Measurement of the pump’s NPSH.......................... 105
4.8 The pump’s specific speed.................................................74 6.3.1 NPSH3% test by lowering the
4.9 Summary........................................................................................75 inlet pressure............................................... 106
6.3.2 NPSH3% test by increasing the flow. ......... 107
6.3.3 Test beds. ................................................................... 107
Chapter 5. Pump losses............................................................. 77
6.3.4 Water quality. ......................................................... 108
5.1 Loss types.......................................................................................78 6.3.5 Vapour pressure and density....................... 108
5.2 Mechanical losses...................................................................80 6.3.6 Reference plane..................................................... 108
5.2.1 Bearing loss and shaft seal loss....................80 6.3.7 Barometric pressure...........................................109
5.3 Hydraulic losses........................................................................80 6.3.8 Calculation of NPSHA and determination
5.3.1 Flow friction................................................................81 of NPSH3%. ..................................................................109
5.3.2 Mixing loss at 6.4 Measurement of force.......................................................109
cross-section expansion............................. 86 6.4.1 Measuring system. .............................................. 110
5.3.3 Mixing loss at 6.4.2 Execution of force measurement. ............. 111
cross-section reduction.......................................87 6.5 Uncertainty in measurement of performance. . 111
5.3.4 Recirculation loss....................................................89 6.5.1 Standard demands for uncertainties...... 111
5.3.5 Incidence loss............................................................90 6.5.2 Overall uncertainty..............................................112
5.3.6 Disc friction................................................................. 91 6.5.3 Test bed uncertainty...........................................112
5.3.7 Leakage.......................................................................... 92 6.6 Summary......................................................................................112
5.4 Loss distribution as function of
specific speed............................................................................. 95
5.5 Summary....................................................................................... 95 Appendix....................................................................................... 113
A. Units.........................................................................................................114
B. Control of test results.................................................................. 117
Chapter 6. Pumps tests................................................. 97
6.1 Test types......................................................................................98 Bibliography ............................................................................................122

6.2 Measuring pump performance. ....................................99 Standards...................................................................................................123
6.2.1 Flow................................................................................100 Index ............................................................................................................ 124
6.2.2 Pressure........................................................ 100 Substance values for water...........................................................131
6.2.3 Temperature............................................................ 101 List of Symbols........................................................................................132

9
10
Chapter 1
Introduction to
centrifugal pumps
1.1 Principle of the centrifugal pump
1.2 Hydraulic components
1.3 Pump types and systems
1.4 Summary
1. Introduction to Centrifugal Pumps

In this chapter, we introduce the components in the centrifugal pump and
a range of the pump types produced by Grundfos. This chapter provides the
reader with a basic understanding of the principles of the centrifugal pump
and pump terminology.
The centrifugal pump is the most used pump type in the world. The principle
is simple, well-described and thoroughly tested, and the pump is robust, ef-
fective and relatively inexpensive to produce. There is a wide range of vari-
ations based on the principle of the centrifugal pump and consisting of the
same basic hydraulic parts. The majority of pumps produced by Grundfos
are centrifugal pumps.
Outlet Impeller Inlet
1.1 Principle of the centrifugal pump

An increase in the fluid pressure from the pump inlet to its outlet is cre- Direction of rotation
ated when the pump is in operation. This pressure difference drives the fluid
through the system or plant.
The centrifugal pump creates an increase in pressure by transferring me-

chanical energy from the motor to the fluid through the rotating impeller.
The fluid flows from the inlet to the impeller centre and out along its blades.
The centrifugal force hereby increases the fluid velocity and consequently
also the kinetic energy is transformed to pressure. Figure 1.1 shows an ex-
Outlet Impeller Impeller Inlet
ample of the fluid path through the centrifugal pump. blade
Figure 1.1: Fluid path through

the centrifugal pump.
12 12
1.2 Hydraulic components
The principles of the hydraulic components are common for most centrifu-
gal pumps. The hydraulic components are the parts in contact with the fluid.
Figure 1.2 shows the hydraulic components in a single-stage inline pump.
The subsequent sections describe the components from the inlet flange to
the outlet flange.
Figure 1.2: Hydraulic

Motor components.
Coupling
Shaft
Shaft seal
Cavity above impeller
Cavity below impeller
Volute
Diffuser
Outlet flange Inlet flange
Pump housing Impeller Impeller seal Inlet
13 13
1.2.1 Inlet flange and inlet Endsuction pumps have a very short and straight inlet sec-
The pump is connected to the piping system through its tion because the impeller eye is placed in continuation of
inlet and outlet flanges. The design of the flanges depends the inlet flange.
on the pump application. Some pump types have no inlet
flange because the inlet is not mounted on a pipe but sub- The impeller in doublesuction pumps has two impeller eyes.
merged directly in the fluid. The inlet splits in two and leads the fluid from the inlet
flange to both impeller eyes. This design minimises the axial
The inlet guides the fluid to the impeller eye. The design of force, see section 1.2.5.
the inlet depends on the pump type. The four most com-
mon types of inlets are inline, endsuction, doublesuction In submersible pumps, the motor is often placed below the
and inlet for submersible pumps, see figure 1.3. hydraulic parts with the inlet placed in the mid section of
the pump, see figure 1.3. The design prevents hydraulic los-
Inline pumps are constructed to be mounted on a straight ses related to leading the fluid along the motor. In addition,
pipe – hence the name inline. The inlet section leads the the motor is cooled due to submersion in the fluid.
fluid into the impeller eye.
Impeller Inlet Impeller Inlet Impeller Inlet
Impeller Inlet
Inline pump Endsuction pump Doublesuction pump Submersible pump
Figure 1.3: Inlet for inline, endsuction, doublesuction and submersible pump.
14 14
The design of the inlet aims at creating a uniform velocity profile into the
impeller since this leads to the best performance. Figure 1.4 shows an example of
the velocity distribution at different cross-sections in the inlet.
1.2.2 Impeller
The blades of the rotating impeller transfer energy to the fluid there by
increasing pressure and velocity. The fluid is sucked into the impeller at the
impeller eye and flows through the impeller channels formed by the blades
between the shroud and hub, see figure 1.5.
The design of the impeller depends on the requirements for pressure, flow
and application. The impeller is the primary component determining the Figure 1.4: Velocity distribution in inlet.
pump performance. Pumps variants are often created only by modifying
the impeller.
 Axial direction
Hub plate Hub
 Radial direction
Impeller channel
(blue area)  Tangential direction
The impeller’s direction of The impeller’s direction of rotation
rotation
Trailing edge Leading edge
Shroud plate Impeller blade
Figure 1.5: The impeller components, definitions of directions and flow relatively to the impeller.
15 15
The impeller’s ability to increase pressure and create flow depends mainly
on whether the fluid runs radially or axially through the impeller,
see figure 1.6.
In a radial impeller, there is a significant difference between the inlet

diameter and the outlet diameter and also between the outlet diameter
and the outlet width, which is the channel height at the impeller exit. In
this construction, the centrifugal forces result in high pressure and low Radial impeller Semiaxial impeller Axial impeller
flow. Relatively low pressure and high flow are, on the contrary, found in an Figure 1.6: Radial, semiaxial and
axial impeller.
axial impeller with a no change in radial direction and large outlet width.
Semiaxial impellers are used when a trade-off between pressure rise and flow
is required.
The impeller has a number of impeller blades. The number mainly depends
on the desired performance and noise constraints as well as the amount and
size of solid particles in the fluid. Impellers with 5-10 channels has proven to
give the best efficiency and is used for fluid without solid particles. One, two
or three channel impellers are used for fluids with particles such as waste-
water. The leading edge of such impellers is designed to minimise the risk
of particles blocking the impeller. One, two and three channel impellers can
handle particles of a certain size passing through the impeller. Figure 1.7
Figure 1.7: One channel pump.
shows a one channel pump.
Impellers without a shroud are called open impellers. Open impellers are
used where it is necessary to clean the impeller and where there is risk of
blocking. A vortex pump with an open impeller is used in waste water ap-
plication. In this type of pump, the impeller creates a flow resembling the
vortex in a tornado, see figure 1.8. The vortex pump has a low efficiency
compared to pumps with a shroud and impeller seal.
After the basic shape of the impeller has been decided, the design of the
impeller is a question of finding a compromise between friction loss and loss
as a concequence of non uniform velocity profiles. Generally, uniform velocity
profiles can be achieved by extending the impeller blades but this results in Figure 1.8: Vortex pump.
increased wall friction.
16 16
1.2.3 Coupling and drive Motor Shaft seal
The impeller is usually driven by an electric motor. The coupling between motor
and hydraulics is a weak point because it is difficult to seal a rotating shaft. In
connection with the coupling, distinction is made between two types of pumps:
Dry-runner pumps and canned rotor type pump. The advantage of the dry-runner
pump compared to the canned rotor type pump is the use of standardized motors.
The disadvantage is the sealing between the motor and impeller.
In the dry runner pump the motor and the fluid are separated either by a shaft
seal, a separation with long shaft or a magnetic coupling.
In a pump with a shaft seal, the fluid and the motor are separated by seal rings, see
figure 1.9. Mechanical shaft seals are maintenance-free and have a smaller leakage
than stuffing boxes with compressed packing material. The lifetime of mechanical
Figure 1.9: Dry-runner with shaft seal.
shaft seals depends on liquid, pressure and temperature.
If motor and fluid are separated by a long shaft, then the two parts will not get
in contact then the shaft seal can be left out, see figure 1.10. This solution has
limited mounting options because the motor must be placed higher than the
hydraulic parts and the fluid surface in the system. Furthermore the solution Motor
results in a lower efficiency because of the leak flow through the clearance be-
tween the shaft and the pump housing and because of the friction between the
fluid and the shaft.
Long shaft
Exterior magnets on Water level
the motor shaft Motor
Hydraulics
Inner magnets on Motor shaft
the impeller shaft
Motor cup
Rotor can
Exterior magnets Figure 1.10: Dry-runner with long shaft.
Inner magnets
Motor cup Rotor can
Impeller shaft
Figure 1.11: Dry-runner with magnet drive.
17 17
In pumps with a magnetic drive, the motor and the fluid are separated by Fluid Rotor can
Rotor Outlet
a non-magnetizable rotor can which eliminates the problem of sealing a Stator Impeller
Inlet
rotating shaft. On this type of pump, the impeller shaft has a line of fixed
magnets called the inner magnets. The motor shaft ends in a cup where the
outer magnets are mounted on the inside of the cup, see figure 1.11. The
rotor can is fixed in the pump housing between the impeller shaft and the
cup. The impeller shaft and the motor shaft rotate, and the two parts are
connected through the magnets. The main advantage of this design is that
the pump is hermitically sealed but the coupling is expensive to produce.
This type of sealing is therefore only used when it is required that the pump
is hermetically sealed.
In pumps with a rotor can, the rotor and impeller are separated from the Bearings
motor stator. As shown in figure 1.12, the rotor is surrounded by the fluid
which lubricates the bearings and cools the motor. The fluid around the ro- Figure 1.12: Canned rotor type pump.
tor results in friction between rotor and rotor can which reduces the pump
efficiency.
1.2.4 Impeller seal

A leak flow will occur in the gap between the rotating impeller and stationary
pump housing when the pump is operating. The rate of leak flow depends
mainly on the design of the gap and the impeller pressure rise. The leak flow
returns to the impeller eye through the gap, see figure 1.13. Thus, the impel-
ler has to pump both the leak flow and the fluid through the pump from the
inlet flange to the outlet flange. To minimise leak flow, an impeller seal is Outlet Inlet Leak flow Gap
mounted.
The impeller seal comes in various designs and material combinations. The
seal is typically turned directly in the pump housing or made as retrofitted
rings. Impeller seals can also be made with floating seal rings. Furthermore,
there are a range of sealings with rubber rings in particular well-suited for
Impeller seal
handling fluids with abrasive particles such as sand.
Figure 1.13: Leak flow through the gap.
18 18
Achieving an optimal balance between leakage and friction is an essential
goal when designing an impeller seal. A small gap limits the leak flow but
increases the friction and risk of drag and noise. A small gap also increases
requirements to machining precision and assembling resulting in higher
production costs. To achieve optimal balance between leakage and friction,
the pump type and size must be taken into consideration.
Cavity above impeller Cavity below impeller
1.2.5 Cavities and axial bearing

The volume of the cavities depends on the design of the impeller and the
Primary flow Secondary flow
pump housing, and they affect the flow around the impeller and the pump’s
ability to handle sand and air.
The impeller rotation creates two types of flows in the cavities: Primary
flows and secondary flows. Primary flows are vorticies rotating with the
impeller in the cavities above and below the impeller, see figure 1.14.
Secondary flows are substantially weaker than the primary flows.
Primary and secondary flows influence the pressure distribution on the

outside of the impeller hub and shroud affecting the axial thrust. The axial
thrust is the sum of all forces in the axial direction arising due to the pres- Figure 1.14: Primary and secondary flows
sure condition in the pump. The main force contribution comes from the in the cavities.
rise in pressure caused by the impeller. The impeller eye is affected by the
inlet pressure while the outer surfaces of the hub and shroud are affected
by the outlet pressure, see figure 1.15. The end of the shaft is exposed to the
atmospheric pressure while the other end is affected by the system pres-
sure. The pressure is increasing from the center of the shaft and outwards.
19 19
The axial bearing absorbs the entire axial thrust and is therefore exposed to
the forces affecting the impeller.
Outlet pressure Atmospheric pressure Outlet pressure
The impeller must be axially balanced if it is not possible to absorb the entire
axial thrust in the axial bearing. There are several possibilities of reducing
the thrust on the shaft and thereby balance the axial bearing. All axial
balancing methods result in hydraulic losses.
One approach to balance the axial forces is to make small holes in the hub
Axial thrust Inlet pressure
plate, see figure 1.16. The leak flow through the holes influences the flow
in the cavities above the impeller and thereby reduces the axial force but it Figure 1.15: Pressure forces which cause
axial thrust.
results in leakage.
Axial balancing hole
Another approach to reduce the axial thrust is to combine balancing holes

with an impeller seal on the hub plate, see figure 1.17. This reduces the pres-
sure in the cavity between the shaft and the impeller seal and a better bal-
ance can be achieved. The impeller seal causes extra friction but smaller
leak flow through the balancing holes compared to the solution without the
impeller seal.
Figure 1.16: Axial thrust reduction using
balancing holes.
A third method of balancing the axial forces is to mount blades on the back
of the impeller, see figure 1.18. Like the two previous solutions, this method
changes the velocities in the flow at the hub plate whereby the pressure
distribution is changed proportionally. However, the additional blades use Impeller seal Axial balancing hole
power without contributing to the pump performance. The construction

will therefore reduce the efficiency.
Figure 1.17: Axial thrust reduction using impel-

ler seal and balancing holes.
20 20
A fourth method to balance the axial thrust is to mount fins on the pump Blades
housing in the cavity below the impeller, see figure 1.19. In this case, the pri-
mary flow velocity in the cavity below the impeller is reduced whereby the
pressure increases on the shroud. This type of axial balancing increases disc
friction and leak loss because of the higher pressure.
Figure 1.18: Axial thrust reduction through

blades on the back of the hub plate.
Fins
1.2.6 Volute casing, diffuser and outlet flange
The volute casing collects the fluid from the impeller and leads into the
outlet flange. The volute casing converts the dynamic pressure rise in the
impeller to static pressure. The velocity is gradually reduced when the cross-
sectional area of the fluid flow is increased. This transformation is called
velocity diffusion. An example of diffusion is when the fluid velocity in a pipe
is reduced because of the transition from a small cross-sectional area to a Figure 1.19: Axial thrust reduction using fins
large cross-sectional area, see figure 1.20. Static pressure, dynamic pressure in the pump housing.
and diffusion are elaborated in sections 2.2, 2.3 and 5.3.2.
Figure 1.20: Change of fluid velocity

in a pipe caused by change
in the cross-section area. Diffusion
Small cross-section:
High velocity, low static
pressure, high dynamic pressure
Large cross-section:
Low velocity, high static
pressure, low dynamic
pressure
21 21
The volute casing consists of three main components: The volute casing is designed to convert dynamic pres-
Ring diffusor, volute and outlet diffusor, see figure 1.21. sure to static pressure is achieved while the pressure
An energy conversion between velocity and pressure oc- losses are minimised. The highest efficiency is obtained
curs in each of the three components. by finding the right balance between changes in velocity
and wall friction. Focus is on the following parameters
The primary ring diffusor function is to guide the fluid when designing the volute casing: The volute diameter,
from the impeller to the volute. The cross-section area in the cross-section geometry of the volute, design of the
the ring diffussor is increased because of the increase in tongue, the throat area and the radial positioning as well
diameter from the impeller to the volute. Blades can be as length, width and curvature of the diffusor.
placed in the ring diffusor to increase the diffusion.
The primary task of the volute is to collect the fluid from

the ring diffusor and lead it to the diffusor. To have the
Radial force vector
same pressure along the volute, the cross-section area in
the volute must be increased along the periphery from
the tongue towards the throat. The throat is the place
on the outside of the tongue where the smallest cross-
Outlet flange
section area in the outlet diffusor is found. The flow con-
ditions in the volute can only be optimal at the design Outlet diffusor
point. At other flows, radial forces occur on the impeller Ring diffusor
Volute
because of circumferential pressure variation in the vo- Throat
Tongue
lute. Radial forces must, like the axial forces, be absorbed
in the bearing, see figure 1.21.
The outlet diffusor connects the throat with the out-

let flange. The diffusor increases the static pressure by
Radial force vector
a gradual increase of the cross-section area from the
throat to the outlet flange.
Figure 1.21:
The components of the
volute casing.
22 22
1.2.7 Return channel and outer sleeve
To increase the pressure rise over the pump, more impellers can be connect-
ed in series. The return channel leads the fluid from one impeller to the next,
see figure 1.22. An impeller and a return channel are either called a stage or
a chamber. The chambers in a multistage pump are altogether called the
chamber stack.
Besides leading the fluid from one impeller to the next, the return channel
Outer
has the same basic function as volute casing: To convert dynamic pressure sleeve
to static pressure. The return channel reduces unwanted rotation in the fluid Annular
because such a rotation affects the performance of the subsequent impeller. outlet
The rotation is controlled by guide vanes in the return channel. Chamber

stack
Chamber
In multistage inline pumps the fluid is lead from the top of the chamber
stack to the outlet in the channel formed by the outer part of the chamber
stack and the outer sleeve, see figure 1.22.
When designing a return channel, the same design considerations of impel-

ler and volute casing apply. Contrary to volute casing, a return channel does
not create radial forces on the impeller because it is axis-symmetric.
Impeller
Guide vane
Impeller blade
Return channel
Figure 1.22: Hydraulic components in an

inline multistage pump.
23 23
1.3 Pump types and systems

This section describes a selection of the centrifugal pumps produced by
Grundfos. The pumps are divided in five overall groups: Circulation pumps,
pumps for pressure boosting and fluid transport, water supply pumps, in-
dustrial pumps and wastewater pumps. Many of the pump types can be
used in different applications.
Circulation pumps are primarily used for circulation of water in closed sys-
tems e.g. heating, cooling and airconditioning systems as well as domestic
hot water systems. The water in a domestic hot water system constantly
circulates in the pipes. This prevents a long wait for hot water when the tap
is opened.
Pumps for pressure boosting are used for increasing the pressure of cold wa-
ter and as condensate pumps for steam boilers. The pumps are usually de-
signed to handle fluids with small particles such as sand.
Water supply pumps can be installed in two ways: They can either be sub-
merged in a well or they can be placed on the ground surface. The conditions
in the water supply system make heavy demands on robustness towards
ochre, lime and sand.
Industrial pumps can, as the name indicates, be used everywhere in the in-
dustry and this in a very broad section of systems which handle many dif-
ferent homogeneous and inhomogeneous fluids. Strict environmental and
safety requirements are enforced on pumps which must handle corrosive,
toxic or explosive fluids, e.g. that the pump is hermetically closed and cor-
rosion resistant.
Wastewater pumps are used for pumping contaminated water in sewage

plants and industrial systems. The pumps are constructed making it possible
to pump fluids with a high content of solid particles.
24 24
1.3.1. The UP pump
Circulation pumps are used for heating, circulation of cold water, ventila- Outlet
tion and aircondition systems in houses, office buildings, hotels, etc. Some Hydraulic
of the pumps are installed in heating systems at the end user. Others are
Motor
sold to OEM customers (Original Equipment Manufacturer) that integrate
the pumps into gas furnace systems. It is an inline pump with a canned ro-
Inlet
tor which only has static sealings. The pump is designed to minimise pipe-
Figure 1.23: UP pumps.
transferred noise. Grundfos produces UP pumps with and without automat-
ic regulation of the pump. With the automatic regulation of the pump, it is
possible to adjust the pressure and flow to the actual need and thereby save
energy.
1.3.2 The TP pump

Inlet
The TP pump is used for circulation of hot or cold water mainly in heating,
Outlet
cooling and airconditioning systems. It is an inline pump and contrary to the
smaller UP pump, the TP pump uses a standard motor and shaft seal.
Figure 1.24: TP pump.
1.3.3 The NB pump

The NB pump is for transportation of fluid in district heating plants, heat Outlet
supply, cooling and air conditioning systems, washdown systems and other
industrial systems. The pump is an endsuction pump, and it is found in many
Inlet
variants with different types of shaft seals, impellers and housings which
can be combined depending on fluid type, temperature and pressure.
Figure 1.25: NB pump.
1.3.4 The MQ pump
The MQ pump is a complete miniature water supply unit. It is used for
water supply and transportation of fluid in private homes, holiday Outlet
houses, agriculture, and gardens. The pump control ensures that it starts
and stops automatically when the tap is opened. The control protects Inlet
the pump if errors occur or if it runs dry. The built-in pressure expansion
tank reduces the number of starts if there are leaks in the pipe system.
The MQ pump is self-priming, then it can clear a suction pipe from air
and thereby suck from a level which is lower than the one where
Figure 1.26: MQ pump.
the pump is placed.
25 25
1.3.5 The SP pump

The SP pump is a multi-stage submersible pump which is used for raw wa- Figure 1.27: SP pump.
ter supply, ground water lowering and pressure boosting. The SP pump can Outlet
also be used for pumping corrosive fluids such as sea water. The motor is Non-return valve
mounted under the chamber stack, and the inlet to the pump is placed be-
tween motor and chamber stack. The pump diameter is designed to the size
of a standard borehole. The SP pump is equipped with an integrated non- Chamber stack
return valve to prevent that the pumped fluid flows back when the pump is
stopped. The non-return valve also helps prevent water hammer.
1.3.6 The CR pump

Inlet
The CR pump is used in washers, cooling and air conditioning systems,
water treatment systems, fire extinction systems, boiler feed systems and
other industrial systems. The CR pump is a vertical inline multistage pump. Motor
This pump type is also able to pump corrosive fluids because the hydraulic
parts are made of stainless steel or titanium. Motor
Chamber stack
1.3.7 The MTA pump Inlet

The MTA pump is used on the non-filtered side of the machining process
Outlet
to pump coolant and lubricant containing cuttings, fibers and abrasive
particles. The MTA pump is a dry-runner pump with a long shaft and no
shaft seal. The pump is designed to be mounted vertically in a tank. Figure 1.28: CR-pump.
The installation length, the part of the pump which is submerged

in the tank, is adjusted to the tank depth so that it is possible to
drain the tank of coolant and lubricant.
Outlet
Mounting flange
Outlet channel
Shaft
Pump housing
Figure 1.29: MTA pump. Inlet
26 26
1.3.8 The SE pump
The SE pump is used for pumping wastewater, water containing sludge and
solids. The pump is unique in the wastewater market because it can be in-
stalled submerged in a waste water pit as well as installed dry in a pipe sys-
tem. The series of SE pumps contains both vortex pumps and single-channel
pumps. The single-channel pumps are characterised by a large free passage,
Motor
and the pump specification states the maximum diameter for solids passing
through the pump.
1.3.9 The SEG pump Outlet
The SEG pump is in particular suitable for pumping waste water from toi-
lets. The SEG pump has a cutting system which cuts perishable solids into Inlet
smaller pieces which then can be lead through a tube with a relative small Figure 1.30: SE pump.
diameter. Pumps with cutting systems are also called grinder pumps.
1.4 Summary
In this chapter, we have covered the principle of the centrifugal pump and
its hydraulic components. We have discussed some of the overall aspects
connected to design of the single components. Included in the chapter is
also a short description of some of the Grundfos pumps.
Motor
Inlet
Outlet
Figure 1.31: SEG pumps.
27 27
28 28
Chapter 2
Performance
curves
2.1 Standard curves

2.8 Hydraulic power
2.2 Pressure H η [%]
[m]
2.9 EfficiencyHead
2.3 Absolute and relative pressure
50
2.10 NPSH,
2.4 Head 40 Net Positive Suction Head
70
2.5 Differential pressure across the 30 2.11 Axial thrust 60
pump - description of differential Efficiency
50
pressure 20 2.12 Radial thrust 40

30
2.6 Energy equation for an ideal 10 2.13 Summary 20

10
flow 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Q [m3/h]
0
NPSH
2.7 Power
P2
(m)
[kW] 12
Power 10
10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 NPSH 2
0 0
2. Performance curves
The pump performance is normally described by a set of curves. This chapter
explains how these curves are interpretated and the basis for the curves.
2.1 Standard curves

Performance curves are used by the customer to select pump matching his
requirements for a given application.
The data sheet contains information about the head (H) at different flows
(Q), see figure 2.1. The requirements for head and flow determine the overall
dimensions of the pump.
H [m] η [%]
Head
50
40
70
30 60
Efficiency
50
20 40
30
10 20
10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Q [m /h]
3
P2 [kW] NPSH [m]
10 Power
10
8 8
6 6 Fígure 2.1: Typical performance curves for a
4 4 centrifugal pump. Head (H), power
2
NPSH
2 consumption (P), efficiency (η) and NPSH are
0 0 shown as function of the flow.
30 30
In addition to head, the power consumption (P) is also to be found in the data
sheet. The power consumption is used for dimensioning of the installations
which must supply the pump with energy. The power consumption is like
the head shown as a function of the flow.
Information about the pump efficiency (η) and NPSH can also be found in
the data sheet. NPSH is an abbreviation for ’Net Positive Suction Head’. The
NPSH curve shows the need for inlet head, and which requirements the
specific system have to fullfill to avoid cavitation. The efficiency curve is
used for choosing the most efficient pump in the specified operating range.
Figure 2.1 shows an example of performance curves in a data sheet.
During design of a new pump, the desired performance curves are a vital
part of the design specifications. Similar curves for axial and radial thrust are Motor Controller
used for dimensioning the bearing system.
The performance curves describe the performance for the complete pump
unit, see figure 2.2. An adequate standard motor can be mounted on the
pump if a pump without motor is chosen. Performance curves can be
recalculated with the motor in question when it is chosen.
Coupling
For pumps sold both with and without a motor, only curves for the hydraulic
components are shown, i.e. without motor and controller. For integrated
products, the pump curves for the complete product are shown.
Hydraulics
Figure 2.2.: The performance curves are

stated for the pump itself or for the
complete unit consisting of pump, motor
and electronics.
31 31
2.2 Pressure
Pressure (p) is an expression of force per unit area and is split into static and
dynamic pressure. The sum of the two pressures is the total pressure:
p tot = pstat + pdyn [Pa] (2.1)
where
ptot = Total 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅ V[Pa]
pdyn =pressure 2
[Pa] (2.2)
2
pstat = Static pressure [Pa]
pdyn = Dynamic
∆p tot = ∆pressure
pstat + ∆p[Pa]
dyn + ∆p geo [Pa] (2.5)
∆pstat = ispstat,
Static pressure out − pstat,with
measured in [aPapressure
] gauge, and the measurement
(2.6) of
static pressure must always be done in static fluid or through a pressure tap pstat ptot pdyn
mounted 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅ V to2 the
∆pperpendicular 1 flow [Pa] see figure 2.3.
⋅ ρ ⋅ Vdirection,
2
dyn = out − (2.7)
2 2 in
pstat pstat
Q
ptot ptot
Total pressure can be measured 2
through a pressure tap with the opening

facing the flow direction,Qsee  1 2.3. The 
Δp = 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅   figure
⋅  4 −
1 dynamic
 [Pa]
pressure can be found
(2.8)
Figure 2.3: This is how static pressure pstat ,
total pressure ptot and dynamic pressure
measuringdyn
the pressure
2 π   Dbetween
difference 4 
total
D in  pressure and static pressure.
pdyn are measured.
 4 out
Such a combined pressure measurement can be performed using a pitot tube.
Dynamic pressure is a function of the fluid velocity. The dynamic pressure can
p tot = pwith
be calculated [Pa]
stat + p dynfollowing (2.1)
∆p geo = ∆z ⋅the ρ ⋅ g [Pa] formula,where the velocity (V) is (2.9)
measured
and the fluid density (ρ) is know:
d d
p V2 m 2 
pdyn+ = 1 +⋅ ρg ⋅⋅ Vz 2= Constant
[Pa]  s2  (2.10)
(2.2)
ρ 22   p
where ∆ p tot= =p ∆p+statp + ∆p[Pa

pabs dyn] + ∆p geo [Pa] (2.5)
(2.3)
rel bar
V = Velocity [m/s]
∆pstat = pstat, − pstat, in [Pa] (2.6)
r = Density [kg/m
Δp tot 3] out
H= [m] (2.4)
ρ ⋅ 1g 1
Dynamic ∆ppressure
dyn =
2
− ⋅ ρ ⋅ Vin to[Pa
⋅ ρ ⋅ V be transformed 2
] pressure and vice versa.
(2.7)
2 can out 2 static Flow Figure 2.4: Example of conversion of
Pa pipe
through hyd
= Hwhere
⋅ g ⋅ ρthe ⋅ Qpipe p tot ⋅ Q is[W
= ∆diameter ] (2.11)
increased converts dynamic pressure
dynamic pressure to static pressure in
a diffusor.
to static pressure,
Phydsee figure 2.4.
2 The flow through a pipe is called a pipe flow, and
 Q   1 1 
the partη = =pipe [⋅ 100
1 where %]diameter is increasing
 the
P22 ⋅ ρ ⋅  π  ⋅  D 4 − D 4  [Pa]
(2.12)
Δof the
pdyn
hyd is called a diffusor.
(2.8)
 4  out in 
Phyd
η tot = [⋅ 100 % ] (2.13)
P1
32 32
2.3 Absolute and relative pressure

Pressure 1 ⋅ρ⋅V
pdynis =defined in2 two [Pa]different ways: absolute pressure (2.2) or relative
2
pressure. Absolute pressure refers to the absolute zero, and absolute
pressure∆pcantot = ∆pstat
thus only ∆pdyn
+ be a positive [Pa] Relative pressure refers
+ ∆pgeo number. (2.5) to the
pressure of the surroundings. A positive relative pressure means that the
pressure∆pisstatabove
= pstat,
the − pstat, in [Pa
out barometric ]
pressure, and a negative relative (2.6)
pressure
means that the pressure is below the barometric pressure.
∆pdyn = 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅ Vout 2 − 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅ Vin2 [Pa] (2.7)
2 2
The absolute and relative definition is also known from temperature
measurement where the absolute 2 temperature is measured in Kelvin [K] and
the relative temperature   1 in Celsius
 isQmeasured 1 [°C]. The temperature measured
Δpdyn = 1 ⋅ρ⋅  ⋅  −  [Pa]
 4  (2.8)
2  π
in Kelvin is always positive andrefers 4
Dout toD inthe
 4  absolute zero. In contrast, the
temperature in Celsius refers to water’s freezing point at 273.15K and can
therefore be negative.
The barometric z ⋅ ρ ⋅ g is[Pa

∆p geo = ∆pressure ]
measured as absolute pressure. The (2.9)
barometric
pressure is affected by the weather and altitude. The conversion from relative
pressurepto absolute
V2 pressure is done by
madding
2
 the current barometric pressure
+
to the measured + g ⋅ z
relative = Constant
pressure:  2 
(2.10)
ρ 2 s 
pabs = prel + pbar [Pa] (2.3)
Δp tot pressure is measured by means of three different types of

In practise, static
H= [m] (2.4)
ρ⋅ g
pressure gauges:
• An absolute pressure gauge, such as a barometer, measures pressure
Phyd = H ⋅ g ⋅ ρ ⋅ Q = ∆p tot ⋅ Q [W] (2.11)
relative to absolute zero.
• An standard Phydpressure gauge measures the pressure relative to the
η
atmospherich= [⋅ 100 % ] (2.12)
P2 pressure. This type of pressure gauge is the most
hyd
commonly used.
Phyd pressure gauge measures the pressure difference
• A differential
η tot = [⋅ 100 % ] (2.13)
between the two P1 pressure taps independent of the barometric pressure.
P1 > P2 > Phyd [W] (2.14)
η tot = η control ⋅ η motor ⋅ η hyd [ ⋅ 100 % ] (2.15)
( p abs,tot,in − pvapour )
33
NPSH A = [m] (2.16)
33
ρ ⋅g
pdyn = 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅ V 2 [Pa] (2.2)
2
2.4 Head∆p tot = ∆pstat + ∆pdyn + ∆pgeo [Pa] (2.5) H [m]
The different performance curves are introduced on the following pages.

∆pstat = pstat, out − pstat, in [Pa]
50
(2.6)
40
A QH curve or pump curve shows the head (H) as a function of the flow (Q). The
1 ⋅ ρ ⋅ V 2 − 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅ V 2 [Pa] 30
flow (Q)∆ispdyn
the=rate
2 of fluid
out going through
2 in the pump. The flow is generally
(2.7) stated
20
in cubic metre per hour [m /h] but at insertion into formulas cubic metre per
3
10
second [m3/s] is used. Figure 2.5 2 shows a typical QH curve.
 Q   1 1 
0
Δpdyn = 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅   ⋅   [Pa]
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Q [m3/h]
 − (2.8)

The QH curve for 2a given pump π  can
 Dbe4
D in 4  using the setup shown in
out determined
Figure 2.5: A typical QH curve for a centrifugal
 4 pump; a small flow gives a high head and a
figure 2.6. large flow gives a low head.
The pump is started and runs with constant speed. Q equals 0 and H reaches
its highest value when the valve is completely closed. The valve is gradually
opened∆and z ⋅ ρ ⋅ g H[Pa
p geoas=Q∆increases ]
decreases. H is the height of the fluid column
(2.9) in the
H [m]
open pipe after the pump. The QH curve is a series of coherent values of Q and H
represented
p by V 2the curve shown in figure m2.5.
2

12
+ + g ⋅ z = Constant  2  (2.10) 10
ρ 2 s
 
In most cases the differential pressure across the pump Dptot is measured and
10.2 m
8
the head prel + pbar by[Pa

H is=calculated
pabs the] following formula: (2.3) 6
Water at 20oC 4
998.2 kg /m3
Δp tot
H= [m] (2.4) 1 bar = 10.2 m 2
ρ⋅ g 1 bar
0
0 1.0 1.5 2.0 Q [m3/h]
Phyd = H ⋅ g ⋅ ρ ⋅ Q = ∆p tot ⋅ Q [W] (2.11)
The QH curve will ideally be exactly the same if the test in figure 2.6 is made with
a fluid having aPdensity different from water. Hence, a QH curve is independent Figure 2.6: The QH curve can be determined
of the pumped
hyd
η hyd = fluid. It [⋅can
100be ]
%explained (2.12)
based on the theory in chapter 4 where it in an installation with an open pibe after
P2 the pump. H is exactly the height of the fluid
is proven that Q and H depend on the geometry and speed but not on the density column in the open pipe. measured from
of the pumpedPfluid. inlet level.
η tot =
hyd
[⋅ 100 % ] (2.13)
P1
The pressure increase across a pump can also be measured in meter water column
1 > P2water
[mWC].PMeter > Phydcolumn [W] is a pressure unit which must not be confused
(2.14) with
the head in [m]. As seen in the

⋅ ηtable of physical properties of water,(2.15)
the change
η tot = η control ⋅ η motor hyd [ ⋅ 100 % ]
in density is significant at higher temperatures. Thus, conversion from pressure
to head is essential.
NPSH A = [m] (2.16)
ρ ⋅g
NPSH A > NPSH R = NPSH3% + 0.5 [m] or (2.17)
34 NPSH A > NPSH R = NPSH3% . SA [m] (2.17a) 34

2.5 Differential pressure across the pump - description of differential pressure
2.5.1 Total pressure difference
The total pressure difference across the pump is calculated on the basis of
three contributions:
pdyn = 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅ V 2 [Pa] (2.2)
2
∆p tot = ∆pstat + ∆pdyn + ∆pgeo [Pa] (2.5)
where ∆pstat = pstat, out − pstat, in [Pa] (2.6)

Δptot = Total pressure difference across the pump [Pa]
Δpstat = ∆Static 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅ V difference
pdyn =pressure 2 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅ Vacross
2
[Pa
the] pump [Pa]
out − (2.7)
2 2 in
Δpdyn = Dynamic pressure difference across the pump [Pa]
Δpgeo = Geodetic pressure difference between the pressure sensors [Pa]
2
p tot = pstat1 + pdyn Q[Pa]  1 1  (2.1)
=
Δpdynpressure ⋅ ρdifference
⋅ ⋅  4 −  [Pa] (2.8)
2.5.2 Static 2 π  Dout 4
D in 

 4  can be measured directly with a differential
The static pressure difference
pressure pdyn = 1 ⋅ or
sensor, [Pa] sensor can be placed at the inlet and
ρ ⋅aVpressure
2
(2.2) outlet
2
of the pump. In this case, the static pressure difference can be found by the
following∆
∆p
p expression:
tottot= p
+ ∆p[Pa
∆p+statpdyn
= stat dyn]+ ∆p geo [Pa]
geo = ∆z ⋅ ρ ⋅ g [Pa]
p (2.5)
(2.1)
(2.9)
∆pstat =2 pstat, out − pstat, in [Pa] 2 (2.6)

p V m 
+ + g ⋅ z = Constant  2 
pρdyn =211⋅ ρ ⋅ V 2 2 [Pa]1
(2.10)
s  (2.2)
2 2
∆pdyn = ⋅ ρ ⋅ Vout − ⋅ ρ ⋅ Vin
2 2
[Pa] (2.7)
2.5.3 Dynamic
∆ pressure
p tot= =prel
pabs ∆p+statpbar+ ∆p [Pa
dyn] + ∆p geo
difference [Pa] (2.3)
(2.5)
The dynamic pressure difference 2
between the inlet and outlet of the pump
is found∆pby the following
=tot  [Pa
p1stat, out − pQformula: 1] 1 
Δp (2.6)
H dyn =
Δp=stat ⋅ [ρm⋅] stat, in ⋅  4 −  [Pa]
4  (2.8)
(2.4)
ρ⋅ g 2  π 
 4   Dout D in 
Phyd = H2⋅ g ⋅ ρ ⋅ Q = 2∆p tot ⋅ Q [W] (2.11)
Phyd 2
p geo= = P∆1z ⋅ [ρ⋅ 100

η  ]  1
∆hyd ⋅gQ%[ ]⋅ 
Pa 1  (2.12)
Δpdyn = 2 ⋅ ρ ⋅
2  π   Dout4
− 
 [Pa] (2.9)
(2.8)
D in 4
 4  
p V Phyd 2
m 2
η tot+ = + g [⋅ ⋅z100 %]
= Constant  s2  (2.13)
(2.10)
ρ 2 P1  
P > P+ pbar [W[Pa

p > =P2prel ]] (2.14)
(2.3)
∆1abs ⋅ ρ ⋅ g [Pa]
p geo = ∆z hyd (2.9)
35
35
pdyn = 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅ Vcurves
2. Performance
2
[Pa] (2.2)
2
∆p
p + ∆p[Pa
= ∆pstatpdyn
tottot= pstat + dyn]+ ∆p geo [Pa] (2.5)
(2.1)
In practise, the dynamic pressure and the flow velocity before and after the
∆pstat = pstat, out − pstat, in [Pa] (2.6)
pump are not measured during test of pumps. Instead, the dynamic pressure
difference = 1be
pdyncan
1
⋅ V 2 2 [Pa]1if the flow
⋅ ρcalculated and pipe diameter of the(2.2)
inlet and
∆ p =2 ⋅ ρ ⋅ V − ⋅ ρ ⋅ V 2
[Pa] (2.7)
outlet of the pump
dyn
2 are known:
out
2 in
∆p tot = ∆pstat + ∆pdyn + ∆pgeo [Pa] (2.5)

2
∆pstat = p1stat, out − pQstat, in [Pa1] 1  (2.6)
Δpdyn = ⋅ρ⋅ ⋅  −  [Pa] (2.8)
2  π   Dout4 4 
D in 
 4  
2 2
The formula shows that the dynamic pressure difference is zero if the pipe
diameters are identical before 2 and after the pump.
 Q   1
∆
Δp = ∆1z ⋅⋅ ρρ ⋅ ⋅g [Pa  ]⋅  1 
 D 4 − D 4  [Pa]
 (2.9)
dyn =
pgeo (2.8)
2  π
2.5.4 Geodetic pressure difference 
4   out 2 in 
2
p Vpressure
The geodetic difference between m  inlet and outlet can be measured
+ + g ⋅ z = Constant  2  (2.10)
ρ 2 way:
in the following s 
p p = =prel∆z+⋅ pρbar⋅ g[Pa

∆abs
]]
[Pa (2.3)
(2.9)
geo
Δp
p = V 2 tot [m]
H m 2  (2.4)
+ ρ ⋅ g+ g ⋅ z = Constant  2  (2.10)
where ρ 2 s
 
Δz is theP difference
= H ⋅ g ⋅inρvertical
⋅ Q = ∆position
p ⋅ Q between
[W] the gauge connected
(2.11) to the
p
hyd
outlet pipe = p + p
abs andrelthe gauge
bar [Pa] tot
connected to the inlet pipe. (2.3)
Phyd
=p
η hyd Δ [⋅ 100 % ] (2.12)
The geodetic
H = pressure
P
tot
2 [m] difference is only relevant if Δz is not zero.
(2.4)Hence,
the position ρ of⋅ gthe measuring taps on the pipe is of no importance for the
calculation of Pthe [⋅ 100 % ]
hyd geodetic pressure difference.
tot = H ⋅ g ⋅ ρ ⋅ Q = ∆p tot ⋅ Q [W ]
ηhyd
P (2.13)
(2.11)
P1
The geodetic pressure
Phyd difference is zero when a differential pressure gauge
P1hyd> =
η P2 > [W]% ]
Phyd[ ⋅ 100 (2.14)
(2.12)
is used for measuring
P2 the static pressure difference.
Phyd
η tot = [⋅ 100 % ] (2.13)
P1 ( p abs,tot,in − pvapour )
NPSH A = [m] (2.16)
ρ ⋅g
P1 > P2 > Phyd [W ] (2.14)
η tot = Aη >
NPSH NPSH R = NPSH
control ⋅ η motor
0.5 % ][m] or
⋅ η hyd3% [ ⋅+100
(2.17)
(2.15)
NPSH A > NPSH R = NPSH3% . SA [m] (2.17a)
36 ( p abs,tot,in − pvapour ) 36
NPSH = [m] (2.16)
2 2
2
 Q   1 1 
Δpdyn = 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅   ⋅ 
 D 4 − D 4  [Pa]
 (2.8)
2  π 
2.6 Energy equation
 4for 
an ideal
out in 
flow
The energy equation for an ideal flow describes that the sum of pressure
energy, velocity energy and potential energy is constant. Named after
the Swiss physicist Daniel Bernoulli, the equation is known as Bernoulli’s
∆p geo = ∆z ⋅ ρ ⋅ g [Pa]
equation: (2.9)
p V2 m 2 
+ + g ⋅ z = Constant  s2  (2.10)
ρ 2  
Bernoulli’s equation is valid if the following conditions are met:

Δp tot
H= [m] (2.4)
ρ⋅ g
1. Stationary flow – no changes over time
2.
PhydIncompressible
= H ⋅ g ⋅ ρ ⋅ Q flow
= ∆p–tottrue
⋅ Qfor[W
most
] liquids (2.11)
3. Loss-free flow – ignores friction loss
Phyd flow – no supply of mechanical energy
4. Work-free
η hyd = [⋅ 100 % ] (2.12)
P2
Formula (2.10) applies along a stream line or the trajectory of a fluid particle.
Phyd the flow through a diffusor can be described by formula (2.10),
For
η totexample,
= [⋅ 100 % ] (2.13)
P1 flow through an impeller since mechancial energy is added.
but not the
P > P > Phyd [W ] (2.14)

In1most2 applications, not all the conditions for the energy equation are met. In
control ⋅ η motor ⋅ η hyd [ ⋅ 100 % ]
spite
η tot =ofηthis, the equation can be used for making a rough (2.15)calculation.
NPSH A = [m] (2.16)
ρ ⋅g
(pbar + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Hgeo − ∆ p loss , suction pipe ) − pvapour

NPSH A = [m] (2.18)
ρ ⋅g
101300 Pa 3500 Pa 7375 Pa

NPSH A = − 3m − −
992.2kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2 992.2kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2 992.2kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2
NPSH A = 6.3m
37 37
2.7 Power
The power curves show the
p tot = pstat + pdyn [Pa]energy transfer rate as a function of(2.1)
flow, see P [W]
P1
figure 2.7. The power is given in Watt [W]. Distinction is made between
P2
three kinds of power, see figure 2.8:
• Supplied power from external electricity source to the motor and
pdyn = 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅ V 2 [Pa] (2.2)
2
controller (P1)
• Shaft power transferred from the motor to the shaft (P2)
∆p tot = ∆pstat + ∆pdyn + ∆pgeo [Pa] (2.5) Q [m3/h]
• Hydraulic power transferred from the impeller to the fluid (Phyd) Figure 2.7: P1 and P2 power curves.
∆pstat = pstat, out − pstat, in [Pa] (2.6)

The power consumption depends on the fluid density. The power curves
are generally 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅on
∆pdyn =based − 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅ Vfluid
Vouta2 standard 2 with
[Pa] a density of 1000 kg/m
(2.7)
3
which
2 2 in
corresponds to water at 4°C. Hence, power measured on fluids with another
density must be converted. P1
2
 Q   1 1 
= 1
Δpdynsheet, ⋅ρ⋅    [Pa]
⋅  4 − for4integrated
In the data 2 P1 isnormally
π   Dstated products, (2.8)
while P2 is
D in 
 4  out
typically stated for pumps sold with a standard motor. P2
2.7.1 Speed
Flow, head and power consumption vary with the pump speed, see section 3.4.4.
∆p geo = ∆z ⋅ ρ ⋅ g [Pa] (2.9)
Pump curves can only be compared if they are stated with the same speed. The
curves can be converted to the same speed by the formulas in section 3.4.4. Phyd
p V2 m 2 
+ + g ⋅ z = Constant  2  (2.10)
ρ 2 s 
Figure 2.8: Power transfer in a pump unit.
2.8 Hydraulic
pabs = ppower
rel + pbar [Pa] (2.3)
The hydraulic power Phyd is the power transferred from the pump to the
fluid. As seenΔpfrom the following formula, the hydraulic power is calculated
based onH =flow, tot [m] (2.4)
ρ ⋅ ghead and density:
Phyd = H ⋅ g ⋅ ρ ⋅ Q = ∆p tot ⋅ Q [W] (2.11)
Phyd
An independent
η hyd = [⋅ 100
curve for % ] hydraulic power is usually not shown
the (2.12)in data
P
sheets but is part of the calculation of the pump efficiency.
2
Phyd
η tot = [⋅ 100 % ] (2.13)
P1
P1 > P2 > Phyd [W] (2.14)

38 38
geo = ∆z ⋅ ρ g [Pa 2]
∆p geo ⋅ (2.9)
(2.9)
 Q   1 1 
Δpdyn =22 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅   ⋅  −  [Pa] (2.8)
  Dout4 m 22Din 4
p + V +2 g ⋅ z =πConstant 
 4   s 22   (2.10)
ρ 2  
2.9 Efficiency
(2.3)
η[%]
ηhyd
The totalabsefficiency
rel
(ηbartot) is the ratio between hydraulic power and supplied
ηtot
power. ∆Figure
p geo =2.9
∆z shows
Δp tot
⋅ ρ ⋅ g the [Paefficiency
] curves for the pump (ηhyd(2.9)
) and for a
H =
tot
[m ]
complete pump unit with motor and controller (ηtot). (2.4)
(2.4)
ρ⋅ g
p V2 m 2 
+ + g ⋅ z = Constant  2  (2.10)
hyd = 2H
Pρhyd
The hydraulic ⋅ g ⋅ ρ ⋅ refers
efficiency Q = ∆to p tot
tot Q s [W
 ] the total efficiency refers
P2 ⋅, whereas (2.11) to P1:
(2.11)
hyd + pbar [Pa]

Q[m3/h]
pabs = pPrel (2.3)
hyd =
η hyd hyd
[⋅ 100 % ] (2.12)
(2.12) Figure 2.9: Efficiency curves for the pump
P22 (ηhyd) and complete pump unit with motor
Δp and controller (ηtot).
H = Ptot [m] (2.4)
ρ ⋅hyd
g [ ⋅ 100 % ]
hyd
(2.13)
tot =
η tot (2.13)
P11
Phyd = H ⋅ g ⋅ ρ ⋅ Q = ∆p tot ⋅ Q [W] (2.11)
P11 > P22 > Phydhyd [W] (2.14)
(2.14)
Phyd
η = control [⋅⋅η100
tot = η control
ηhyd % ] hyd [ ⋅ 100 % ]
motor ⋅ η hyd
(2.12)
(2.15)
(2.15)
tot P 2
motor
The efficiency is always below 100% since the supplied power is always
[⋅ 100 −%p]vapour
larger than the Phyd( p abs,tot,in
hydraulic
abs,tot,in power ) to losses in controller, motor and pump
due
η tot =
NPSH A =
vapour
[m] (2.13)
(2.16)
(2.16)
components. The
A
⋅g
P1 total ρefficiency for the entire pump unit (controller, motor
and hydraulics) is the product of the individual efficiencies:
P1 > PA2 >
NPSH Phyd R[W
> NPSH =]NPSH3% + 0.5 [m] or (2.17)
(2.14)
(2.17)
A R 3%
. S (2.17a)
A % ][m]
3% [ ⋅ 100
(2.17a)
η tot = AAη >
NPSH NPSH RR = NPSH
control ⋅ η motor ⋅ η hyd3% A (2.15)
where NPSH = ((p + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Hgeo − ∆ p loss ) − pvapour

vapour [m]
abs,tot,in − pvapour
pbar
bar geo ) loss ,, suction
suction pipe
pipe
NPSH A =
A
hcontrol = Controller efficiency [
. ρ ⋅gm ] (2.18)
(2.18)
(2.16)
ρ ⋅ g [ 100%]
A
hmotor = Motor efficiency [ . 100%]

NPSHAAA => NPSH 101300
NPSH R = NPSH
Pa + 0.5− 3m
3%
[m−] or 35003 Pa (2.17)2 − 7375 Pa
992.2kg m 3
3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2
2 992.2kg m 3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2 992.2kg m33 ⋅ 9.81m s 22
The flow where> the
NPSH A NPSH pump
R = has the highest
NPSH 3%
. S
A
[m ]
efficiency is called the optimum
(2.17a)
point orNPSHthe best efficiency point (QBEP).
A = 6.3m
A
NPSH A = [m] (2.18)
ρ ⋅g 2
pstat,in + pbar + 0.5 . ρ . V112 pvapour
NPSH AA = stat,in bar + H geo
geo − H loss, pipe−
loss, pipe
vapour
[m] (2.19)
(2.19)
ρ ⋅
101300 Pag ρ
3500 Pa⋅ g 7375 Pa
NPSH A = − 3m − −
992.2kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2 992.2kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2 992.2kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2
-27900 Pa + 101000 Pa + 500 Pa 47400 Pa
NPSH AA
NPSH = 6.3m
= 3 2 + 3m − 1m − 3 2
A 973 kg m ⋅ 9.81m s
3 2
973 kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2
NPSH AA = 4.7m
p + p + 0.5 . ρ . V12 pvapour
39 NPSH A = stat,in bar + H geo − H loss, pipe− [m] (2.19) 39
2 2
2
 Q  
Δp = 1 ⋅ ρ ⋅   ⋅  1 1 
 [Pa]
dyn
2 π  D 4 − D 4  (2.8)
 4  out in 
2.10 NPSH, Net Positive Suction Head

NPSH is a term describing conditions related to cavitation, which is
undesired and= harmful.
∆p geo ∆z ⋅ ρ ⋅ g [Pa] (2.9)
Cavitation
p isVthe 2 creation of vapourm bubbles
2
 in areas where the pressure
+
locally drops + g ⋅ z = Constant   (2.10)
ρ 2to the fluid vapour pressure.2
s 
The extent of cavitation depends
on how low the pressure is in the pump. Cavitation generally lowers the
head andpabscauses
= prel noise [Pavibration.
+ pbar and ] (2.3)
Cavitation first
Δp totoccurs at the point in the pump where the pressure is
H= [m] (2.4)
lowest, which ρ⋅ g
is most often at the blade edge at the impeller inlet, see
figure 2.10. Figure 2.10: Cavitation.
Phyd = H ⋅ g ⋅ ρ ⋅ Q = ∆p tot ⋅ Q [W] (2.11)
The NPSH value Phydis absolute and always positive. NPSH is stated in meter [m]
[⋅ 1002.11.
hyd = see figure
like theηhead, % ]Hence, it is not necessary to take the(2.12)
density of
P2
different fluids into account because NPSH is stated in meters [m].
Phyd
η tot =
Distinction is made
[between
⋅ 100 % ] (2.13)
two different NPSH values: NPSHR and NPSHA. NPSH [m]
P1
P1 > P2 for
NPSHA stands > PNPSH
hyd [Available
W] (2.14)
and is an expression of how close the fluid
in the suction pipe is to vapourisation. NPSHA is defined as:
Q[m3/h]
( p abs,tot,in − pvapour ) Figure 2.11: NPSH curve.
NPSH A = [m] (2.16)
ρ ⋅g
where
pvapour = The vapour pressure of the fluid at the present temperature [Pa].

The vapour pressure is found in the table ”Physical properties of
water” in the back of the book.
(p + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Hgeo − ∆ p loss , suction pipe ) − pvapour
pabs,tot,in NPSH = bar pressure
= TheAabsolute at the inlet flange [Pa]. [m] (2.18)
ρ ⋅g
101300 Pa 3500 Pa 7375 Pa

NPSH A = − 3m − −
992.2kg m ⋅ 9.81m s
3 2
992.2kg m ⋅ 9.81m s 992.2kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2
3 2
NPSH A = 6.3m
40 pstat,in + pbar + 0.5 . ρ . V12 pvapour 40

NPSH = +H −H − [m] (2.19)
+ + g ⋅ z = Constant  s2  (2.10)
ρ 2  
Δp tot
H= [m] (2.4)
NPSHR standsρ ⋅for g NPSH Required and is an expression of the lowest NPSH
value required
Phyd = H for
⋅ g acceptable operating conditions. The absolute pressure
⋅ ρ ⋅ Q = ∆p tot ⋅ Q [W ] (2.11)
pabs,tot,in can be calculated from a given value of NPSHR and the fluid vapour
Phyd
pressure by inserting NPSH in the formula (2.16) instead of NPSHA.
η hyd = [⋅ 100 %R ] (2.12)
P2
To determine if a pump can safely be installed in the system, NPSHA and
Phyd
NPSHR η should
tot =
[⋅ 100for
be found % ]the largest flow and temperature(2.13)
within the
operating range. P1
P1 > P2 > Phyd [W ] (2.14)

A minimum safety margin of 0.5 m is recommended. Depending on the
application,
η tot = aη control
higher safety
⋅ η motor [ ⋅ 100
level
⋅ η hyd ] required. For example,
may%be (2.15) noise
sensitive applications or in high energy pumps like boiler feed pumps,
European Association of Pump
( p abs,tot,in − pvapourManufacturers
) indicate a safety factor SA of
NPSH =
1.2-2.0 times the NPSH3% [m ] (2.16)
ρ .⋅ g
A
The riskNPSH
of cavitation ⋅ g ⋅ Hgeo −can
(pbar +inρsystems ∆ pbe − pprevented
suction pipe ) or
loss , reduced
A =
vapour
[m] by:(2.18)
ρ ⋅ g
• Lowering the pump compared to the water level - open systems.
• Increasing the system pressure - closed systems.
• Shortening 101300 Pa 3500 Pa 7375 Pa
NPSH A =the suction line to reduce− the 3m −friction loss. 3 −
992.2kg m 3
⋅ 9.81m s 2
992.2kg
• Increasing the suction line’s cross-section area to reduce the fluid m ⋅ 9.81m s 2
992.2kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2
velocity
NPSHand thereby reduce friction.
A = 6.3m
• Avoiding pressure drops coming from bends and other obstacles in
the suction line.
p + pbar + 0.5 . ρ . V12 pvapour
• Lowering
NPSH Afluid temperature
= stat,in to reduce + vapour
H geo − Hpressure.
loss, pipe− [m] (2.19)
ρ ⋅g ρ ⋅g
The two following examples show how NPSH is calculated.
-27900 Pa + 101000 Pa + 500 Pa 47400 Pa
NPSH A = + 3m − 1m −
973 kg m ⋅ 9.81m s
3 2
973 kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2
NPSH A = 4.7m
41 41
Δp tot
2. H ∆=z ⋅ ρ ⋅ g [[m
∆pPerformance
geo = ]
Pa]curves (2.9) (2.4)
ρ⋅ g
⋅ ρ ⋅ Q = ∆pmtot ⋅ Q [W]
2 2
p VP
+ + g= ⋅Hz ⋅=gConstant
hyd
 2 
(2.10) (2.11)
ρ
Example 2 2.1 Pump drawing from  s a well
Phyd
η hyd +=p [⋅]100 % ]
pabs = p
A pump rel must drawP2 [Pa
bar (2.3) (2.12)
water from a reservoir where the water level is 3 meters
Reference plane
below the pump. To calculate the NPSHA value, it is necessary to know the
Δp tot P
H = ηloss
friction ] [⋅ 100 % ]
[mhyd
tot = in the inlet pipe, the water temperature and the barometric
(2.4) (2.13)
ρ⋅ g P1 ∆ploss, suction pipe
pressure, see figure 2.12. H<0
Phyd = H P1⋅ >g P⋅ 2ρ >⋅ QPhyd= ∆[pWtot] ⋅ Q [W] (2.11) (2.14)

pbar
Water temperature = 40°C
ηPhyd = η control ⋅ =η101.3 η hyd [ ⋅ 100 % ]
Barometric [⋅ 100 % ] motor ⋅ kPa
η hyd = tot pressure (2.12)
(2.15)
PressurePloss 2 in the suction line at the present flow = 3.5 kPa.

At a water temperature ( p abs,tot,in of− p40°C,
vapour ) the vapour pressure is 7.37 kPa and ρ is
hyd 3 A =
PNPSH [m] (2.16)
η tot =
992.2kg/m [⋅ 100
. The % ] ρare
values ⋅ g found in the table ”Physical properties
(2.13) of water”
P1 Figure 2.12: Sketch of a system where
in the back of the book. water is pumped from a well.
NPSH > NPSH = NPSH3% + 0.5 [m] or (2.17)
P1 > P2 > PhydA [W ] R (2.14)
For thisNPSH system,A >the NPSH NPSH R =ANPSH
expression [m] (2.16) can be written
. Sin formula (2.17a) as:
η tot = η control ⋅ η motor ⋅ η hyd [ ⋅ 100 % ]
3% A
(2.15)

NPSH A =
( p abs,tot,in − pvapour ) [m] (2.18)
NPSH A = [m] ρ ⋅ g (2.16)
ρ ⋅g
Hgeo is the water level’s101300
vertical Paposition in relation to3500 the Pa pump. Hgeo − can
7375 Pa
NPSH A NPSH
> NPSH A = = NPSH 3+ 0.5 [m 2]
− 3m −
or 992.2kg m(2.17)
R992.2kg 3% m ⋅ 9.81m s
either be above or below the pump and is stated in meter [m]. The water
3
⋅ 9.81m s 2
992.2kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2
NPSHin
level > NPSH
this system R = NPSH
is placed
. S
below [the
m] pump. Thus, H (2.17a) is negative, Hgeo =
A = 6.3m
A NPSH 3% A geo
-3m.
(p + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Hgeo − ∆ p loss , suction pipe ) − pvapour
NPSH A = bar [m] (2.18)
pstat,in + pis:
ρbar⋅+
g0.5 . ρ . V12 pvapour
The system NPSH
NPSH A = A value + H geo − H loss, pipe− [m] (2.19)
ρ ⋅g ρ ⋅g
101300 Pa 3500 Pa 7375 Pa
NPSH A = − 3m − −
m ⋅ 9.81m + 500 Pa m ⋅ 9.81m s 992.2kg 47400 m3 ⋅ 9.81m
3 2 3 2 2
992.2kg-27900 s
Pa + 101000 Pa992.2kg Pa s
NPSH A = + 3 m − 1 m −
NPSH A = 6.3m 973 kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2 973 kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2
NPSH A = 4.7m
The pump chosen for the system2 in question must have a NPSHR value lower
pstat,in + pbar + 0.5 . ρ . V1 pvapour
A =m minus the safety margin
NPSH6.3
than + H geo
of −0.5
H loss,
m.pipe−
Hence, the[m] (2.19)
pump must have a
ρ ⋅g ρ ⋅g
NPSHR value lower than 6.3-0.5 = 5.8 m at the present flow.
-27900 Pa + 101000 Pa + 500 Pa 47400 Pa
NPSH A = + 3m − 1m −
973 kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2 973 kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2
NPSH A = 4.7m
42 42
H= tot
[m] (2.4)
Δp tot ρ ⋅ g
H= [m] (2.4)
ρ⋅ g
Phyd = H ⋅ g ⋅ ρ ⋅ Q = ∆p tot ⋅ Q [W] (2.11)
Phyd = H ⋅ g ⋅ ρ ⋅ Q = ∆p tot ⋅ Q [W] (2.11)
Phyd
η hyd =
Phyd
[⋅ 100 % ] (2.12)
Example
η hyd = 2.2 Pump [⋅ P100
2
%a] closed system
in (2.12)
P2
Phyd
In a closed =
η tot system, [there
⋅ 100 is% no ] free water surface to refer to. This (2.13)
example
System
Phyd P1
η tot = how the
shows [⋅ 100
pressure% ] sensor’s placement above the reference (2.13) plane can pstat, in
P1
be usedPto find the absolute
1 > P2 > Phyd [W] pressure in the suction line, see figure 2.13.
(2.14)
P1 > P2 > Phyd [W ] (2.14)
η tot = η control ⋅ η motor ⋅ η hyd [ ⋅ 100 % ]
Hgeo>0
(2.15)
The relative static pressure on the suction side is measured to be pstat,in =
-27.9 kPa2. Hence, there is negative pressure in the system at the pressure Reference plane
gauge. NPSH The pressure
( p A =
− p
gauge is placed
)
[m] above the pump. The difference (2.16) in
ρ
the pressure[m⋅ g
height
NPSH Abetween=
abs,tot,in vapour
]
gauge and the impeller eye(2.16) Hgeo is therefore a Figure 2.13: Sketch of a closed system.
ρ ⋅ g
positive value of +3m. The velocity in the tube where the measurement of
pressure is made results in a dynamic pressure contribution of 500 Pa.
NPSH ANPSH > NPSH>RNPSH = NPSH R =3%NPSH + 0.5 . [m SA] or [m] (2.17) (2.17a)
A 3%
NPSH A > NPSH
Barometric pressure R = NPSH = 1013%kPa SA
. [m] (2.17a)
+ ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Hgeo − ∆point
(pbarmeasurement p loss , suction − pvapour
pipe)) and
Pipe loss NPSHbetween
A =
(pstat,in pump [mis] calculated
(2.18) to
( p + ρ ⋅ g ⋅ H − ∆ p ρ ⋅ g ) − p
HNPSH = 1m.
loss,pipeA =
bar geo loss , suction pipe vapour
[m] (2.18)
System temperature = 80°C ρ ⋅g
101300 Pa 3500 Pa 7375 Pa
VapourNPSH pressureA =
pvapour = 47.4 kPa and2 density − 3m − is ρ = 973 3kg/m3, values − are
992.2kgPam ⋅ 9.81m s
101300 3
3500 Pa m ⋅ 9.81m s 992.2kg
992.2kg 2
7375 Pa m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2
found
NPSH Ain=the table ”Physical properties− 3m −of water”. 3 −
NPSH 992.2kg = 6.3m m ⋅ 9.81m s
3 2
992.2kg m ⋅ 9.81m s 992.2kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2
2
A
For = 6.3m formula 2.16 expresses the NPSHA as follows:
thisA system,
NPSH
p + p + 0.5 . ρ . V12 pvapour

NPSH A = stat,in bar + H geo − H loss, pipe−
pvapour ρ ⋅ g
[m] (2.19)
pstat,in + pbar + 0.5 . ρρ⋅.gV12
NPSH A = + H geo − H loss, pipe− [m] (2.19)
ρ ⋅g ρ ⋅g
Inserting the values gives:
-27900 Pa + 101000 Pa + 500 Pa 47400 Pa
NPSH A = + 3m − 1m −
-27900 Pa +973 101000
kg m ⋅ 9.81m
Pa3 + 500 Pa s 2 kg Pam3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2
47400
973
NPSH A = + 3m − 1m −
973 kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2 973 kg m3 ⋅ 9.81m s 2
NPSH A = 4.7m
NPSH A = 4.7m
Despite the negative system pressure, a NPSHA value of more than 4m is

available at the present flow.
43 43
2.11 Axial thrust

Figure 2.14: Axial thrust
Axial thrust is the sum of forces acting on the shaft in axial direction, work in the bearing’s
see figure 2.14. Axial thrust is mainly caused by forces from the pressure direction.
difference between the impeller’s hub plate and shroud plate, see section
1.2.5.
The size and direction of the axial thrust can be used to specify the size of
the bearings and the design of the motor. Pumps with up-thrust require
Force [N]
locked bearings. In addition to the axial thrust, consideration must be taken
to forces from the system pressure acting on the shaft. Figure 2.15 shows an 500
400
example of an axial thrust curve. 300
200
100
The axial thrust is related to the head and therefore it scales with the speed 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Q [m3/h]
ratio squared, see sections 3.4.4 and 4.5. Figure 2.15: Example of a axial thrust curve
for a TP65-410 pump.
Figure 2.16: Radial thrust

2.12 Radial thrust work perpendicular on
the bearing.
Radial thrust is the sum of forces acting on the shaft in radial direction
as shown in figure 2.16. Hydraulic radial thrust is a result of the pressure
difference in a volute casing. Size and direction vary with the flow. The
forces are minimum in the design point, see figure 2.17. To size the bearings
correctly, it is important to know the size of the radial thrust.
Force [N]
100
80
60
40
20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Q [m3/h]
Figure 2.17: Example of a radial thrust curve

for a TP65-410 pump.
44 44
2.13 Summary
Chapter 2 explains the terms used to describe a pump’s performance
and shows curves for head, power, efficiency, NPSH and thrust impacts.
Furthermore, the two terms head and NPSH are clarified with calculation
examples.
45 45
Chapter 3
Pumps operating in systems

Tank on roof
3.1 Single pump in a system

3.2 Pumps operated in parallel
�
3.3 Pumps operating in series
Hloss, pipe friction
3.4 Regulation of pumps Buffer tank
Hoperation
3.5 Annual energy consumption
3.6 Energy efficiency index (EEI)
Qoperation
3.7 Summary
3. Pumps operating in systems

This chapter explains how pumps operate in a system and how they can be
regulated. The chapter also explains the energy index for small circulation
pumps.
A pump is always connected to a system where it must circulate or lift

fluid. The energy added to the fluid by the pump is partly lost as friction in
the pipe system or used to increase the head.
Implementing a pump into a system results in a common operating point.

If several pumps are combined in the same application, the pump curve for
the system can be found by adding up the pumps’ curves either serial or
parallel. Regulated pumps adjust to the system by changing the rotational
speed. The regulation of speed is especially used in heating systems where
the need for heat depends on the ambient temperature, and in water sup-
ply systems where the demand for water varies with the consumer opening
and closing the tap.
48 48
3.1 Single pump in a system In closed systems, see figure 3.1, there is no head when
A system characteristic is described by a parabola due to the system is not operationg. In this case the system char-
an increase in friction loss related to the flow squared. The acteristic goes through (Q,H) = (0,0) as shown in figure
system characteristic is described by a steep parabola if 3.2.
the resistance in the system is high. The parabola flattens
when the resistance decreases. Changing the settings of In systems where water is to be moved from one level to
the valves in the system changes the characteristics. another, see figure 3.3, there is a constant pressure differ-
ence between the two reservoirs, corresponding to the
The operating point is found where the curve of the height difference. This causes an additional head which
pump and the system characteristic intersect. the pump must overcome. In this case the system charac-
teristics goes through (0,Hz) instead of (0,0), see figure 3.4.
Elevated tank
Boiler Hoperation Valve

Qoperation
Hz
Buffer tank Hoperation

Heat Exchanger
Qoperation
Figure 3.1: Example of a closed system. Figure 3.3: Example of an open system
with positive geodetic lift.
H H
Figure 3.2: The system characteris- Figure 3.4: The system characteris-
tics of a closed system resembles a tics of an open system resembles a
Hmax
parabola starting at point (0.0). Hmax parabola passing through (0,Hz).
Hoperation Hoperation
Hloss,friktion
Hloss,friktion
Hz
Qoperation Q Qoperation Q
49 49
3.2 Pumps operated in parallel

In systems with large variations in flow and a request for constant pressure,
H
two or more pumps can be connected in parallel. This is often seen in larger
Hmax
supply systems or larger circulation systems such as central heating systems
or district heating installations.
Hoperation, a= Hoperation, b
Parallel-connected pumps are also used when regulation is required or if an
auxiliary pump or standby pump is needed. When operating the pumps, it
is possible to regulate between one or more pumps at the same time. A non-
return valve is therefore always mounted on the discharge line to prevent Qmax Q
Qoperation, a = Qoperation, b
backflow through the pump not operating.
Qoperation, a + Qoperation, b = Qsystem
Parallel-connected pumps can also be double pumps, where the pump

casings are casted in the same unit, and where the non-return valves are Hoperation, a
build-in as one or more valves to prevent backflow through the pumps. The Qoperation, a
characteristics of a parallel-connected system is found by adding the single Qsystem
characteristics for each pump horisontally, see figure 3.5.

Qoperation, b
Pumps connected in parallel are e.g. used in pressure booster sys- Hoperation, b
tems, for water supply and for water supply in larger buildings.
Figure 3.5: Parallel-connected pumps.
Major operational advantages can be achieved in a pressure booster system
by connecting two or more pumps in parallel instead of installing one big
pump. The total pump output is usually only necessarry in a limited period.
A single large pump will in this case typically operate at lower efficiency.
By letting a number of smaller pumps take care of the operation, the system
can be controlled to minimize the number of pumps operating and these
pumps will operate at the best efficiency point. To operate at the most
optimal point, one of the parallel-connected pumps must have variable
speed control.
50 50
3.3 Pumps operated in series
H
Centrifugal pumps are rarely connected in serial, but a multi-stage pump Hmax,total
can be considered as a serial connection of single-stage pumps. However,

single stages in multistage pumps can not be uncoupled.
Hoperation, b
If one of the pumps in a serial connection is not operating, it causes a consider- Hmax,a
able resistance to the system. To avoid this, a bypass with a non-return valve Hoperation,tot= Hoperation,a+Hoperation,b
could be build-in, see figure 3.6. The head at a given flow for a serial-connected
Hoperation, a
pump is found by adding the single heads vertically, as shown in figure 3.6.
Qoperation,a= Qoperation,b Qmax Q
3.4 Regulation of pumps

Hoperation,b
It is not always possible to find a pump that matches the requested perform-
ance exactly. A number of methods makes it possible to regulate the pump
Qoperation, a= Qoperation, b
performance and thereby achieve the requested performance. The most
common methods are:
Hoperation,a
1. Throttle regulation, also known as expansion regulation

2. Bypass regulation through a bypass valve
Figure 3.6: Pumps connected in series.
3. Start/stop regulation
4. Regulation of speed
There are also a number of other regulation methods e.g. control of pre-
swirl rotation, adjustment of blades, trimming the impeller and cavitation
control which are not introduced further in this book.
51 51
3.4.1 Throttle regulation 3.4.2 Regulation with bypass valve

Installing a throttle valve in serial with the pump it can A bypass valve is a regulation valve installed
change the system characteristic, see figure 3.7. The resist- parallel to the pump, see figure 3.9. The bypass valve
ance in the entire system can be regulated by changing the guide part of the flow back to the suction line and con-
valve settings and thereby adjusting the flow as needed. cequently reduces the head. With a bypass valve, the
A lower power consumption can sometimes be achieved pump delivers a specific flow even though the system is
by installing a throttle valve. However, it depends on the completely cut off. Like the throttle valve, it is possible
power curve and thus the specific speed of the pump. to reduce the power consumption in some case. Bypasss
Regulation by means of a throttle valve is best suited for regulation is an advantage for pumps with low head
pumps with a relatve high pressure compared to flow (low- compared to flow (high nq pumps), see figure 3.10.
nq pumps described in section 4.6), see figure 3.8.
From an overall perspective neither regulation with
throttle valve nor bypass valve are an energy efficient so-
lution and should be avoided.
Bypass valve
Figure 3.7: Principle H Valve
Figure 3.9: The bypass valve
sketch of a throttle leads a part of the flow Q bypass
regulation. back to the suction line Q-Qbypass
Hloss,system System and thereby reduces Q
Hloss, throttling Hloss,system
the flow into the system. System
H
System Bypass System Bypass

flow flow flow flow
H H H a H
b b
a b a
a b
Q Q Q Q
P P P P
a b a
b b
b a a
Pa Pb P Pb P1 P
Pa 2
Pb a
Q Q Q Q
η η η b η
a a b
b a a
b
Q Q Q Q
Figure 3.8: The system characteristic is changed through throttle Figure 3.10: The system characteristic is changed through bypass
regulation. The curves to the left show throttling of a low nq regulation. To the left the consequence of a low-nq pump is
pump and the curves to the right show throttling of a high nq shown and to the right the concequences of a high nq pump is
pump. The operating point is moved from a to b in both cases. shown. The operating point is moved from a to b in both cases.
52 52
3.4.3 Start/stop regulation
In systems with varying pump requirements, it can be an advantage to use
a number of smaller parallel-connected pumps instead of one larger pump.
The pumps can then be started and stopped depending on the load and a
better adjustment to the requirements can be achieved.
3.4.4 Speed control

When the pump speed is regulated, the QH, power and NPSH curves are H
Coherent
changed. The conversion in speed is made by means of the affinity equa- n = 100% points
tions. These are futher n described in section 4.5:

Q BB = Q AA ⋅ n BBB (3.1)
(3.1)
QB = Q A ⋅ n (3.1) n = 80% Affinity
n BAAA parabola
QB = Q A ⋅ (3.1)
nA n = 50%
2
 n 22
HBB = H AA ⋅⋅  nBBB 2 (3.2)
(3.2)
HB = H A  n  (3.2)
 nBAA 
HB = H A ⋅  A  (3.2)
Q
 n A 3

3 Figure 3.11: Affinity parabola in the QH graph.
n
3
n BB 
PBBB = PAAA ⋅⋅  n B 3
P (3.3)
= P (3.3)
(3.3)
 n BAAA 
PB = PA ⋅   (3.3)
 nA  n  2
2
2
NPSH BB = NPSH AA ⋅  n BBB  2 (3.4)
(3.4)
NPSH B = NPSH A ⋅  n  (3.4)
 n BAA 
NPSH B = NPSH A ⋅  A  (3.4)
 nA 
Index A in the equations describes the initial values, and index B describes the
PL,avg = 0.06 ⋅ P100% + 0.15 ⋅ P75% + 0.35 ⋅ P50% + 0.44 ⋅ P25% (3.5)
(3.5)
modifiedPL,avg
L,avg = 0.06 ⋅ P100%
values. 100% + 0.15 ⋅ P75% + 0.35 ⋅ P50% + 0.44 ⋅ P25%
75% 50% 25% (3.5)
PL,avg = 0.06 ⋅ P100% + 0.15 ⋅ P75% + 0.35 ⋅ P50% + 0.44 ⋅ P25% (3.5)
The equationsPL,avgP provide coherent points on an affinity parabola in the QH
EEI = L,avg L,avg
= P parabola
EEI affinity
graph. The
[[−−]] is shown in figure 3.11. (3.6)
(3.6)
(3.6)
PPL,avg
[−]
Ref
Ref
EEI = Ref (3.6)
PRef
Different regulation curves can be created based on the relation between
the pump curve and the speed. The most common regulation methods are
proportional-pressure control and constant-pressure control.
53 53
Proportional-pressure control
Proportional-pressure control strives to keep the pump head proportional
to the flow. This is done by changing the speed in relation to the current
flow. Regulation can be performed up to a maximum speed, from that point
the curve will follow this speed. The proportional curve is an approximative
system characteristic as described in section 3.1 where the needed flow and
head can be delivered at varying needs.
Proportional pressure regulation is used in closed systems such as heating

systems. The differential pressure, e.g. above radiator valves, is kept almost
constant despite changes in the heat consumption. The result is a low en-
ergy consumption by the pump and a small risk of noise from valves.
Figure 3.12 shows different proportional-pressure regulation curves.
Constant-pressure control
A constant differential pressure, independent of flow, can be kept by
means of constant-pressure control. In the QH diagram the pump curve for
constant-pressure control is a horisontal line, see figure 3.13. Constant-pres-
sure control is an advantage in many water supply systems where changes
in the consumption at a tapping point must not affect the pressure at other
tapping points in the system.
54 54
H H
Q Q
P2 P2
Q Q
η η
Q Q
n n
Q Q
Figure 3.12: Example of proportional-pressure control. Figure 3.13: Example of constant-pressure control.
55 55
3.5. Annual energy consumption H

Like energy labelling of refrigerators and freezers, a corresponding labelling
H max
for pumps exists. This energy label applies for small circulation pumps and
makes it easy for consumers to choose a pump which minimises the power
consumption. The power consumption of a single pump is small but because
the worldwide number of installed pumps is very large, the accumulated en- max { Q . H } ~ P hyd,max
ergy consumption is big. The lowest energy consumption is achieved with
speed regulation of pumps.
Q
The energy label is based on a number of tests showing the annual runtime
and flow of a typical
n circulation pump. The tests result in a load profile defined
QB = Q A ⋅ B (3.1) P1
by a nominal operating
nA point (Q100% ) and a corresponding distribution of the
operating time. P100%
2
n  Phyd,max
The nominal H A ⋅  B  point is the point on the pump curve where the
HB = operating (3.2)product
 nA 
of Q and H is the highest. The same flow point also refers to P100%, see figure
3.14. Figure 3.15 shows
 n B the time distribution for each flow point.
3
PB = PA ⋅   (3.3)
 nA  Q100% Q
The representative power consumption is found by reading the power Figure 3.14: Load curve.
2
consumption at the different  n B operating points and multiplying this with
NPSH B = NPSH  
A⋅  (3.4)
the time expressed in percent.
n A 
Flow % Time %
H
PL,avg = 0.06 ⋅ P100% + 0.15 ⋅ P75% + 0.35 ⋅ P50% + 0.44 ⋅ P25% (3.5) 100 6 H max
75 15
PL,avg
[−] H 50 35
EEI = (3.6)
PRef P100% 25 44
P75%
PFigure
50% 3.15: Load profile.
P25%
Q25% Q50% Q75% Q100% Q H

Q100%
Q75%
Q50%
Q25%
56 56
nB
QB = Q A ⋅ (3.1)
nA
3.6 Energy efficiency index (EEI) 4000
In 2003 a study of anmajor 2

part of the circulation pumps on the market was
Reference power [W]

 3000
H
conducted. = H ⋅ 
B TheA purpose
B
 (3.2)
 n  was to create a frame of reference for a representa-
 A 2000
tive power consumption for a specific pump. The result is the curve shown
3
in figure 3.16. Based n on the study the magnitude of a representative power 1000
PB = PA ⋅  B  (3.3)
consumption of an  n average
A 
pump at a given Phyd,max can be read from the 0
curve. 1 10 100 1000 10000
2 Hydraulic power [W]
n 
NPSH B = NPSH A ⋅  B  (3.4) Figure 3.16: Reference power as function
The energy index is defined  n A as
 the relation between the representative of Phyd,max.
power (PL,avg) for the pump and the reference curve. The energy index can
be interpreted as an expression of how much energy a specific pump uses
PL,avg = 0.06 ⋅ P100% + 0.15 ⋅ P75% + 0.35 ⋅ P50% + 0.44 ⋅ P25% (3.5)
compared to average pumps on the market in 2003.
Klasse
A EEI 0.40
PL,avg B 0.40 < EEI 0.60
EEI = [−] (3.6) C 0.60 < EEI 0.80
PRef D 0.80 < EEI 1.00
E 1.00 < EEI 1.20
F 1.20 < EEI 1.40
G 1.40 < EEI
If the pump index is no more than 0.40, it can be labelled energy class A. If the
pump has an index between 0.40 and 0.60, it is labelled energy class B. The Figure 3.17: Energy classes.
scale continues to class G, see figure 3.17.
Speed regulated pumps minimize the energy consumption by adjusting the

pump to the required performance. For calculation of the energy index, a ref-
erence control curve corresponding to a system characteristic for a heating
system is used, see figure 3.18. The pump performance is regulated through
the speed and it intersects the reference control curve instead of following
the maximum curve at full speed. The result is a lower power consumption
in the regulated flow points and thereby a better energy index. H
Hmax
Q100% , H100%
n100%
n75%
n50%
n25%
H100%
Q 0% ,
2
Q
Figure 3.18: Reference control curve.

Q100%
Q75%
Q50%
Q25%
57 57
3.7 Summary
In chapter 3 we have studied the correlation between pump and system
from a single circulation pump to water supply systems with several parallel
coupled multi-stage pumps.
We have described the most common regulation methods from an energy

efficient view point and introduced the energy index term.
58 58
Chapter 4
Pump theory
4.1 Velocity triangles

4.2 Euler’s pump equation
4.3 Blade form and pump curve
4.4 Usage of Euler’s pump equation C2
4.5 Affinity rules U2

C2m
C2u α2 W2
4.6 Inlet rotation
β2
4.7 Slip 2
W1
4.8 Specific speed of a pump
4.9 Summary C1m
β1
α1 1
U1
r1 r2
4. Pump theory
4. Pump theory
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the theoretical foundation of en-
ergy conversion in a centrifugal pump. Despite advanced calculation meth-
ods which have seen the light of day in the last couple of years, there is still
much to be learned by evaluating the pump’s performance based on funda-
mental and simple models.
When the pump operates, energy is added to the shaft in the form of me-
chanical energy. In the impeller it is converted to internal (static pressure)
and kinetic energy (velocity). The process is described through Euler’s pump
equation which is covered in this chapter. By means of velocity triangles for
the flow in the impeller in- and outlet, the pump equation can be interpreted
and a theoretical loss-free head and power consumption can be calculated.
Velocity triangles can also be used for prediction of the pump’s performance
in connection with changes of e.g. speed, impeller diameter and width.
4.1 Velocity triangles

For fluid flowing through an impeller it is possible to determine the absolute
velocity (C) as the sum of the relative velocity (W) with respect to the im-
peller, i.e. the tangential velocity of the impeller (U). These velocity vectors
are added through vector addition, forming velocity triangles at the in- and
outlet of the impeller. The relative and absolute velocity are the same in the 2
stationary part of the pump.

Cr Cm
1
Ca
The flow in the impeller can be described by means of velocity triangles,
which state the direction and magnitude of the flow. The flow is three-di-
mensional and in order to describe it completely, it is necessary to make two
plane illustrations. The first one is the meridional plane which is an axial Figure 4.1: Meridional cut.
cut through the pump’s centre axis, where the blade edge is mapped into
the plane, as shown in figure 4.1. Here index 1 represents the inlet and index
2 represents the outlet. As the tangential velocity is perpendicular to this
plane, only absolute velocities are present in the figure. The plane shown in
figure 4.1 contains the meridional velocity, Cm, which runs along the channel
and is the vector sum of the axial velocity, Ca, and the radial velocity, Cr.
60 60
C2
Figure 4.2a: Velocity triangles
positioned at the impeller inlet W2 C2
C2m
and outlet. U2 2 C2m
β2 α2
C2U α2 W2 W2 C2
β2 U2 C2m C2U
β2 α2
2 U2 C2U
W1
C1m
1
β1 1
α1
U1 W1
C1m
ω Wβ1 1 α1
U1 C1m
r1 r2 β1 α1
Figure
U1 4.2b: Velocity triangles
The second plane is defined by the meridional velocity and the tangential
velocity.
An example of velocity triangles is shown in figure 4.2. Here U describes the

impeller’s tangential velocity while the absolute velocity C is the fluid’s velocity W1 C1
compared to the surroundings. The relative velocity W is the fluid velocity com- C1m
pared to the rotating impeller. The angles α and β describe the fluid’s relative W1 C1
and absolute flow angles respectively compared to the tangential direction. U1 C1m C1U
Velocity triangles can be illustrated in two different ways and both ways are U1 C1U
shown in figure 4.2a and b. As seen from the figure the same vectors are re-
peated. Figure 4.2a shows the vectors compared to the blade, whereas figure
4.2b shows the vectors forming a triangle.
By drawing the velocity triangles at inlet and outlet, the performance curves
of the pump can be calculated by means of Euler’s pump equation which
will be described in section 4.2.
61 61
4. Pump theory
4.1.1 Inlet
Usually it is assumed that the flow at the impeller inlet is non-rotational.
This means that α1=90°. The triangle is drawn as shown in figure 4.2 position
1, and C1m is calculated from the flow and the ring area in the inlet.
The ring area can be calculated in different ways depending on impeller type
(radial impeller or semi-axial impeller), see figure 4.3. For a radial impeller
this is:
A1 = 2 π ⋅ r1 ⋅ b1 [m2] (4.1)
b2
where
 r1 , hub + r1 , shroud 
π ⋅ 
1 = 2 ⋅position
r1 = TheAradial of the impeller’s [m2edge
 ⋅ b1 inlet ] [m] (4.2) Blade
 2 
b1 = The blade’s height at the inlet [m] r2
Q m
C 1 m = impeller [ s ] (4.3)
and forAa semi-axial A 1 [m2] this is:
= 2 π ⋅ r ⋅ bimpeller (4.1)
1 1 1 b1
U1 = 2 ⋅ π ⋅ r1⋅ r1n, hub=+rr11⋅, shroud ω [ m s]

r1
(4.4)
A1 = 2 ⋅ π ⋅  60  ⋅ b [ m 2
] (4.2)
A1 = 2 π ⋅Cr1 ⋅ b1 [m22]  1 (4.1)

tan β1 = 1m
[ ] (4.5)
Q impeller
Umust m
A111 m==2 π⋅ π⋅ rA⋅1 ⋅ b1 [[ms ]]
The entire flow 1 r pass + r through  this ring area. C is then calculated
C 1 , hub 21 , shroud
 ⋅ b1 [m2] 1m (4.3)
(4.1)
(4.2) b2
from: 
1
2
A2 = 2 π ⋅ r2 ⋅ b2 [m2]  (4.6)
 r1n, hub + r1 , shroud  m W2 C2
UA 11 == 22⋅Q π
⋅ π ⋅ r⋅1⋅ =m r1 ⋅ ω [⋅ sb1] [ m 2
] (4.4)
C 1m = impeller
 60 [ ]  (4.2)
(4.3) r2, shroud C2m
Blade
A1 r2 , hub + rs22 , shroud   βb2 rα2, hub

r1, shroud
 ⋅ b2 [m2]
2
A 2 = 2 ⋅QπC⋅1 m
1
(4.7)
tan β1 = impeller  n [[m 2 ]]  m (4.5) U2 r1, hubC2U
C =
U11 m= 2 ⋅ πvelocity
The tangential U
⋅A r1 ⋅ U= sequals r1 ⋅ ω the [ sproduct
] (4.3)
of radius and angular(4.4)
frequency:
1 60 1
Q impeller m 2 Figure 4.3: Radial impeller at the top,
UC22m=
A
tan 1 β2
= =2 π⋅=π⋅CA ⋅rr1221m⋅⋅ bn2 [ [= s[m]r1]]⋅ ω [ms ] (4.8)
(4.6)
(4.4)
(4.5) semi-axial impeller at the bottom.
1
U 60
A1 = 2 π ⋅ r1 ⋅ b1 n [m ] 1 2
(4.1)
where U = 2 ⋅ πC⋅1rm r⋅
2 2 , hub[ =22,]
+ r rshroud
2⋅ω
 [m ] (4.9)
+-12]r1], shroud ⋅ b2 [m ] 2
tan 2 β = s 2
π⋅ π⋅Ur⋅21⋅ rb160
A22 ==221frequency
A (4.5)
ω = Angular [
[s m (4.7)
(4.6)
A1 = 2 ⋅ π ⋅ 
n = RotationalCspeed [min2 ]
 2, hub
-1
  ⋅ b1 [ m] (4.2)
2m  m 
WA22==2 πQ impeller⋅ r2 ⋅ rb
⋅2  2 [m
[ [s+m]r2,]shroud  ⋅ b [m2]
2
(4.10)
(4.6)
AC22m==2sin ⋅Qπβimpeller
2 , hub
s[m ]  (4.7)
(4.8)
W1
When the C =
1 mvelocity A 2 triangle ] 2
2s has been drawn, see figure 4.4, based(4.3) on α1, C1m C1m
A1 r + r2 , shroud  m β1 α1
C n [m calculated.
]
and U1,A Uthe = 2relative ⋅  flow r [⋅ ω]β⋅1 [can
angle m b2 ] be Without inlet rotation
2 , hub 2
22 ==2 Q
⋅ ππ −
⋅U (4.7)
C 2 ⋅ r2 ⋅ n m=
2m
[β=s2 ]2r1 ⋅2ωs  [mss ]
(4.11)
(4.9)
(C1 = C1mUC)212U= =2 ⋅becomes:
this
m πimpeller
⋅ r1tan ⋅ 60 (4.8)
(4.4) U1
A 2 60
Figure 4.4: Velocity triangle at inlet.
Q
C2(impeller
C
WU22=2m==βm
TC
tan =21 ⋅=⋅ π r2⋅1⋅rmC
m
2⋅ U −
n[m r[1 =]⋅ C]r1U⋅)ω [Nm [ms ] (4.12)
(4.8)
(4.10)
(4.5)
(4.9)
sin βA U2212 60 s 2
n m
U2 = = 22πC ⋅π ⋅ r2⋅ C ⋅b2 mm=2 r2 ⋅ m ω [s]
C
WA 2 P=
2U22
= U 2⋅mrT
2 − 2 ⋅ ω 60
2 [ [s
m[W] ] [ s ]
(4.9)
(4.6)
(4.13)
(4.11)
(4.10)
sin β2 tan β
= m . ω . (2r2 . C2U − r1 . C1U )
C  r2 , hubm+ r2 , shroud 
W22 ==2=⋅ 2πm m . ω[ .sr2]. C2U − b. [m2]
 ⋅[.Nm
⋅ (βr2−⋅⋅C2CU(2m
62 A (4.10)
] r1 2 C]1U )
62
T = =msin
C U − r1 ⋅ C1U[)mω (4.7)
(4.12)
(4.11) W1 C1
A1 = 2 π⋅ π⋅ r⋅1 ⋅ b1 [m2]  ⋅ b1 [m2] (4.2)
(4.1)
 2 
r1 ⋅ br11, hub[m + r21 , shroud 
A1 =
A
C 1m
= 2 πQ⋅impeller
1 =2 ⋅ π ⋅   [ms2]]  ⋅ b1 [m2] (4.1)
(4.2)
(4.3)
A1 
r +
 1 , hub 1 , shroud  r
A = 2 Q⋅ πimpeller ⋅  n m
[  ⋅m b1 [m2] (4.2)
C111 m= =
U 2 ⋅ π ⋅ r ⋅ = r 2]⋅ ω [ ]
A
4.1.2 Outlet
1 = 2 π ⋅ r 1
A1 1 60⋅ b 1 [ m 2
s 1]  s (4.3)
(4.4)
(4.1)
Q Cimpeller m
As withCthe1 m β=
1=
tan
U
inlet,1 mthe
212⋅=π ⋅ ⋅A r⋅1⋅ r1n, hub= [[+srr121]]⋅, shroud
velocity triangle at the outlet is drawn as(4.3)
ω [⋅m s]
shown in
[m2] area is calculated(4.4)
(4.5)
1For[m ]
A
figure 4.2 = π
= 2 π ⋅Ur11⋅2.b60
A11 position 1 a2radial  b1
impeller, outlet (4.2)
as:
(4.1)
  m
C n rr122]⋅ ω [ s ]
A11 ==β22
U
tan ⋅π
=Qπ⋅⋅rr11m⋅⋅br =
11, hub[ [m +m (4.4)
2 [m ]
(4.5)
(4.1)
A21 m==2
A
C Ur⋅211⋅ b60
=12π⋅ π⋅impeller s ]
1 , shroud
 ⋅ b1 [m2] (4.6)
(4.3)
(4.2)
CA 1
r + 2 r 
1 , hub[
+ r22,]]shroud   ⋅m
 
A1 ==β212π=Q⋅ π⋅Ur⋅ ⋅ rb
1m
tan
A 2n, hub[
2 =m
1 , shroud
b1 [m2] (4.5)
(4.2)
and forUAa ==
2 semi
C11 m =
2 22 ⋅ ⋅π π ⋅
axial ⋅ r21⋅ impeller
impeller
1 [ m 2
r
s 1] ⋅ ωit 
is:
 ⋅
 [
b s
2 ] [m 2
] (4.6)
(4.7)
(4.4)
(4.3)
A1 60 2 
Q
, 2hub[ +mr ]
m
C 21 m==β2=2π=⋅ π⋅Cimpeller
r12m⋅ rb 2
A  (4.6)
A
tan
U 2= 2 1Q ⋅ π ⋅ ⋅Ar ⋅ 2n m[ sr2,]⋅shroud
= ω  ⋅ [bm 2 ] [m ]
2 (4.3)
(4.7)
(4.5)
C2 m = U 1 60[ s ]2
1 impeller 1 1 1
 s
(4.4)
(4.8)
A 2 r2n + r  m
A12 ==22Q
U ⋅⋅ππC⋅ ⋅in r ⋅ , hub 2 , shroud
= r12 ⋅ ωway  ⋅ [b2sfor ] [m ] 2
(4.7)
(4.4)
C2m is calculated
U222m=
tan
A
C ⋅ ⋅r121rm⋅ the
=β=221 π⋅=πimpeller b60
⋅ 2 [ [m
nm same
= 2 ]r ⋅ ω as
] [ m ] the inlet: (4.5)
(4.6)
(4.8)
(4.9)
U s s
CA121m 60
2 2
tan β1 Q = impellerr m [ ] (4.5)

Ur⋅ 1⋅ b n[ [s+m]r22,]shroud  m [m2]
U222m===22πC
C ⋅ [ ] (4.8)
2 , hub
A ⋅⋅ ππ ⋅ r ⋅ m = r ⋅ ω  ⋅ b s (4.6)
(4.7)
(4.9)
W 2 = 2 mA 2 60 [ s ]2
2 2 2 2 2
 (4.10)
A2 = 2sin π ⋅βr22 ⋅ rb2n [+mr2] [ms ] [m2] (4.6)
U2 = 2 Q ⋅ π ⋅ r2 ⋅2 , hub =2 , rshroud
C 2 ⋅ ω (4.9)
A = 2 ⋅ 2πm ⋅  60m  ⋅ b
C2 2m== velocity
The tangential
W 2 impeller
 C2 m[ sU]2is calculated m  2 from the following: (4.7)
(4.10)
(4.8)
C2U = sin U 2βA−22 r2 , hub + r2 , shroud [ s ] (4.11)
A 2 = 2 C⋅ 2πm ⋅ tan βm2  ⋅ b2 [m ] 2
(4.7)
W =2 Q C n[ m s ]2 r ⋅ m  [m ] (4.10)
U 2=
C2 m ==sin
C 2 ⋅ π ⋅
impeller
U β−2 60
r 2 ⋅ 2 [s] [s]
m = 2 ω s (4.9)
(4.8)
T 2U= mQ⋅ (2rA2 ⋅2Ctan 2U −βr21 ⋅ C1U ) [Nm] (4.11)
(4.12)
m
[ sdesign ] mphase,
C2 m = C impeller Cthe2n
(4.8) value
In the beginning
C
U2U
W 2= =2 ⋅Uπ
= 22mA− ⋅ of 2r2 ⋅ [
mm
=] r2 [⋅ ω s ] [Nm [ms ]β2 is assumed to have the(4.11) same
(4.9)
T = msin
as the blade2 ⋅ (βr2 ⋅ Ctan
angle. 60 s
2U −βrrelative
The 21 ⋅ C1U ) velocity ] can then be calculated from:
(4.10)
(4.12)
U2 P=2 2 =⋅ π ⋅Tr2⋅ ⋅ω [= W]r ⋅ ω [ ]
2 n m (4.13)
s (4.9)
C . 60 . m .
2
− r1[Nm . C1U])
T =2 =m=⋅ (r2m
W 2 m ⋅ C2CUω2 m− [ (rr12]⋅ CC12UU)m (4.12)
C2UP= sin U 2β−T ⋅ ω s[W] [ s ] (4.10)
(4.11)
2 = =C2 m m 2 tan . ( ωβ. 2r2 . C2U − ω . r1 . C1U ) (4.13)
W 2 = = m . ω[. (sr ]. C − r . C ) m (4.10)
= βm . ( U2 . 2C2U 2−Um U11 . C11UU)
and C2UCas:P= sin = 2T ⋅ C 2 m [W]
[ ]
T 2U= m=⋅ (2r2mU − ⋅ C2. U(.ωω −.rr12.⋅.CC12UU)−s ω[.Nm . ] (4.13)
(4.11)
(4.12)
β2 .C2U − U1.r.1C1CU1)U )
2
= Q .tan ρ
. (U .
= m .Cω2 m (.r2 C2Um − r1 . C1U )
C2U = =U 2 −m ( U2 C2U − [ U]1 C1U ) (4.11)
= m tan. ( ωβ. 2r2 . C2U −s ω . r1 . C1U )
T =P m
Phyd2= = ∆⋅ p(rtot
= 2Q T⋅ C.⋅ ρ 2QωU. (− Ur2[1[W.⋅ C]]12UU )− U1 . C1U )
W [ Nm ] (4.12)
(4.14)
(4.13) W2 C2
= m . ( U2 . C2U − U1 . C1U )
HerebyTthe = m ⋅ (r2 ⋅ C. 2U. − r12.⋅ C12UU) 1[Nm
velocity
= m . triangle
ω . ( r . C at − ther . C ]
outlet) has been determined and
(4.12)can now C2m
∆ =
p Q ⋅ ρQ ( U2[WC]2U − U1 . C11UU ) β2 α2
T ⋅ .[ω ω]. r[2W

P
be drawn, = ∆ p . C]2U − ω . r1 . C1U ) (4.14)
Hhyd=P2see figure m(4.5.
tot
ρ=⋅ g m (4.15)
tot (4.13) U2 C2U
. (ωU.2(.r2C.2CU 2−U −Ur11 . CC11UU))
PhydP2=∆p =
∆tot
= p totm T⋅Q ω [[W W]] (4.14)
(4.13)
..[m (]⋅U
Figure 4.5: Velocity triangle at outlet.
H =
Phyd =ρ=Q⋅ g⋅ Q mH .⋅ρ ρ
(.ω .gr . .
= C m −⋅ HU
ω .
⋅ .
rg .
C C [)W) ] (4.15)
(4.16)
= m ω . (2r22 . C222UUU − r11. C 1 1U)1U
1U
∆p tot m .. ( U2. . C . 1.U )
H= = [m ( ω] r2 . 2CU2U−−Uω 1 .C
Phyd P = ρ= ∆Q⋅ pg⋅Pm
= H ⋅
.⋅ Q ρ. ⋅ g[ W
. = ] m ⋅ H
r C )
⋅ .g1C 1[)UW]
(4.15)
(4.16)
(4.14)
hyd hyd = tot Q ρ ( U C − U (4.17)
= m . ( U2 . C2U − U1 . C1U )
2 2 2 U 1 1 U
m ⋅ H ⋅ g =. m ⋅ (U2 ⋅ C2U − U. 1 ⋅ C1U )

P P =∆p =Qtot⋅ Q ρρ. ( ⋅Ug2 .= Cm−⋅ HU ⋅ gC [)W]
Phyd
H = = ∆ =pP2H ⋅⋅[Qm ] [W]2U 1 1U
(4.16)
(4.17)
(4.14)
2tot⋅ C2U − U1 ⋅ C1U )
hyd ρ (⋅U
hyd (4.15)
63 H= g W1 63
m ⋅ H ⋅ g = mg⋅ (U2 ⋅ C2U − U1 ⋅ C1U )
A1 = 2 ⋅ π ⋅   ⋅ b1 [m2] (4.2)
2
A1 = 2 π ⋅ r1 ⋅ b1 [m ] 2  (4.1)
Q impeller
4. Pump C 1 m =theory
m
 r1 , hub[+sr1], shroud  (4.3)
A1 = 2 ⋅ π A⋅ 1  ⋅ b1 [m2] (4.2)
 22 
A1 ==22⋅ππ⋅⋅rr1 ⋅⋅b1n =
U [mr ]⋅ ω [ms ] (4.1)
(4.4)
1
4.2 Euler’s pumpQ impeller1
60 m1
equation
C 1m = [
 r1 , hubis+sthe
]
r1 , shroud  (4.3)
Euler’s tan
pump CA
equation most [
important ]
2 equation in connection with
A =
1 β1 =2 ⋅ π 1
1⋅ m
 [ 2] 
 1⋅ b m (4.2)
(4.5) ω
pump design. The U 1equation
 n can be  derived
m in many different ways. The met-
U1 = 2 ⋅ π ⋅ r1 ⋅
60
= r1 ⋅ ω [ s ] (4.4)
hod described Q m
= π here
C 1 m= 2
A
impeller includes a control volume which limits the impeller,
⋅CrA2 ⋅ b2 [[ms2]] (4.3)
(4.6)
the
moment 2
of
tan β1 =momentum 1m 1 equation
[ ] which describes flow forces and velocity
(4.5)
triangles at inletUand n outlet. m
r1
ω  [s] 2
1
U1 = 2 ⋅ π ⋅ r1⋅r2 , hub=+ r21, ⋅shroud (4.4)
A 2 = 2 ⋅ π ⋅  60  ⋅ b2 [m ] (4.7)
A2 = 2 π ⋅Cr2 is ⋅ ban 2 [ m2 ]
2
A control volume imaginary  limited volume which is used (4.6) for setting 1
tan β1 = 1 m
up equilibrium equations.
[ ]The equilibrium equation can be set (4.5) up for tor-
U1 = r1ω
U1
Q impeller m
C
ques, energy =
A 2 = 2 and
2 m [
 r2 , hub s+ ]r2 , shroud 
⋅ πA⋅ 2other flow quantities  ⋅ b2 [m which
2 (4.8)
] are of interest. The(4.7)moment r2 2
⋅ r2 ⋅ b2 [m
A2 = 2 π equation
of momentum is ]
22one  equilibrium equation, linking(4.6)
such mass flow
n m]
U = 2 ⋅
and velocitiesQwith
2 π ⋅ r2 ⋅
impeller = r ⋅ ω [ s
60m diameter. A control volume between 1 and 2, as
2 (4.9) U2 = r2ω
= impeller
C2 mfigure [ s+ ]r2, shroud
 r2is, hub used for
(4.8)
shown inA 2 = 2 ⋅ πA⋅ 2 often
4.6,
 ⋅ b2 an[impeller.
m2] (4.7)
2
C 2 
W 2 = 2 m  n[m s =] r ⋅ ω [m ] (4.10)
U2 = 2sin
The balance ⋅ πβ⋅2 r2 ⋅we are
which s in is a torque balance. The(4.9)
Q impeller 60m interested2 torque (T)
C =
from the drive shaft [ s ] (4.8)
1
2 m
A 2 C2corresponds m]
to the torque originating from the fluid’s
C2U = CU 22m−impeller
m
m [ (4.11)
tann[βs2 ]
flow through
W2 = the with s mass flow m=rQ: (4.10)
m
U2 = 2sin⋅ πβ⋅2 r2 ⋅ = r2 ⋅ ω [ s ] (4.9)
60
T = m ⋅ (r2 ⋅ C2CU − r1 ⋅ C1U )m [Nm] (4.12)
C2U = CU22m− 2 mm [s] (4.11) Figure 4.6: Control volume for an impeller.
W2 = tan[βs2 ] (4.10)
By multiplying sin βthe 2 torque by the angular velocity, an expression for the
P = T ⋅ ω [W] At the same time, radius multiplied (4.13)
shaft power − r1 ⋅ C1U )m [Nm]
T = 2m ⋅(P(r22) ⋅ Cis2CUfound. (4.12) by the
2U = =
angularCvelocity m . ω2 m. (the
U 2 −equals 2[
U−s r]1 . C1U ) velocity, r2w = U2. This results
r2 . Ctangential (4.11) in:
tan β
= m . ( ω . r2 . C2U − ω . r1 . C1U )
2
P2 = T ⋅.ω( U .[C W] (4.13)

T = m=⋅ (r2m ⋅ C2U −2r1 ⋅ C2U1U−) U1 [.Nm C1U ]) (4.12)
= .
m. ρω . . .
. ( U(2r2. CC22UU−−Ur11 .CC11UU))
= Q
= m . ( ω . r2 . C2U − ω . r1 . C1U )
P = m T ⋅ ω [C W] − U . C )
∆p tot ⋅ .Q( U2 [. W
(4.13)
Phyd2= = 2]U 1 1U (4.14)
= m . ω . ( r . C −
= Q . ρ . ( U22. C22UU− U11 . C11UU )r . C )
∆p =tot m . ( ω . r2 . C2U − ω . r1 . C1U )
H =to the
According ρ=⋅ g menergy
[m] equation, the hydraulic power added (4.15) to the fluid
Phyd = ∆p tot ⋅ .Q( U2 [. W C2]U − U1 . C1U ) (4.14)
can be written as the increase in pressure Δptot across the impeller multi-
= Q . ρ . ( U2 . C2U − U1 . C1U )
plied byPhyd pQtot⋅ HQ:⋅ ρ ⋅ g = m ⋅ H ⋅ g [W]
the=∆flow (4.16)
H=
ρ⋅g
[m] (4.15)
Phyd = ∆p tot ⋅ Q [W] (4.14)
Phyd = P2 (4.17)
Phydm=∆⋅ pH
Q ⋅⋅ gH=⋅ m ρ ⋅⋅ (gU= ⋅m ⋅ H ⋅ g
C − U1 ⋅ C1U ) [ W ] (4.16)
H= tot
[m] 2 2U
ρ (⋅Ug ⋅ C − U ⋅ C ) (4.15)
64 Hhyd= = P2
P
2 2U 1 1U
(4.17) 64
g
T =P m= ⋅ (r mT⋅rC⋅ 2⋅ω
ω− (rr2⋅ CC2U) − r1[Nm
Un 1[W]
C1U])
m] (4.12)
U2 =2 2 = ⋅=π 2⋅m 2 . (ω. r = .
1U
r ⋅ ω . [ s.
(4.13)
(4.9)
60 2 C2U − ω r1 C1U )
2
. .
= m ω (r2 C2U − r1 C1U ) . .
= m . ( U2 . C2U − U1 . C1U )
P2 = C m T ⋅ .ω( ω . r[2W . ]2U
. C − ω . r1 . C1U )
W 2 = = 2 mQ . ρ . ([Um
(4.13)
2 ]C2U − U1 C1U )
s . (4.10)
= βm
sin 2
. ( U . . C. − U
ω 2(r2 2CU 2U − r11 C11UU ) . C )
Q.ρ . (.ω ( U. .. C − U . . C. )
Phyd = = ∆p totm⋅ C Q2 m r2[2W]22UU mω1 r1 1CU1U ) (4.14)
The headC2Uis=definedU −
= 2 mtan
as:
. ( U2 . C2U − [ sU] . C ) (4.11)
β2 1 1U
Phyd =∆p ∆p tot .⋅ Q. [W . ] . (4.14)
H = =tot Q ρ[m(]U2 C2U − U1 C1U ) (4.15)
T = mρ ⋅⋅ (gr2 ⋅ C2U − r1 ⋅ C1U ) [Nm] (4.12)
∆ptot
Phyd= =ρ∆⋅ pgtot ⋅ [Qm] [W]
H (4.15)
(4.14)
and thePhyd
expression
= Q ⋅ H ⋅for ρ ⋅ hydraulic
g = m ⋅ H power ⋅ g [Wcan ] therefore be transcribed (4.16) to:
P2 ∆p = T ⋅ ω [W] (4.13)
Phyd= =ρ=Q⋅tot
H ⋅ H ⋅ [mρ ]
⋅ g =
Phyd =gP2m . ω . (r2 . C2U − r1 . C1U )
m ⋅ H ⋅ g [W ] (4.16)
(4.15)
(4.17)
= ⋅ gm=. m ( ω⋅.(rU . ⋅ 2CU − ω
2 C − .Ur1free,
. C1U ))
If the flowm is⋅ H=assumed to 2 be2 U loss 1 ⋅ C1Uthen the hydraulic and(4.17)
mechanical
PhydPhyd
= =Q H ⋅. (ρU⋅ g. C= m−⋅UH .⋅Cg )[W]
⋅P2m (4.16)
power can be (equated:U ⋅ C − U1 ⋅ C1U ) 2 2 U 1 1 U
H =⋅ =H ⋅2gQ=. 2ρUm
m . (gU⋅ (U. 2C⋅ C2−U U − U. 1C⋅ C)1U )
2 2U 1 1U
Phyd = P
(U22⋅ C2U − U1 ⋅ C1U ) (4.17)
H=
U12⋅ ([UW2 ]⋅ C2U −WU
Phydm=⋅ ∆ Hp⋅Utot
g22 =⋅−Q m g 2 ⋅C 2)
1 1− W12U C22 − C12 (4.14)
H = + + [m] (4.18)
(U2 ⋅22C⋅2gU −2 U1 ⋅ C1U ) 2⋅g 2⋅g
H∆ =p U − U W 2 − W22 C22Dynamic
− C12 head
H == Statictot
ofρ
[m1g]
head2as consequence
the⋅ centrifugal
g 2 ⋅ g force
+ Static 1head as consequence + [m] (4.15)
(4.18)
2 ⋅ g change
of the velocity 2⋅g
This is the equation known asthrough Euler’s equation, and it expresses the impel-
the impeller
Static head2as consequence2 2 2
U − U Static head
W − Was consequence
C 2Dynamic
− C 2 head outlet.
ler’s head
P
at tangential
Hhyd= of= the 2
⋅ H ⋅ ρforce
Qcentrifugal
1 and absolute
⋅ g = +m ⋅throughof the 1velocity velocities
H ⋅ gthe impeller[2
]
change
W + in2inlet1 and [m] (4.16)
(4.18)
If the cosine relations 2 ⋅ g are applied2 ⋅to g the velocity 2 ⋅ gtriangles, Euler’s pump
equation can Staticbe headwritten
as consequence as theStatic sum headof the three contributions:
as consequence Dynamic head
Phyd
of the =centrifugal
P2 force of the velocity change (4.17)
through the impeller
m ⋅ H ⋅ g = m ⋅ (U2 ⋅ C2U of
• Static head as consequence
− Uthe
1 ⋅ Ccentrifugal
1U ) force
• Static head( U ⋅ C − U ⋅ C )
H = as 2 consequence
2U 1 1U of the velocity change through the impeller
• Dynamic head g
U22 − U12 W12 − W22 C22 − C12

H = + + [m] (4.18)
2⋅g 2⋅g 2⋅g
Static head as consequence Static head as consequence Dynamic head
of the centrifugal force of the velocity change
through the impeller
If there is no flow through the impeller and it is assumed that there is no

inlet rotation, then the head is only determined by the tangential velocity
based on (4.17) where C2U = U2:
U 22
H0 = [m] (4.19)
g
65 65
4. Pump theory
When designing a pump, it is often assumed that there is no inlet rotation

meaning that C1U equeals zero.
U 2 ⋅ C 2U
H = [m] (4.20)
g
F =m⋅ ⋅v [N] (4.21)

4.3 Blade shape and pump curve
∆I = m⋅ ⋅ v = ρ ⋅ A ⋅ v 2 [N] (4.22)
β2 β2 β2 β2 β2 β2
β2 β2 β2
∆I = F [N] β 1 β1 β1 β1 β1
(4.23)
β1
β1 β1 β1
2
U U2
H= − 2
⋅Q [m] (4.21)
g π ⋅ D2 ⋅ b2 ⋅ g ⋅ tan( β2 )
�2�>90 o �2�>90 o�2�>90 o β2 = 90o β2 = 90βo2 = 90o β2 < 90o β2 < 90βo 2 < 90o
U 2 ⋅ C 2U
H =shapes
Figure 4.7: Blade depending[m]on outlet angle (4.20)
g  nB   (4.22)
QB = QA ⋅   
 nA  
If it is assumed
F =m ⋅ ⋅that
v nthere
[N2 ] is no inlet rotation (C1U =0), a combination of Eul-
(4.21)
B   Scaling of
B = HA ⋅  (4.17)
er’s pumpHequation   and equation (4.6), (4.8) and (4.11) show that the
nA   rotational speed
head varies ∆I = ⋅
linearly
m ⋅ v =withρ3 ⋅Athe
⋅ v flow,
2
[Nand
] that the slope depends on the (4.22)outlet
angle β2: PB = PA ⋅  nB  
∆I = F [Nn]A  (4.23)
U2 2 U 2 (4.23)
H = 2 D − ⋅b   ⋅ Q [m] (4.21) H
Q B = Q A g⋅  B2π ⋅BD2⋅ b2 ⋅ g ⋅ tan( β2 ) 0°
 DA ⋅ bA   >9 es
r b2 blad
H fo s w ept
2  war
d -
 D   Geometric For
HB= HA ⋅  B   H for b2 = 90°
Figure 4.7 and 4.8  DAillustrate
 scaling
the connection between the theoretical pump
 nB   (4.22) H fo
Q = Q ⋅
AD n⋅shape  rb
curve and theB blade b  indicated at β2.
4 2 < 90
Back °
PB = PA ⋅  B4 AB   war
d-sw
 DAn⋅ bA2  Scaling of
ept
blade
s
Real pumpHcurves are,B however, curved due to different losses, slip, inlet
= H A⋅   rotational speed
nfurther
B Q
rotation, etc., This is A
 discussed in chapter 5. Figure 4.8: Theoretical pump curves calcu-
3 
 nB   lated based on formula (4.21).
UPBB =CPm,BA ⋅ n C (4.24)
= = Au,B  
UA C m,A Cu,A
 DB2 ⋅bB   (4.23)

B=
QU  2 
B Q An⋅B ⋅ D2,B (4.25)
=  D ⋅b 
UA nA ⋅ DA2,A 2 A 

66  D   Geometric 66
HB= HA ⋅  B  
4.4 Usage of Euler’s pump equation
There is a close connection between the impeller geometry, Euler’s pump
equation and the velocity triangles which can be used to predict the impact
of changing the impeller geometry on the head.
The individual part of Euler’s pump equation can be identified in the outlet
velocity triangle, see figure 4.9.
W2 C2m C2
β2 α2
Figure 4.9: Euler’s pump equation and the

matching vectors on velocity triangle
1
H= ⋅ U2 ⋅ C2U
g
This can be used for making qualitative estimates of the effect of changing
impeller geometry or rotational speed.
67 67
4. Pump theory
In the following, the effect of reducing the outlet width b2 on the velocity W2,B
C2,B
triangles is discussed. From e.g. (4.6) and (4.8), the velocity C2m can be seen
to be inversely proportional to b2. The size of C2m therefore increases when b2
W2 C2
decreases. U2 in equation (4.9) is seen to be independent of b2 and remains C2m
C2m,B
constant. The blade angle b2 does not change when changing b2. β2
U C2U C2U,B
The velocity triangle can be plotted in the new situation, as shown in figure Figure 4.10: Velocity triangle at changed
outlet width b2.
4.10. The figure shows that the velocities C2U and CU ⋅ C decrease and that
will
H = 2 2 2U [m] (4.20)
W2 will increase. The head will then decrease according g to equation (4.21).
The power which is proportional to the flow multiplied by the head will H
decrease correspondingly. The head at zero Fflow, =m⋅ ⋅see [N] (4.20), is
v formula (4.21)
proportional to U2 and is therefore not changed in this case. Figure 4.11
2
shows a sketch of the pump curves before and∆after

I =m ⋅the = ρ ⋅ A ⋅ v 2 [N]
⋅ vchange. (4.22)
Similar analysis can be made when the blade ∆form [N]

I = Fis changed, see section (4.23)
U 2 ⋅ C 2U
4.3, and
H by= scaling of both [m] speed and geometry, seeUsection2 4.5.(4.20)
U2
[m]
g H= 2 − ⋅Q (4.21)
g π ⋅ D2 ⋅ b2 ⋅ g ⋅ tan( β2 )
4.5 Affinity rules
F =m
By means
⋅ ⋅v [N] affinity rules, the consequences of certain
of the so-called (4.21) changes W
Q
in the pump geometry and speed can be predicted with much precision. Cm
⋅ ⋅ v = ρ ⋅ A ⋅ v 2 [N]
∆ I = are
m n   (4.22) Figure 4.11: Change of head curve as
The rules all derived under the condition that Q B =the ⋅  B  (4.22)
Q Avelocity triangles are consequence of changed b2.
 nA  
geometrically
∆I = F [similar
N] before and after the change. In the formulas below,
nB  and
2 (4.23)
Scaling of
derived in section 4.5.1, index A refers to the originalH = geometry
H ⋅
A 
index to
U 2
U
B
 nA   rotationalB speed
the scaled
H = geometry. ⋅ Q [m] 
g
2
− 2
π ⋅ D2 ⋅ b2 ⋅ g ⋅ tan( β2 )  nB  
3 U
(4.21) CU
PB = PA ⋅  
 nA 
 D 2 ⋅b   (4.23)
n   (4.22)
Q B = Q A ⋅  B2 B  
QB = QA ⋅  B  
 nA    DA ⋅ bA  

n   Scaling of
2 2
 DB   Geometric
HB = HA ⋅  B   HB= HA ⋅   
nA   rotational speed  DA   scaling
CB
n    D 4 ⋅b  
3
PB = PA ⋅  B   PB = PA ⋅  B4 B  
 nA   DA ⋅ bA   WB WA
Cm,B Cm,A
CA
β2
 D 2 ⋅b   (4.23) UB UA CU,B CU,A

Q B = Q A ⋅  B2 B  
 DA ⋅ bA   UB C m,B Cu,B (4.24)
68  = = 68
2
 DB   Geometric UA C m,A Cu,A
Figure 4.12 shows an example of the changed head and power curves for a
pump where the impeller diameter is machined to different radii in order to
match different motor sizes at the same speed. The curves are shown based
on formula (4.26).
H [m] η [%]
ø260 mm
ø247 mm
20
ø234 mm
ø221 mm
16 80
70
12 60
50
8 40
30
4 20
10
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 Q (m 3/h)
P2 [kW]
3
2,5
1,5
0,5 Figure 4.12: Examples of curves for

machined impellers at the same speed but
different radii.
69 69
HQ= =UQ2 A− ⋅    U2 ⋅ Q [m]
2,B
(4.21)
B n
g  πA⋅D2⋅ b2 ⋅ g ⋅ tan( β2 )
nB   Scaling of W
2
4. PumpBtheory
H = H ⋅
A    2 C2
nA   rotational speed C2m
C2m,B
 nB   (4.22)β 2
3
PBB = Q
Q PAA⋅   
nA   U C2U C2U,B
4.5.1 Derivation ofthe 
affinity rules
2
The affinity method nisvery  Scaling
preciseofwhen adjusting the speed up and down
HB = HA D ⋅ 2 ⋅bB    (4.23)
and when using BnA B
geometrical rotational
scaling speed
in all directions (3D scaling). The affini-
Q B = Q A ⋅  2  

ty rules can also be nusedD ⋅ b 3 
A
 when wanting to change outlet width and outlet
A
PB =scaling).
PA D ⋅ 2B 
diameter (2D  B n A  Geometric
HB= HA ⋅   
 DA   scaling
When the velocity bB  
 DBB4 ⋅triangles are(4.23)
similar, then the relation between the
2
Q
P = Q
P
corresponding sides
B A⋅ ⋅ 
  
inthe velocity triangles is the same before and after
 DAA ⋅ bA  
B A 42
a change of all components, 2  see figure 4.13. The velocities hereby relate to
 DB   Geometric
H
each other =
B as:H A ⋅    scaling
 DA  
UB C m,B  D4 C ⋅bu,B  (4.24)
PBU= P=A C ⋅  =B4 C B  
m,AD ⋅ bu,A 
A
 A A
UB nB ⋅ D2,B W (4.25)
= velocity is expressed by the speed n and the impeller’s outer
C
The tangential
U nA ⋅ D2,A
diameterUDAB 2. The
C expression
= m,B = u,B
C above for the relation between components
(4.24)
m C
UA after
before and C m,AtheCchange
u,A of the impeller diameter can be inserted:
UB nB ⋅ D2,B (4.25)
=
UA nA ⋅ D2,A
U CU
Q = A 2 ⋅ C2m= π ⋅ D2 ⋅ b2 ⋅ C2m (4.26)
2
Q B π ⋅ D2,B ⋅ b2,B C2m,B π ⋅D2,B ⋅ b2,B ⋅ nB ⋅ D2,B  D2,B  b2,B nB
= ⋅ = =  ⋅ ⋅
Q A π ⋅ D2,A ⋅ b2,A C2m,A π ⋅D2,A⋅ b2,A⋅ nA⋅ D2,A  D2,A  b2,A nA
Q = A 2 ⋅ C2m= π ⋅ D2 ⋅ b2 ⋅ C2m (4.26)

2
Q πU⋅ D⋅ C⋅2bU,A C π ⋅D2,B ⋅ b2,B ⋅ nB ⋅ D2,B  D2,B  b2,B nB
H B== 2,A 2,B 2,B
⋅ 2m,B = =  ⋅ ⋅ (4.27)
Q A π ⋅ D2,A ⋅ b2,A C2m,A π ⋅D2,A⋅ b2,A⋅ nA⋅ D2,A  D2,ACB b2,A nA
g
2 2
HB U2,B ⋅ C2U,B ⋅ g U2,B ⋅ C2U,BWB nB⋅ D2,BW ⋅ nB ⋅ D2,B D2,B  nB  C
= = = A =   ⋅   A Figure 4.13: Velocity triangle
HA U2,A ⋅ C2U,A ⋅ g U2,A ⋅ C2U,A nA⋅ D2,A⋅βnA ⋅ DC2,A m,B
D2,ACm,A
 nA  at scaled pump.
2
U ⋅C
H = 2,A g 2U,A UB UA CU,B CU,A (4.27)
P = Q ⋅ ρ ⋅ U 2 ⋅ C2 U 2 (4.28)
2
HB U2,B ⋅ C2U,B ⋅ g U2,B ⋅ C2U,B nB⋅ D2,B ⋅ nB ⋅ D2,B D2,B  nB 
= = = =  ⋅ 4 
U ⋅nC⋅ D ⋅ nQ⋅ D H D D   nbA2,B nB 
3
⋅ ρ⋅⋅CU22,B
PBA QUB2,A
H U,A ⋅⋅ C
g2U,BU2,AQ⋅ CB 2U,A
= = ⋅ 2,B A 2U,B2,A= A B ⋅2,A B = 2,A2,B  ⋅ 
PA QA ⋅ ρ ⋅ U2,A ⋅ C2U,A Q A U2,A ⋅ C2U,A Q A HA  D2,A  b2,A nA 
70 70
UB  DA
C m,B ⋅ bu,B
C A
 (4.24)
UB =
U C
C m,A
m,B
= C
Cu,A
u,B (4.24)
A= =
UA C m,A Cu,A
UB n ⋅ D2,BCu,B
CBm,B (4.24)
(4.25)
UB == nB ⋅ D=2,B (4.25)
UA = nCAm,A
⋅ D2,ACu,A
UA nA ⋅ D2,A
Neglecting inlet rotation, the changes in flow, head and power consumption
UB nB ⋅ D2,B (4.25)
can be expressed
= as follows:
UA nA ⋅ D2,A
Flow:
Q = A 2 ⋅ C2m= π ⋅ D2 ⋅ b2 ⋅ C2m (4.26)
Q = A 2 ⋅ C2m= π ⋅ D2 ⋅ b2 ⋅ C2m 2
(4.26)
Q B π ⋅ D2,B ⋅ b2,B C2m,B π ⋅D2,B ⋅ b2,B ⋅ nB ⋅ D2,B  D2,B 2 b2,B nB
Q = π ⋅ D2,B ⋅ b2,B ⋅ C2m,B = π ⋅D2,B ⋅ b2,B ⋅ nB ⋅ D2,B =  D2,B  ⋅ b2,B ⋅ nB
Q BA = π ⋅ D2,A ⋅ b2,A ⋅ C2m,A = π ⋅D2,A⋅ b2,A⋅ nA⋅ D2,A =  D2,A  ⋅ b2,A ⋅ nA
Q A= Aπ2⋅⋅DC2,A
Q 2m⋅= b2,Aπ ⋅ DC2 ⋅ b2 ⋅ C2m
2m,A π ⋅D2,A⋅ b2,A⋅ nA⋅ D2,A  D2,A  b2,A (4.26) nA
2
Q B π ⋅ D2,B ⋅ b2,B C2m,B π ⋅D2,B ⋅ b2,B ⋅ nB ⋅ D2,B  D2,B  b2,B nB
= ⋅ = =  ⋅ ⋅
Head: Q A π ⋅ D2,A ⋅ b2,A C2m,A π ⋅D2,A⋅ b2,A⋅ nA⋅ D2,A  D2,A  b2,A nA
U2,A ⋅ C 2U,A
H = U ⋅gC (4.27)
H = 2,A g 2U,A (4.27)
2 2
HB U2,B ⋅ C2U,B ⋅ g U2,B ⋅ C2U,B nB⋅ D2,B ⋅ nB ⋅ D2,B D2,B 2 nB 2
=
HB= UU = = = 
⋅ U,A⋅ g U2,B ⋅ C2U,B nB⋅ D2,B ⋅ nB ⋅ D2,B D2,B  nB   ⋅ 
2,B ⋅ C22U,B
H A = U 2,A ⋅gC2U,A ⋅ g = U2,A ⋅ C2U,A = nA⋅ D2,A ⋅ nA ⋅ D2,A =  D2,A  ⋅ nA(4.27)
2,A

HA U2,A ⋅ C2U,A ⋅ g U2,A ⋅ C2U,A nA⋅ D2,A⋅ nA ⋅ D2,A D2,A  nA 
2 2
HB U2,B ⋅ C2U,B ⋅ g U2,B ⋅ C2U,B nB⋅ D2,B ⋅ nB ⋅ D2,B D2,B  nB 
= = = =   ⋅  
PHA= QU⋅ 2,A ρ ⋅⋅ U
C 2 ⋅ C⋅2gU U2,A ⋅ C2U,A nA⋅ D2,A⋅ nA ⋅ D2,A D2,A  nA(4.28) 
P = Q ⋅ ρ ⋅ U22U,A
Power consumption : ⋅ C2 U (4.28)
4 3
PB QB ⋅ ρ ⋅ U2,B ⋅ C2U,B Q B U2,B ⋅ C2U,B Q B HB  D2,B 4 b2,B nB 3
PB = Q C2U,B = Q ⋅ = Q ⋅ H =  D  b ⋅ n 
QB ⋅⋅ ρ
ρ⋅⋅⋅UU
U2,B ⋅⋅ C B U 2,B ⋅ C2U,B
PPA== Q A 2U,A = Q A ⋅ U 2,A ⋅ C2U,A = Q A ⋅ HA =   D2,B
2,A  b2,B ⋅ nBA 
B B
⋅ ρ ⋅ C
PA QA ⋅ ρ ⋅ U22,A ⋅ 2CU2U,A Q A U2,A ⋅ C2U,A Q A HA  D2,A  b2,A nA 
2,A (4.28)
2,A
4 3
PB QB ⋅ ρQ⋅ U 1
2 ⋅ C2U,B Q B U2,B ⋅ C2U,B Q B HB  D2,B  b2,B nB 
=
nq = nd ⋅ Q d3 2 d12,B = ⋅ = ⋅ =   ⋅
(4.29) 
nPAq = nQdA⋅⋅ ρH⋅ U 4 ⋅ C2U,A
2,A Q A U2,A ⋅ C2U,A Q A HA  D2,A  b2,A (4.29)nA 
d3
Hd 4
1
Qd 2
nq = nd ⋅ 3 (4.29)
Hd 4
71 71
U1
4. Pump theory
4.6 Inlet rotation

Inlet rotation means that the fluid is rotating before it enters the impeller.
The fluid can rotate in two ways: either the same way as the impeller
(co-rotation) or against the impeller (counter-rotation). Inlet rotation occurs
as a consequence of a number of different factors, and a differentation W1 C1
between desired and undesired inlet rotation is made. In some cases inlet W1 C1
rotation can be used for correction of head and power consumption. W1 C1
In multi-stage pumps the fluid still rotates when it flows out of the
a1
guide vanes in the previous stage. The impeller itself can create an inlet b1
b1
a1
a1
b1
rotation because the fluid transfers the impeller’s rotation back into the inlet
U1 C1U C1U
through viscous effects. In practise, you can try to avoid that the impeller
itself creates inlet rotation by placing blades in the inlet. Figure 4.14 shows No inlet rotation
Counter rotation
how inlet rotation affects the velocity triangle in the pump inlet.
Co-rotation
According to Euler’s pump equation, inlet rotation corresponds to C1U being Figure 4.14: Inlet velocity triangle at constant
flow and different inlet rotation situations.
different from zero, see figure 4.14. A change of C1U and then also a change
in inlet rotation results in a change in head and hydraulic power. Co-rotation
results in smaller head and counter-rotation results in a larger head. It is
important to notice that this is not a loss mechanism.
72 72
4.7 Slip Suction side
In the derivation of Euler’s pump equation it is assumed that the flow fol-
lows the blade. In reality this is, however, not the case because the flow
angle usually is smaller than the blade angle. This condition is called slip. Pressure side
C2 C'2
Nevertheless, there is close connection between the flow angle and blade �
angle. An impeller has an endless number of blades which are extremely

U2
thin, then the flow lines will have the same shape as the blades. When the
flow angle and blade angle are identical, then the flow is blade congruent,
see figure 4.15. Figure 4.15:
ω
Blade congruent flow line: Dashed line.
The flow will not follow the shape of the blades completely in a real impel- Actual flow line: Solid line.
ler with a limited number of blades with finite thickness. The tangential
velocity out of the impeller as well as the head is reduced due to this.
When designing impellers, you have to include the difference between flow
angle and blade angle. This is done by including empirical slip factors in the
calculation of the velocity triangles, see figure 4.16. Empirical slip factors
are not further discussed in this book.
It is important to emphasize that slip is not a loss mechanism but just an

expression of the flow not following the blade.
C2 C'2 C2m W2 W'2

W2 W'2 C2 C'2
β2
U2 β'2 β2 β'2
U2
ω Figure 4.16: Velocity triangles where ‘ indi-

cates the velocity with slip.
73 73
Q A π ⋅ D2,A ⋅ b2,A C2m,A π ⋅D2,A⋅ b2,A⋅ nA⋅ D2,A  D2,A  b2,A nA
4. Pump theory
U2,A ⋅ C 2U,A
H= g (4.27)
4.8 Specific
HB speed
U2,B ⋅of a pump
C2U,B
2
⋅ g U2,B ⋅ C2U,B nB⋅ D2,B ⋅ nB ⋅ D2,B D2,B  nB 
2
= chapter 1, =pumps are =classified in many =   

 ⋅ n ways for
As described
HA inU2,A ⋅ C2U,A ⋅ g U2,A ⋅ C2U,A nA⋅ D2,A⋅ nA ⋅ D2,A Ddifferent
2,A   A
example by usage or flange size. Seen from a fluid mechanical point of view,
this is, however, not very practical because it makes it almost impossible to
compare Ppumps
= Q ⋅ ρwhich
⋅ U2 ⋅ Care
2U
designed and used differently. (4.28)
4 3
A model number,
PB QB ⋅ ρthe
⋅ U2,Bspecific
⋅ C2U,B speed
Q U (n2,Bq),⋅ is
C2therefore HB toD2,B
Q B used classify n 
 b2,B pumps.
= is given
Specific speed in = B ⋅ units.
different
U,B
In =Europe = following
⋅ the  ⋅  B  is
form
PA QA ⋅ ρ ⋅ U2,A ⋅ C2U,A Q A U2,A ⋅ C2U,A Q A HA  D2,A  b2,A nA 
commonly used:
1
Qd 2
nq = nd ⋅ 3 (4.29)
Hd 4
Where
nd = rotational speed in the design point [min-1]
Qd = Flow at the design point [m3/s]
Hd = Head at the design point [m]
The expression for nq can be derived from equation (4.22) and (4.23) as the
speed which yields a head of 1 m at a flow of 1 m3/s.
The impeller and the shape of the pump curves can be predicted based on the
specific speed, see figur 4.17.
Pumps with low specific speed, so-called low nq pumps, have a radial out-
let with large outlet diameter compared to inlet diameter. The head curves
are relatively flat, and the power curve has a positive slope in the entire flow
area.
On the contrary, pumps with high specific speed, so-called high nq pumps,
have an increasingly axial outlet, with small outlet diameter compared to the
width. Head curves are typically descending and have a tendency to create
saddle points. Performance curves decreases when flow increases. Different
pump sizes and pump types have different maximum efficiency.
74 74
Figure 4.17: Impeller shape, outlet velocity
Impeller shape nq Outlet velocity Performance curves
triangle triangle and performance curve as function
of specific speed nq.
P
d2 H % 130 P
Pd %
Hd 100 Pd
W2 C2 100
15
80 H
d1 C2U
U2
d2/d1 = 3.5 - 2.0 0 100 170 Q/Qd
H % 110 P
d2 Pd
Hd %
100 Pd
W2 C2 100
30 H
70
d1 C2U
U2
d2/d1 = 2.0 - 1.5 0 100 165 Q/Qd
d2 H %
Pd
Hd 100 P
W2 C2 %
100 80 Pd
50
d1 C2U 55 H
U2
d2/d1 = 1.5 - 1.3 0 100 155 Q/Qd
d2 H %
Hd Pd
W2 C2 100 P
H %
70 Pd
90 100
d1 C2U 60
U2
d2/d1 = 1.2 - 1.1 0 100 140 Q/Qd
W2 C2
d2 H %
Hd
C2U Pd
110 U2 100 P
%
100 H 65 Pd
W2 C2
45
d1 C2U 0 100 130 Q/Qd
d1 = d2 U2
4.9 Summary
In this chapter we have described the basic physical conditions which are the
basis of any pump design. Euler’s pump equation has been desribed, and we
have shown examples of how the pump equation can be used to predict a
pump’s performance. Furthermore, we have derived the affinity equations
and shown how the affinity rules can be used for scaling pump performance.
Finally, we have introduced the concept of specific speed and shown how
different pumps can be differentiated on the basis of this.
75 75
Chapter 5
Pump losses
5.1 Loss types

5.2 Mechanical losses
5.3 Hydraulic losses
5.4 Loss distribution as function of specific speed
5.5 Summary
5. Pump losses
5. Pump losses Euler head

Recirculation losses
H Leakage
As described in chapter 4, Euler’s pump equation provides a simple, loss- Flow friction
Incidence
free description of the impeller performance. In reality, because of a number Pump curve
of mechanical and hydraulic losses in impeller and pump casing, the pump H
performance is lower than predicted by the Euler pump equation. The losses
cause smaller head than the theoretical and higher power consumption, see
figures 5.1 and 5.2. The result is a reduction in efficiency. In this chapter we
describe the different types of losses and introduce some simple models for
calculating the magnitude of the losses. The models can also be used for
analysis of the test results, see appendix B.
Q
Figure 5.1: Reduction of theoretical Euler
head due to losses.
5.1 Loss types Q
Distinction is made between two primary types of losses: mechanical losses
and hydraulic losses which can be divided into a number of subgroups. Table Shaft power P2
P Mechanical losses
5.1 shows how the different types of loss affect flow (Q), head (H) and power Disk friction
consumption (P2). Hydraulic losses
Hydraulic power Phyd
P
Smaller Higher power
Loss Lower head (H)
flow (Q) consumption (P2)
Mechanical Bearing X
losses Shaft seal X
Hydraulic Flow friction X
losses Mixing X
Recirculation X Q
Incidence X
Disk friction X
Leakage X
Q
Chart 5. 1: Losses in pumps and their influence on the pump curves. Figure 5.2: Increase in power consumption
due to losses.
Pump performance curves can be predicted by means of theoretical or em-

pirical calculation models for each single type of loss. Accordance with the
actual performance curves depends on the models’ degree of detail and to
what extent they describe the actual pump type.
78 78
Figure 5.3 shows the components in the pump which cause mechanical and
hydraulic losses. It involves bearings, shaft seal, front and rear cavity seal, in-
let, impeller and volute casing or return channel. Throughout the rest of the
chapter this figure is used for illustrating where each type of loss occurs.
Volute
Diffuser
Inner impeller surface
Outer impeller surface
Front cavity seal
Inlet
Bearings and shaft seal
Figure 5.3: Loss causing

components.
79 79
5. Pump losses
5.2 Mechanical losses

The pump coupling or drive consists of bearings, shaft seals, gear, depending
on pump type. These components all cause mechanical friction loss. The
following deals with losses in the bearings and shaft seals.
5.2.1 Bearing loss and shaft seal loss

Bearing and shaft seal losses - also called parasitic losses - are caused by
friction. They are often modelled as a constant which is added to the power
consumption. The size of the losses can, however, vary with pressure and
rotational speed.
The following model estimates the increased power demand due to losses
in bearings and shaft seal:
Ploss, mechanical = Ploss, bearing + Ploss, shaft seal = constant (5.1)
where
V2
H loss, friktion
Ploss, mechanical = ζ ⋅ H dyn, inpower
= Increased = ζ ⋅demand because of mechanical (5.2)
loss [W]
2g
Ploss, bearing = Power lost in bearings [W]
Ploss, shaftH = Power LV 2lost in shaft seal [W]
loss, pipe = f
seal (5.3)
Dh 2 g
Dh = 4 A (5.4)
5.3 Hydraulic O losses
Hydraulic VD harise on the fluid path through the pump. The losses occur
Re losses
= (5.5)
because of frictionν or because the fluid must change direction and velocity
on its path 64 the pump. This is due to cross-section changes and the
flaminarthrough
= (5.6)
passage throughRethe rotating impeller. The following sections describe the
individual hydraulic losses depending on how they arise.
Q (10/3600) m3 s
Mean velocity: V = = = 3.45 m s
A π
0.032 2 m2
4
VD h 3.45m s ⋅ 0.032m
Reynolds number: Re = = = 110500
ν 1 ⋅ 10 −6 m 2 s
80 0.15mm 80
Relative roughness: k/D = = 0.0047
5.3.1 Flow friction
Flow friction occurs where the fluid is in contact with the rotating impel-
ler surfaces and the interior surfaces in the pump casing. The flow friction
causes a pressure loss which reduces the head. The magnitude of the friction
loss depends on the roughness of the surface and the fluid velocity relative
to the surface.
Model
Flow friction occurs in all the hydraulic components which the fluid flows
through. The flow friction is typically calculated individually like a pipe fric-
tion loss, this means as a pressure loss coefficient multiplied with the dy-
namic head into the component:
V2
H loss, friktion = ζ ⋅ H dyn, in = ζ ⋅ (5.2)
2g
2
where H loss, pipe = f LV (5.3)
Dh 2 g
ζ = Dimensionless loss coefficient [-]
Hloss,friktion
4A
Hdyn, in D= =Dynamic head into the component [m] (5.4)
V
h
O
= Flow velocity into the component [m/s]
VD h
Re = (5.5)
ν
64
flaminar
The friction loss= thus grows quadratically with the flow velocity, see figure
(5.6) 5.4.
V
Re
Figure 5.4: Friction loss as function of
Loss coefficients can be found e.g. in (MacDonald, 1997). Single components the flow velocity.
Q (10/3600) m3 s
such asMean
inlet and outerVsleeve
velocity: = =which are not directly
= 3.45affected
m s by the impeller
A π
0.032 2 m
can typically be modelled with a 4constant
2
loss coefficient. Impeller, volute
housing and return channel will on the contrary typically have a variable loss
coefficient. When the flow 3.45m
VD hin the s ⋅ 0.032m
Reynolds number: Refriction
= = impeller is calculated, the relative
= 110500
ν
velocity must be used in equation (5.2). 1 ⋅ 10 −6
m 2
s
0.15mm
Relative roughness: k/Dh = = 0.0047
32mm
81 81
LV 2 2m ⋅ ( 3.45 m s) 2
5. Pump losses
Friction loss in pipes

Pipe friction is the loss of energy which occurs in a pipe with flowing fluid. At
the wall, the fluid velocity is zero whereas it attains a maximum value at the
pipe center. Due to these velocity differences across the pipe, see figure 5.5, V
the fluid molecules rub against each other. This transforms kinetic energy to
heat energy which can be considered as lost.
To maintain a flow in the pipe, an amount of energy corresponding to the

energy which is lost must constantly be added. Energy is supplied by static Figure 5.5: Velocity profile in pipe.
pressure difference from inlet to outlet. It is said that it is the pressure differ-
ence which drives the fluid through the pipe.
The loss in the pipe depends on the fluid velocity, the hydraulic diameter
of the pipe, lenght and inner surface V 2 roughness. The head loss is calculated
as: 2g
LV 2
H loss, pipe = f (5.3)
Dh 2 g
where
Dh = 4 A (5.4)
Hloss, pipe = Head O loss [m]
f VD h coefficient [-]
= Friction
Re = (5.5)
L = Pipeνlength [m]
V = Average 64 velocity in the pipe [m/s]
fPlaminar =
loss, mechanical = Ploss, bearing + Ploss, shaft seal = constant (5.1)
(5.6)
Dh = Hydraulic Re diameter [m]
V2
H loss, friktion
The hydraulic = ζ ⋅ H dyn,
diameter inQ =ratio
is the ζ ⋅ of the cross-sectional (5.2)wetted
area to the
(10/3600)
2g m3 s
circumference. The hydraulic π
A diameter is suitable for calculating the friction
LV 2 0.032 2 m2
H loss, pipe = fof arbitrary form.
for cross-sections 4 (5.3)
Dh 2 g
VD h 3.45m s ⋅ 0.032m
Reynolds 4 A number: Re = = = 110500
Dh = ν 1 ⋅ 10 −6 m 2 s (5.4)
O
where Relative VD h 0.15mm
Re = roughness: k/Dh = = 0.0047 (5.5)
ν
A = The cross-section area of the pipe 32mm
[m2]
O = Thef wetted 64
circumference of the pipe [m]
laminar = (5.6)
Re LV 2 2m ⋅ ( 3.45 m s) 2
Pipe loss: H loss, pipe = f = 0.031 = 1.2 m (5.7)
D h 2g 0.032m ⋅ 2 ⋅ 9.81 m s
2
Q (10/3600) m3 s
A π 2 2 2
82 0.032 m
V 82
H = ζ⋅H = ζ 4⋅ 1 (5.8)
Equation (5.4) applies in general for all cross-sectional shapes. In cases where
the pipePloss,
has = Ploss,
a circular
mechanical bearing + Ploss, shaft
cross-section, = constant
thesealhydraulic (5.1) to the
diameter is equal
pipe diameter. The circular pipe is 2the cross-section type which has the
smallest possible
H loss, interior surface V
friktion = ζ ⋅ H dyn, in = ζ ⋅
compared to the cross-section(5.2) area and
2g
therefore the smallest flow resistance.
LV 2
The friction coefficient Dh 2 is
g not constant but depends on whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent. This is described by the Reynold’s number, Re:
Dh = 4 A (5.4)
O
VD h
Re = (5.5)
ν
64
flaminar = (5.6)
where Re
n = Kinematic viscosity of the fluid [m2/s]
Q (10/3600) m3 s
The Reynold’s number is aAdimensionless π
0.032 2 number
m2 which expresses the re-
4
lation between inertia and friction forces in the fluid, and it is therefore a
number that describes how turbulent VD h the
3.45mflow ⋅ 0.032m
s is. The following guidelines
apply for flows in pipes: ν 1 ⋅ 10 m 2 s
−6

0.15mm
Relative
Re < 2300 roughness:
: k/D h =
Laminar flow = 0.0047
V 32mm
2
H2300 <
loss, friktion =
Re ζ
< ⋅ H
500 dyn, in: = ζ ⋅
Transition zone (5.2)
2g
Re > 5000 : Turbulent flow.
2 2m ⋅ ( 3.45 m s) 2
Pipe loss: H loss, LVpipe2
= f LV = 0.031 = 1.2 m (5.7)
H loss, pipe = f D h 2g 2
0.032m ⋅ 2 ⋅ 9.81 m s (5.3)
Laminar flow only occurs D h 2 g at relatively low velocities and describes a calm,
well-ordered4flow without eddies. The friction coefficient for laminar flow is
Dh = A (5.4)
independent of O the surface roughness V2
H loss, expansion = ζ ⋅ H dyn,1 = ζ ⋅ 1 and is only a function of the(5.8) Reynold’s
number.ReThe VD
following applies for 2 g with circular cross-section:(5.5)
pipes
= h
ν 2
 A 
ζ = 1 − 641  (5.9)
flaminar = A2  (5.6)
Re
2
 A  V2
H loss, contraction = 1 − 0  ⋅ 0 (5.10)
 AQ2  (10/3600)
2g m3 s
A π 2 2
0.032
2 m
4V
H loss, contraction = ζ ⋅ H dyn,2 = ζ ⋅ 2 (5.11)
2g
VD h 3.45m s ⋅ 0.032m
Reynolds number: Re = = 2 = 110500
ws2 νw 1 − w 1, kanal
1 ⋅ 10 −6 m 2 s
83 83
H loss, incidence = ϕ =ϕ (5.12)
5. Pump losses
Turbulent flow is an unstable flow with strong mixing. Due to eddy motion
most pipe flows are in practise turbulent. The friction coefficient for turbu-
lent flow depends on the Reynold’s number and the pipe roughness.
Figure 5.6 shows a Moody chart which shows the friction coefficient f as
function of Reynold’s number and surface roughness for laminar and tur-
bulent flows.
Figure 5.6: Moody chart:

Friction coefficient for laminar (circular
cross-section) and turbulent flow (arbitrary
cross-section). The red line refers to the
values in example 5.1.
0.1
0.09
0.08
Lam
0.05
0.07
inar
0.04
0.06
0.03
0.05
0.02
64 0.015
Relative roughness ( k/D )

Re
h
(f)
0.04
0.01
0.008
Friction coefficient
0.006
0.03
0.004
Tran
0.025
0.002
sitio
n zo
0.02 0.001
0.0008
ne
Sm 0.0006
oo
th 0.0004
0.015 pip
e
0.0002
0.0001
Turbulent 0.00005
0.01
0.009
0.000001 0.000005 0.00001
0.008
3 4 5 6 7 8
10 10 10 10 10 10
Reynolds number ( Re=V · Dh /ν )
84 84
Table 5.2 shows the roughness for different materials. The friction increases
in old pipes because of corrosion and sediments.
Table 5.2: Roughness for different

Materials Roughness k [mm] surfaces (Pumpeståbi, 2000).
PVC 0.01-0.05
Pipe in aluminium, copper og brass 0-0.003
Steel pipe V2 0.01-0.05
Welded steel pipe, new 2g 0.03-0.15
Ploss, mechanical
Welded steel = Ploss, bearing + Ploss, shaft seal = constant 0.15-0.30 (5.1)
LV 2 pipe with deposition
Galvanised Dh 2steel
g pipe, new 2
0.1-0.2
V
Galvanised
4 = ζ pipe
HAloss, friktionsteel ⋅ H dyn,
with = ζ⋅
in deposition 0.5-1.0 (5.2)
Dh = 2 g (5.4)
O
Example VD 5.1: CalculationLV 2 of pipe loss
Re = H loss, pipe = f (5.5) (5.3)
h
Calculate ν the pipe loss Dh 2 in
g a 2 meter pipe with the diameter d=32 mm and a
flow of Q=10 64 m3/h. The pipe is made of galvanized steel with a roughness of
flaminar =Dh = 4 A (5.6) (5.4)
0.15 mm, and Re Othe fluid is water at 20°C.
VD h
Re = (5.5)
ν Q (10/3600) m3 s
Mean velocity: V64= = = 3.45 m s
flaminar = A π (5.6)
0.032 2 m2
Re 4
VD h 3.45m s ⋅ 0.032m
Reynolds number: Re = Q = (10/3600) −6m3 s2 = 110500
Mean velocity: V = ν = 1 ⋅ 10 m s= 3.45 m s
A π
0.032 2 m2
0.15mm 4
32mm
VD h 3.45m s ⋅ 0.032m
ν 1 ⋅ 10 −6 m 2 2s
2 2m ⋅ ( 3.45 m s)
Pipe loss:
From the H Moody f LVthe= 0.031
loss, pipe =chart, friction coefficent (f) is 0.031 = 1.2when
m Re =
(5.7)
D h 2g 0.15mm
0.032m ⋅ 2 ⋅ 9.81 m s
2
Relative roughness:
110500 and the relative roughness k/D h = k/D = 0.0047
=0.0047. By inserting the values in
32mm h
the equation (5.3), the pipe loss can be calculated to:
V 12 2 2m ⋅ ( 3.45 m s(5.8)
)2
Pipe =loss:
H loss, expansion ζ ⋅H H dyn,1 = =ζ f⋅ LV = 0.031 = 1.2 m (5.7)
loss, pipe 2 g
D h 2g 2
0.032m ⋅ 2 ⋅ 9.81 m s
2
 A 
ζ = 1 − 1  (5.9)
 A2 
V 12
H loss, expansion = ζ ⋅ H 2 dyn,1 2= ζ ⋅ (5.8)
 A  V 2g
 A A 2  2g
2
85 ζ = 1 − 1  85
(5.9)
5. Pump losses
5.3.2 Mixing loss at cross-section expansion V2

Velocity energy is transformed to static 2g pressure energy at cross-section ex-
pansions in the pump, LVsee
2
the energy equation in formula (2.10). The conver-
sion is associated with Dh 2agmixing loss.
Dh = is 4A (5.4)
A2
The reason O that velocity differences occur when the cross-section ex- A1
pands, see figureVD h 5.7. The figure shows a diffuser with a sudden expansion
Re = (5.5) V1 V2
beacuse all water ν particles no longer move at the same speed, friction occurs
64
between the molecules in the fluid which results in a diskharge head loss.
flaminar = (5.6)
Even though theRe velocity profile after the cross-section expansion gradually
is evened out, see figure 5.7, a part of the velocity energy is turned into heat
A2
Q
energy instead of static pressure energy. m3 s
(10/3600)
Mean velocity: V = = = 3.45 m s A1 A2
A π
0.032 2 m2
Mixing loss occurs at different places 4 in the pump: At the outlet of the im- A1
peller where the fluid flows intoVD the volute

3.45mcasing or return channel as well
s ⋅ 0.032m
Reynolds
as in the diffuser.number: Re = h
= = 110500
ν 1 ⋅ 10 m 2 s
−6
When designing the hydraulic components,

0.15mm it is important to create small Figure 5.7: Mixing loss at cross-section
Relative roughness: k/Dh = = 0.0047 expansion shown for a sudden expansion.
and smooth cross-section expansions as possible.
32mm
Model 2 2m ⋅ ( 3.45 m s) 2
Pipe loss: H loss, pipe = f LV = 0.031 = 1.2 m (5.7)
D h 2 g is a function
The loss at a cross-section expansion 0.032mof⋅ 2the dynamic
⋅ 9.81 m s head into
2
the component.
V 12
H loss, expansion = ζ ⋅ H dyn,1 = ζ ⋅ (5.8)
2g
2
where  A 
ζ = 1 − 1  (5.9)
 A2into
V1 = Fluid velocity  the component [m/s]
2
 A  V2
The pressure
H loss, contraction = 1 − 0ζ depends
loss coefficient ⋅ 0 on the area relation between the com-
(5.10)
ponent’s inlet and outlet  asAwell
2  as2 g evenly the area expansion happens.
how
V 22
H loss, contraction = ζ ⋅ H dyn,2 = ζ ⋅ (5.11)
2g
86 2 86
ws2 w 1 − w 1, kanal
LV 2 = 0.031 2m ⋅ ( 3.45 m s) 2
Pipe loss: H loss, pipe = f = 1.2 m (5.7)
D h 2g 0.032m ⋅ 2 ⋅ 9.81 m s
2
V 12
H
For a sudden = ζ ⋅ H
expansion, as dyn,1 = ζ ⋅
shown in figure (5.8)
loss, expansion
2 g 5.7, the following expression is used:
2
 A 
ζ = 1 − 1  (5.9)
 A 2 
2
where  A  V2
H loss, contraction = 1 − 0  ⋅ 2 0 (5.10)
A1= Cross-section areaat inlet A 2  [m ]2 g
A2= Cross-section area at outlet [m2]
V 22
H loss, contraction = ζ ⋅ H = ζ ⋅
The model gives a good estimate of2 gthe head loss at large expansion
dyn,2 (5.11)
ratios
(A1/A2 close to zero). In this case the loss coefficient 2
is ζ = 1 in equation (5.9)
which means that= almostw 2 w − w
ϕ s the = ϕ entire dynamic head into the component is
1 1, kanal
H loss, incidence (5.12)
lost in a sharp-edged diffuser. 2 ⋅g 2⋅g
For small incidence = k 1 ratios

H loss,expansion ⋅ (Q − Qas well)2 +as
k 2 for other diffuser geometries
design
(5.13) with
smooth area expansions, the loss coefficient ζ is found by table lookup
(MacDonalds)
Ploss, disk or= by
kρ measurements.
U 32 D2 ( D2 + 5e )
m
 2ν ⋅ 10 6 
k = 7.3 ⋅ 10 −4
  (5.14)
 U 2 D2 
(n3D52 )A
5.3.3 Mixing loss
(Ploss, disk )A =at( Pcross-section
)
loss, disk B
contraction (5.15) Contraction
(n3D52 )B
Head loss at cross-section contraction occurs as a consequence of eddies being A1
created Q inimpeller
the flow A0 A2
= Q when it comes close to the geometry edges, see
+ Q leakage figure 5.8.
(5.16)
It is said that the flow ’separates’. The 2 reason for this is that the flow because V1 V0 V2
2 ( D2 − Dgap )
2
of the local gap = H stat,

H stat, pressure impeller − ω
gradients fl longer adheres in parallel to the(5.17)
no surface but
8g
instead will follow curved streamlines. This means that the effective cross-
section Harea which the V 2flow L V 2 + 1.0 isVreduced.
+ fexperiences
2
It is said that a(5.18)
contraction
stat, gap = 0.5 Figure 5.8: Loss at cross-section contraction.
2g s 2g 2g
is made. The contraction with the area A0 is marked on figure 5.8. The contraction
accelerates the flow and it must therefore subsequently decelerate again to
(5.19)
fill the cross-section.
2gH stat, gapA mixing loss occurs in this process. Head loss as a
V=
consequence off Lcross-section contraction occurs typically at inlet to a pipe
s + 1.5
and at the impeller eye. The magnitude of the loss can be considerably reduced
Q leakagethe
by rounding = inlet
VA gapedges and thereby suppress separation. If the inlet is
adequately rounded off, the loss is insignificant. Losses related to cross-section
contraction is typically of minor importance.
87 87
32mm
Q (10/3600) m3 s
Mean
5. Pump velocity: V = = = ⋅ 3.45
( 3.45mmss) 2
Pipe losses
2 2m
loss: H loss, pipe = Af LV π =0.032
0.0312 m2 = 1.2 m (5.7)
D h 2 g4 0.032m ⋅ 2 ⋅ 9.81 m s
2
VD h 3.45m s ⋅ 0.032m
Model Reynolds number: Re = ν =2 = 110500
V1 1 ⋅ 10 −6 m 2 s
Based on H loss, expansion = ζit⋅ is
experience, H dyn,1 = ζ ⋅ that the acceleration of the fluid
assumed (5.8)from V
2g 1
to V0 is Relative
loss-free, whereas the 0.15mm
subsequent mixing loss depends on the area
roughness:
2 k/Dh = = 0.0047
ratio now  A1  to the contraction 32mm
ζ =compared
1 − A0 as well as the dynamic head in the
A2 
(5.9)
contraction:
2LV 2 2m ⋅ ( 3.45 m s) 2
Pipe loss: H loss, pipe =Af0  V =2 0.031 = 1.2 m (5.7)
H loss, contraction = 1 − D h 2⋅ g 0 2
0.032m ⋅ 2 ⋅ 9.81 m s (5.10)
 A2  2g
where VV22 2
H
H=loss,
loss, contraction = ζ
= ζ⋅H ⋅ H dyn,2 = ζ ⋅
= ζ ⋅ 2 g1 [m/s] (5.11)
(5.8)
V0 Fluid velocity
expansion indyn,1
contraction 2g Pressure loss coefficient ζ
A0/A2 = Area ratio 2[-] 2 2
 A1  w s w 1 − w 1, kanal
Hζ loss,
= incidence
1 − = ϕ 2 ⋅ g = ϕ (5.12)
(5.9)
 A2  2⋅g A1 A2 A1 A2
The disadvantage of this model is that it assumes knowledge of A0 which is
2
not directly measureable.  The AQ following
V2 2 alternative formulation (5.13)
is therefore
H loss, = k ⋅ (
contraction =1 1 −
loss, incidence
Q − 0
 ⋅ ) 0+ k 2
design (5.10) 1,0
AR = A2 /A1 AR = A1 /A2
often used:  A 2  2 g
0,8
Ploss, disk = kρ U D2 ( D2 + 5eV

3
2 ) 2 0,6
H loss, contraction = ζ ⋅ H dyn,26 =m ζ ⋅ 2 (5.11)
− 4  2ν ⋅ 10 
2g 0,4
k = 7.3 ⋅ 10   (5.14)
 U22D2  w − w
0,2
where 2
w 1 1, kanal 0
= ϕ outs of=the
H loss, incidencehead
Hdyn,2 = Dynamic ϕ component [m] (5.12)
2 ⋅ g (n3D52 )A 2 ⋅ g 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0
(Ploss,
V2 = Fluid disk )A = out
velocity ( Ploss,of )B component
diskthe [m/s] (5.15) Area ratio
(n3D52 )B
H loss, incidence = k 1 ⋅ (Q − Q design ) + k 2 2
(5.13) Hloss,contraction = ζ . Hdyn,2
Q impeller = Q + Q leakage (5.16)
Figure 5.9 compares loss coefficients at sudden cross-section expansions Hloss,expansion = ζ . Hdyn,1
Ploss, disk == H
H kρ U 32 D2 (−D2ω+2 5(eD)22 −D2gap ) (5.17)
and –contractions
stat, gap as functionmof
stat, impeller fl the area ratio A /A between the
8g 1 2
inlet and
outlet. As  2 ν ⋅ 10 6
 Figure 5.9: Head loss coefficents at sudden
k =shown,
7.3 ⋅ 10 the − 4
 2loss coefficient,
 and thereby also the head loss, is in
(5.14)
U2 D2LV 2than in expansions.2 cross-section contractions and expansions.
generalHsmaller at V 
contractions V This applies in particular
stat, gap = 0.5 +f + 1.0 (5.18)
2g s 2g 2g
at large area ratios. 3 5
(n D2 )A
(Ploss, disk )A = ( Ploss, disk )B (5.15)
(n3D52(5.19)
)B
The head loss 2gH coefficient
stat, gap for geometries with smooth area changes can be
V=
found by Q impeller =L Q+ 1.5
table flookup. + QAs mentioned earlier, the pressure loss in (5.16)
leakage a cross-sec-
s
tion contraction can be reduced2 to ( Dalmost zero by rounding off the edges.
2 − Dgap )
2 2
H
Qstat, gap = H VA impeller − ω fl
stat,gap (5.17)
leakage
8g
2 2 2
Hstat, gap = 0.5 V + f L V + 1.0 V (5.18)
2g s 2g 2g
88 (5.19) 88
2gH stat, gap
5.3.4 Recirculation loss
Recirculation zones in the hydraulic components typically occur at part
load when the flow is below the design flow. Figure 5.10 shows an example
of recirculation in the impeller. The recirculation zones reduce the effec-
tive cross-section area which the flow experiences. High velocity gradients
occurs in the flow between the main flow which has high velocity and
the eddies which have a velocity close to zero. The result is a considerable Recirculation zones
mixing loss.
Recirculation zones can occur in inlet, impeller, return channel or volute

casing. The extent of the zones depends on geometry and operating point.
When designing hydraulic components, it is important to minimise the size Figure 5.10: Example of recirculation in
of the recirculation zones in the primary operating points. impeller.
Model
There are no simple models to describe if recirculation zones occur and if so to
which extent. Only by means of advanced laser based velocity measurements
or time consuming computer simulations, it is possible to map the recirculation
zones in details. Recirculation is therefore generally only identified indirectly
through a performance measurement which shows lower head and/or higher
power consumption at partial load than predicted.
When designing pumps, the starting point is usually the nominal operating
point. Normally reciculation does not occur here and the pump performance
can therefore be predicted fairly precisely. In cases where the flow is below
the nominal operating point, one often has to use rule of thumb to predict the
pump curves.
89 89
Dh 2 g
Dh = 4 A (5.4)
O
5. Pump lossesVD h
Re = (5.5)
ν
64
flaminar = (5.6)
Re
Q (10/3600) m3 s
loss V = A = π
Mean velocity:
5.3.5 Incidence = 3.45 m s
0.032 2 m2
Incidence loss occurs when there is4 a difference between the flow angle and
blade angle at the impeller or guide
VD h vane leading
3.45m edges. This is typically the
s ⋅ 0.032m
case at Reynolds or when Re
part loadnumber: =
prerotation=exists. = 110500
ν 1 ⋅ 10 m 2 s
−6
A recirculation 0.15mm
Relativezone occurs on
roughness: k/Done
h =
side of the=blade
0.0047 when there is difference
32mm
between the flow angle and the blade angle, see figure 5.11. The recirculation
zone causes a flow contraction after the blade leading edge.2 The flow must
2
LVcontraction 2m ⋅ ( 3.45 m s) Figure 5.11: Incidence loss at inlet to impeller
once again
Pipedecelerate after
loss: H loss, pipe = f the = 0.031 to fill the entire blade = channel
1.2 m (5.7) or guide vanes.
D h 2g 0.032m ⋅ 2 ⋅ 9.81 m s
2
and mixing loss occurs.
At off-design flow, incidence losses V also

2 occur at the volute tongue. The de-
H loss, expansion = ζ ⋅ H dyn,1 = ζ ⋅ 1 (5.8)
signer must therefore make sure that 2 gflow angles and blade angles match
each other so the incidence 2 loss is minimised. Rounding blade edges and vo-
 A1 
ζ = 1
lute casing tongue − can reduce the incidence loss.
A2 
(5.9)

2
Model  A  V2
The magnitude of the incidence A 2  loss 2 gdepends on the difference between rela-
tive velocities before and after the blade leading edge and is calculated using
the following model=(Pfleiderer V 22
H loss, contraction ζ ⋅ H dyn,2 =og
ζ ⋅Petermann, 1990, p 224): (5.11)
2g
W1
2
w2 w 1 − w 1, kanal
,ka
H loss, incidence = ϕ s = ϕ
na
(5.12)
l
2 ⋅g 2⋅g
β´1
β1
where H loss, incidence = k 1 ⋅ (Q − Q design ) + k 2
2
(5.13)
W
1
ϕ = Emperical value which is set to 0.5-0.7 depending on the size of the recir-
Figure 5.12: Nomenclature for incidence loss
culation
Ploss, diskzone
= kρafter
U 32 Dthe blade leading edge. model.
2 ( D 2 + 5e )
ws= difference between relative m velocities before and after the blade edge
− 4  2ν ⋅ 10 
6
using
k = vector
7.3 ⋅ 10calculation,
 see figure 5.12. (5.14)
 U 2 D2 
(n3D52 )A
(n3D52 )B
90 Q impeller = Q + Q leakage (5.16) 90

2
 A  V2
 A2  2g
V 22
2g
Incidence loss is alternatively modelled as a parabola 2 with minimum at the
w 2 w 1 − w 1, kanal
best efficiency point.
H loss, incidence = ϕThe incidence
s
=ϕ loss increases quadratically with
(5.12)the dif-
ference between the design 2 ⋅ g flow and 2the
⋅ g actual flow, see figure 5.13. Hloss, incidence
H loss, incidence = k 1 ⋅ (Q − Q design )2 + k 2 (5.13)
where k2
Qdesign disk = kρ
P=loss,Design U 32[m
flow ( D 2 + 5e )
D23/s]
m
Qdesign Q
k1 = Constant [s22/m 5 6 
ν ⋅ 10
]
k = 7.3 ⋅ 10 − 4   (5.14) Figure 5.13: Incidence loss as function of
k2 = Constant [m]  U 2 D2  the flow.
(n3D52 )A
(n3D52 )B
Q = Q + Q leakage (5.16)
5.3.6 Diskimpeller
friction
2 − Dgap )
2 2
Disk friction is the 2 ( Dconsumption
H stat, gap = Hincreased power
stat, impeller − ω fl
which occurs on(5.17)
the shroud
8g
and hub of the impeller because it rotates in a fluid-filled pump casing. The
fluid in the cavity between 2 impeller
2 and 2pump casing starts to rotate and
Hstat, gap = 0.5 V + f L V + 1.0 V (5.18)
2 g s
creates a primary vortex, see section 1.2.5.2 g 2 g The rotation velocity equals the
impeller’s at the surface of the impeller, while it is zero at the surface of
the pump casing. The average velocity (5.19) of the primary vortex is therefore as-
2gH stat, gap
sumed to V =be equal to one half of the rotational velocity.
f Ls + 1.5 e
Secondary
vortex
The centrifugal
Q leakage =force
VA gapcreates a secondary vortex movement because of the
difference in rotation velocity between the fluid at the surfaces of the impel-
ler and the fluid at the pump casing, see figure 5.14. The secondary vortex in-
creases the disk friction because it transfers energy from the impeller surface
to the surface of the pump casing.
The size of the disk friction depends primarily on the speed, the impeller di-
ameter as well as the dimensions of the pump housing in particular the dis-
Figure 5.14: Disk friction on impeller.
tance between impeller and pump casing. The impeller and pump housing
surface roughness has, furthermore, a decisive importance for the size of the
disk friction. The disk friction is also increased if there are rises or dents on
the outer surface of the impeller e.g. balancing blocks or balancing holes.
91 91
0.15mm
Relative roughness: k/Dh = 2 = 0.0047
V 232mm
5. Pump losses 2g
2 2m ⋅ ( 3.45 m s )
2
LV 2w =−0.031
w s=2 f D 2 g
Pipe loss: H loss, pipe 1 w 1, kanal = 1.2 m (5.7)
H loss, incidence = ϕ = ϕh 2
0.032m ⋅ 2 ⋅ 9.81 m s (5.12)
2 ⋅g 2⋅g
Model
Pfleiderer
H loss,and Petermann (1990, p. 2 322) use the following model to deter-
incidence = k 1 ⋅ ( Q − Q design ) + V 1k2 2 (5.13)
mine the increased
H loss, expansion = ζ
power ⋅ H consumption
dyn,1 = ζ ⋅ caused by disk friction: (5.8)
2g
Ploss, disk = kρ U 2 2 D 2 ( D 2 + 5e )
3
 A 
ζ = 1 − 1  m
(5.9)
A  2ν ⋅ 10 6 
k = 7.3 ⋅ 102− 4   (5.14)
  U2 D2  2
A0 V0 2
H
where loss, contraction  = 1 −  ⋅ (5.10)
 A 2 (n3D52 )2Ag
D2 = Impeller = ( Ploss, disk[m]
(Ploss, disk )diameter )B (5.15)
A
(n3D52 )B
e = Axial distance to wall at the Vperiphery 2 of the impeller [m], see figure
H contraction = ζ ⋅ H dyn,2 = ζ ⋅ 2 (5.11)
5.14 Qloss, impeller = Q + Q leakage 2 g (5.16)
U2 = Peripheral velocity [m/s] 2 ( D2 −D2 ) 2
H stat, gap = H stat, impeller
w 2 −2 ω fl νw=10 1−w
2 gap (5.17)
ν = Kinematic
H loss, incidenceviscosity
= ϕ s [m= /s], ϕ 8 g [m /s] for water at 20°C.(5.12)
-6 1, kanal
2
k = Emperical value 2 ⋅ g 2⋅g

2 2
Hstat, gap = equals
m = Exponent 0.5 V 1/6 L V
+ ffor smooth V2
+2 1.0surfaces and between 1/7(5.18)
to 1/9
H loss, incidence = k21 g⋅ (Q − Qs design2g ) + k 2 2 g (5.13)
for rough surfaces
If changes Ploss,are2gH
disk =
made
3
kρ U 2 Dthe
stat, gapto
(5.19)
2 + 5e ) of the impeller, calculated disk friction
2 ( Ddesign
V= m
Ploss,disk,A can be fscaled L +− 41.5
 2toν ⋅estimate
10 6
the disk friction Ploss,disk,B at another impel-
k = 7.3 ⋅ 10 s   (5.14)
ler diameter or speed:  U 2 D2 
Q leakage = VA gap
(n3D52 )A
(n3D52 )B
The scaling
Q equation
= Q + can
Q only be used for relative small design changes.
(5.16)
impeller leakage
( D22 −D2gap )
H stat, gap = H stat, impeller − ω 2fl (5.17)
8g
2 2 2
Hstat, gap = 0.5 V + f L V + 1.0 V (5.18)
2g s 2g 2g
5.3.7 Leakage
Leakage loss occurs because of smaller (5.19) circulation through gaps between
2gH stat, gap
V = and fixed parts of the pump. Leakage loss results in a loss in ef-
the rotating
ficiency because f Lsthe
+ 1.5flow in the impeller is increased compared to the flow
throughQthe entire pump:
leakage = VA gap
92 92
 2ν ⋅ 10 6 
k = 7.3 ⋅ 10 − 4   (5.14)
U DQ  (10/3600) m3 s
Mean velocity: V =2 2 = = 3.45 m s
A 3 5π 0.032 2 m2
(n D24)A
(n3D52 )B
VD h 3.45m s ⋅ 0.032m
Q impeller = Q + Q leakage ν 1 ⋅ 10 −6 m 2 s (5.16) Figure 5.15: Types of leakage
( D22 −D2gap )
H stat, gap =roughness:
where Relative H stat, impeller −k/D ωh2fl = 0.15mm = 0.0047 (5.17)
8g
32mm
Qimpeller = Flow through impeller [m3/s], Q = Flow through pump [m3/s] , Qleakage
= Leakage Hstat,flow [m3/s] V 2 + f L V 2 2+ 1.0 V 2
gap = 0.5 2m ⋅ ( 3.45 m s) 2 (5.18)
Pipe loss: H loss,2 g = f s 2LVg = 0.031 2g = 1.2 m (5.7) Qleakage,1
pipe
D h 2g 0.032m ⋅ 2 ⋅ 9.81 m s
2
Leakage occurs many different places in the pump and depends on the pump
(5.19)
type. Figure 5.15 shows
2gH stat, gap where leakage typically occurs. The pressure differ-
V= 2 Leakage between impeller eye and
ences in the pump L which drives the Vleakage flow as shown in figure 5.16.
f s +=1.5
H loss, expansion ζ ⋅ H dyn,1 = ζ ⋅ 1
(5.8) pump casing.
2g
= VA 2gap the impeller and the casing at impeller eye and
Q leakagebetween
The leakage  A 
throughζaxial = 1 relief
− 1 are typically of the same size. The leakage flow Qleakage,2
A between
(5.9)
 2 
guidevane and shaft in multi-stage 2
pumps are less important because both
pressure difference =and1 −  A  V
gap area⋅ are smaller.
2
Q
H loss, contraction 
0

0
(5.10) leakage,1
 A 2  2 g
To minimise the leakage flow, it is important to make the gaps as small as
V2 Leakage above blades in an open
possible. H loss,
When the=pressure
contraction ζ ⋅ H dyn,2 = ζ⋅ 2
difference across the gap is large, (5.11)
it is in par- impeller
2g
ticular important that the gaps are small.
2
w2 w 1 − w 1, kanal
H loss, incidence = ϕ s = ϕ (5.12)
Qleakage,2
Model 2 ⋅g 2⋅g
The leakage can be calculated by combining two different expressions for
in =head
k 1 ⋅ (Q − Q design +leakage,1
2
H loss, incidence
the difference across the) Qgap: k 2 The head difference generated
(5.13) by
Qleakage,1 Qleakage,3
the impeller, equation (5.17) and the head loss for the flow through the gap
equation (5.18).
Ploss, Both expressions
disk = kρ U 2 D2 ( D 2 + 5e )
3
are necessary to calculate the leak flow.
Leakage between guidevanes and shaft in a
m
multi-stage pump
− 4  2ν ⋅ 10 
6
k = 7 . 3 ⋅ 10
In the following an example 
 U D of  the leakage between impeller eye(5.14)
and pump
 2 2 
housing is shown. First the difference in head across the gap generated by
5 Qleakage,2
the impeller is calculated. The (n3D 2 )A difference across the gap depends on
head
the static head above the impeller (n D2 )B and of the flow behaviour in the cavity
3 5
Qleakage,4
between
Qleakage,1impeller and pump casing: Qleakage,1
Q impeller = Q + Q leakage Qleakage,1
(5.16) Qleakage,3
( D22 −D2gap )
H stat, gap = H stat, impeller − ω 2fl (5.17) Leakage as a result of balancing holes
8g
2 2 2
Hstat, gap = 0.5 V + f L V + 1.0 V (5.18)
2g s 2g 2g
93 (5.19) 93
2gH stat, gap
2 2g 2m ⋅ ( 3.45 m s) 2
Pipe loss: H loss, pipe = f LV = 0.031 = 1.2 m (5.7)
D h 2g 0.032m
2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 9.81 m s
2
w 2 w 1 − w 1, kanal
5. Pump losses
H loss, incidence = ϕ s =ϕ
2 ⋅g 2⋅g
(5.12)
V2
H
Hloss, expansion==kζ⋅ ⋅( Q
H dyn,1
− Q = ζ )⋅2 + 1k (5.8)
(5.13)
loss, incidence 1 design 2 g2
where 2
ωfl Pζ ==1 A1  3 velocity of the fluid in the cavity between impeller
Rotational
−
 = kρ U 2 D2 ( D2 + 5e ) (5.9)
 and
loss, disk
A2pump
 casing m [rad/s]
 2ν ⋅ 10  2 6
Dgap k = = 7. 3 Inner
⋅ 10 − 4diameter
  A 0 of the V0gap
2 [m] (5.14)
H
Hstat, impellerloss,
=contraction
Impeller = U
1 −
 static D
2 2 head ⋅ rise [m] (5.10)
 A2  2g
(n3D52 )A
(
The headloss,P )
difference
disk A = ( P across
loss, )
disk B the gap (5.15)
5 Vcan also be calculated as the head loss of
2
Low pressure High pressure
H loss, contraction = ζ ⋅ H dyn,2 (= n3Dζ ⋅2 )B 2 (5.11)

the flow through the gap, see figure2 g 5.17. The head loss is the sum of the fol- Figure 5.16: The leakage is drived by the
pressure difference across the impeller.
lowing Q three
impellertypes= Q of+Q losses:
leakage Loss due to sudden 2 contraction when(5.16)
the fluid
w 2 w 12 − w21, kanal
runs into the gap,=friction
H loss, ϕ s loss
= ϕ between
( D −D fluid ) and wall, and mixing loss due
(5.12)
gap = H stat, impeller
H incidence 2 ⋅ g − ω 2fl 2 2 ⋅gap g (5.17)
to suddenstat,expansion of the outlet of8the
g gap.
H loss, incidence = kV1 2⋅ (Q − QL design

2 )2 + k 2 (5.13)
Hstat, gap = 0.5 + f V + 1.0 2 V (5.18)
2g s 2g 2g
where Ploss, disk = kρ U 2 D2 ( D2 + 5e )
3
f = Friction coefficient m (5.19)

2gH stat,− 4gap 2[-]
ν ⋅ 10 6 
V
k = = 7 . 3 ⋅ 10   (5.14)
L = Gap length [m]
f Ls + 1.5  U 2 D2 
s = Gap width [m]
V = Fluid leakage = VA
Q velocity in gap
gap [m/s] (n3D52 )A
(Ploss, )
disk A = ( P )
loss, disk B (5.15)
Agap = Cross-section area of gap (n3D 5
[m2 )2B]
Q impeller = Q + Q leakage (5.16)
The friction coefficient can be set to 0.025 or alternatively be found more Figure 5.17: Pressure difference across the
precisely in gapa Moody ( D22 −5.6.
D2gap )
H stat, = H stat,chart, see 2figure
impeller − ω fl (5.17) gap through the friction loss consideration.
8g
By isolating the velocity 2 V in the

2 equation
2 (5.18) and inserting H from
Hstat, gap = 0.5 V + f L V + 1.0 V stat,gap
(5.18)
2 g s 2 g 2 g
equation (5.17), the leakage can be calculated: L
(5.19)
2gH stat, gap
V=
f Ls + 1.5
s
Q leakage = VA gap
Dspalte
D2
94 94
5.4 Loss distribution as function of specific speed
The ratio between the described mechanical and hydraulic losses depends
on the specific speed nq, which describes the shape of the impeller, see sec-
tion 4.6. Figure 5.18 shows how the losses are distributed at the design point
(Ludwig et al., 2002).
Flow friction and mixing loss are significant for all specific speeds and are the
dominant loss type for higher specific speeds (semi-axial and axial impellers).
For pumps with low nq (radial impellers) leakage and disk friction on the hub
and shroud of the impeller will in general result in considerable losses.
At off-design operation, incidence and recirculation losses will occur.
η [%] 100 Mechanical loss

Leakage loss
95
Disk friction
90
Flow friction and mixing losses
85
Hydraulic efficiency
80
75
70
65
60 Figure 5.18: Loss distribution in a centrifugal

55 pump as function of specific speed nq
10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 (Ludwig et al., 2002).
nq [min -1]
5.5 Summary
In this chapter we have described the individual mechanical and hydraulic
loss types which can occur in a pump and how these
� � � � � ��losses affect flow, head
and power consumption. For each loss type we �have

�� made a simple physical
� � ��
description as well as shown in which hydraulic
� � ��components
� the loss typi-
cally occurs. Furthermore, we have introduced some simple models which
can be used for estimating the magnitude of the losses. At the end of the
chapter we have shown how the losses are distributed depending on the
specific speeds.
95 95
Chapter 6
Pump tests
6.1 Test types

6.2 Measuring pump performance
6.3 Measurement of the pump’s NPSH
Hloss,friction,2
6.4 Measurement of force H U22
pM2
6.5 Uncertainty in measurement of performance 2.g U'22
2.g
6.6 Summary Hloss,friction,1
z'M2
U'12 p'2
2.g U12 p2 r.g
2.g r.g
pM1
p'1
r.g z'M1 p1 H1 H2
r.g H'2
H'1 z'2
z'1
z1
z2
S'1 S1 S2 S'2
6. Pump tests
6. Pump tests
This chapter describes the types of tests Grundfos continuosly performs on
pumps and their hydraulic components. The tests are made on prototypes in
development projects and for maintenance and final inspection of produced
pumps.
6.1 Test types

For characterisation of a pump or one of its hydraulic parts, flow, head, pow-
er consumption, NPSH and force impact are measured. When testing a com-
plete pump, i.e. motor and hydraulic parts together, the motor characteristic
must be available to be able to compute the performance of the hydraulic
part of the pump. For comparison of tests, it is important that the tests are
done identically. Even small differences in mounting of the pump in the test
bench can result in significant differences in the measured values and there
is a risk of drawing wrong conclusions from the test comparison.
Flow, head, power consumption, NPSH and forces are all integral perform-
ance parameters. For validation of computer models and failure finding,
detailed flow field measurements are needed. Here the velocities and pres-
sures are measured in a number of discrete points inside the pump using
e.g. LDA (Laser Doppler Anemometry) and PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry)
for velocity, see figure 6.1 and for pressure, pitot tubes and pressures trans-
ducers that can measure fast fluctuations.
The following describes how to measure the integral performance param-

eters, i.e. flow, head, power consumption, NSPH and forces. For characteri-
sation of motors see the Motor compendium (Motor Engineering, R&T). For
flow field measurements consult the specialist literature, e.g. (Albrecht, Figure 6.1: Velocity field in impeller measured
2002). with PIV.
98 98
6.2 Measuring pump performance
Pump performance is usually described by curves of measured head and
power consumption versus measured flow, see figure 6.2. From these meas-
ured curves, an efficiency curve can be calculated. The measured pump per-
formance is used in development projects for verification of computer mod-
els and to show that the pump meets the specification.
During production, the performance curves are measured to be sure they H
correspond to the catalogue curves within standard tolerances.

50
40
Flow, head and power consumption are measured during operation in a test
30
bench that can imitate the system characteristics the pump can be exposed
20
to. By varying the flow resistance in the test bench, a number of correspond-
10
ing values of flow, differential pressure, power consumption and rotational
0
speed can be measured to create the performance curves. Power consump- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Q
P2
tion can be measured indirectly if a motor characteristic that contains cor-
responding values for rotational speed, electrical power, and shaft power is 8
available. Pump performance depends on rotational speed and therefore it 4
must be measured. 0
Q
Figure 6.2: Measured head and power curve
During development, the test is done in a number of operating points from as function of the flow.
shut-off, i.e. no flow to maximum flow and in reversal from maximum flow
to shut-off. To resolve the performance curves adequately, 10 - 15 operating
points are usually enough.
Maintenance tests and final inspection tests are made as in house inspec-
tion tests or as certificate tests to provide the customer with documentation
of the pump performance. Here 2 - 5 predefined operating points are usally
sufficient. The flow is set and the corresponding head, electrical power con-
sumption and possibly rotational speed are measured. The electrical power
consumption is measured because the complete product performance is
wanted.
99 99
6. Pump tests
Grundfos builds test benches according to in-house standards where

GS241A0540 is the most significant. The test itself is in accordance with the
international standard ISO 9906.
Valve
6.2.1 Flow
Pipe contraction
To measure the flow, Grundfos uses magnetic inductive flowmeters. These
Pipe expansion
are integrated in the test bench according to the in-house standard. Other Pipe bend
flow measuring techniques based on orifice, vortex meters, and turbine
wheels exist.
6.2.2 Pressure 4 x D 2 x D 2 x D 2 x D
Grundfos states pump performance in head and not pressure since head is in-
dependent of the pumped fluid, see section 2.4. Head is calculated from total Figure 6.3: Pressure measurement outlet
pressure measured up and down stream of the pump and density of the fluid. before and after the pump. Pipe diameter, D,
is the pipe’s internal diameter.
The total pressure is the sum of the static and dynamic pressure. The static
pressure is measured with a pressure transducer, and the dynamic pressure
is calculated from pipe diameters at the pressure outlets and flow. If the
pressure transducers up and down stream of the pump are not located at
the same height above ground, the geodetic pressure enters the expression
for total pressure.
To achieve a good pressure measurement, the velocity profile must be uni-

form and non-rotating. The pump, pipe bends and valves affect the flow
causing a nonuniform and rotating velocity profile in the pipe. The pressure
taps must therefore be placed at a minimum distance to pump, pipe bends
and other components in the pipe system, see figure 6.3.
The pressure taps before the pump must be placed two pipe diameters up-
stream the pump, and at least four pipe diameters downstream pipe bends
and valves, see figure 6.3. The pressure tap after the pump must be placed
two pipe diameters after the pump, and at least two pipe diameters before
any flow disturbances such as bends and valves.
100 100
The pressure taps are designed so that the velocity in the pipe affects the Pressure gauge
static pressure measurement the least possible. To balance a possible bias in

the velocity profile, each pressure tab has four measuring holes so that the
measured pressure will be an average, see figure 6.4. Venting
Dz
The measuring holes are drilled perpendicular in the pipe wall making them
perpendicular to the flow. The measuring holes are small and have sharp
edges to minimise the creation of vorticies in and around the holes, see
figure 6.5. +
It is important that the pressure taps and the connection to the pressure
transducer are completely vented before the pressure measurement is
made. Air in the tube between the pressure tap and transducer causes er-
rors in the pressure measurement. Figure 6.4: Pressure taps which average over
four measuring holes.
The pressure transducer measures the pressure at the end of the pressure
tube. The measurements are corrected for difference in height Δz between
the center of the pressure tap and the transducer to know the pressure at
the pressure tap itself, see figure 6.4. Corrections for difference in height are
also made between the pressure taps on the pump’s inlet and outlet side.
If the pump is mounted in a well with free surface, the difference in height
between fluid surface and the pressure tap on the pump’s outlet side must
be corrected, see section 6.2.4. Figure 6.5: Draft of pressure tap.
6.2.3 Temperature
The temperature of the fluid must be known to determine its density. The
density is used for conversion between pressure and head and is found by
table look up, see the chart ”Physical properties of water” at the back of the
book.
101 101
6. Pump tests
Figure 6.6: Draft of pump test on

H loss,friction, 2
a piping. H2
H 2'
H' H loss,friction,1
1
H1
S1' S1 S2 S'
2
6.2.4 Calculation of head where Hloss,friction,1 and Hloss,friction,2 are the pipe friction loss-
The head can be calculated when flow, pressure, fluid es between pressure outlet and pump flanges.
type, temperature and geometric sizes such as pipe
diameter, distances and heights are known. The total The size of the friction loss depends on the flow velocity,
head from flange to flange is defined by the following the pipe diameter, the distance from the pump flange to
equation: the pressure outlet and the pipe’s surface roughness. Cal-
culation of pipe friction loss is described in section 5.3.1.
H = H2 − H1 (6.1)
If the pipe friction loss between the pressure outlets and

H = ( H2' + H loss, friction,2 ) − ( H '1 − Hloss, friction,1 ) (6.2)
Figure 6.6 shows where the measurements are made. the flanges is smaller than 0.5% of the pump head, it is
The pressure outlets and the matching heads are marked normally not necesarry to take this into consideration in
with a (H’ ).=The p − p1 are U 2 − U12 found in the po-
z2 −pressure
z1 + 2outlets + 2 thus (6.3) the calculations. See ISO 9906 section 8.2.4 for further
sitions S’1Geodetic
and S’ and the
pressure
ρ⋅ g expression 2 ⋅ g for the total head explanation.
2
H = H 2 − H 1 Static pressure Dynamic pressure
is therefore: (6.1)
H = ( H2' + H loss, friction,2 ) − ( H '1 − Hloss, friction,1 ) (6.2)
  p' p − p UU '2 2 − U 2 
H = zz2'2+−zρ1 M⋅+2g + 2z 'M 2 1+ + 2 2 + H1 loss, friction, 2 −(6.3)

 pressure
Geodetic
ρ ⋅ g 2 ⋅ g2 ⋅ g 
Static pressure Dynamic pressure
  p'  U '2 
102 z 1' + M1 + z'M1  + 1 − H loss, friction,1 (6.4) 102
ρ⋅g
   2⋅g 
S'
1 S1 S2 S'
2
H loss,friction,2
Figure 6.7: Pump test where the pipes Figure 6.8: General draft of a
H U
are at an angle compared to horizontal. pump test. 2
2
2.g pM2
U'2
2
2.g
Total head
z'
M2
z' H loss,friction,1
M2
Static head U'
2
1 p'
2
2.g U 12 p2 r.g
2.g r.g
z'
M1
pM1
p1'
r.g z'
M1 p1 H1 H2
r.g H'
2
H'
1 z'
2
z'
2
z'
1 z'
1
z2
z1 z1
z2
H = H2 − H1 (6.1)
S'
1 S1 S2 S'
2 S'
1 S1 S2 S'
2
H == (H
H H2' −+ H
2 Hloss,
1
friction,2 ) − ( H '1 − Hloss, friction,1 ) (6.2)
(6.1)
6.2.5 General calculation of head
In practise a pump test is not always made on a hori-
H loss,friction,2
H = ( H2' + H loss, friction,2
p − )p−1 ( H 'U
1−H
2
U12friction,1 )
−loss, (6.2)
H = z 2 − z1 + 2 + 2 (6.3)
zontal pipe, see figure 6.7.H This results in a difference in ρ⋅ g 2⋅g
U 22 Geodetic pressure
height between the centers of the 2.g pumppM2 in- and
U' 2 outlet, p − p Dynamic
U2 −U
Static pressure 2
pressure
2.g
2
H = z 2 − z1 + 2
+ 2 1 1
(6.3)
otal head z’1 and z’2 , and the centers of the inlet and outlet flanges, ρ⋅ g 2⋅g
z'
M2 Geodetic pressure
H loss,friction,1
z112 and z2 respectively.
U'
The manometer can, furthermore, Static pressure Dynamic pressure
tatic head p'
2
.g placed withUa
2be 2
difference in height
p2 compared to the Using the measured sizes in S’1 and S’2, the general
1
r.g
2.g r.g
pipe centre.pM1These differences in height must be taken expression for the  p'total head  is:
U '2 
p1' H = z 2' +  M 2 + z 'M 2  + 2 + H loss, friction, 2 −
rinto
.g consideration
z'
M1 p1 inH 1the calculation
H2 of head. H' ρ⋅g 2 ⋅ g
r.g 2    
  p'M 2  U2'2 
H'
1
Because the manometer only measures the static z' pres- H = z 2' +  p' + z 'M 2 + U '2 + H loss, friction, 2 −
2
ρ⋅g 2⋅g
sure, the dynamic pressure must also be taken into ac- z 1' + ρM⋅1g + z'M1 + 1 − H loss, friction,1 (6.4)
  2⋅g
z'
1  
count. The dynamic pressure depends on the pipe diam-   p'M1  U1'2 
z1
eter and can be different on eachz2side of the pump. z 1' + ρ ⋅ g + z'M1  + 2 ⋅ g − H loss, friction,1 (6.4)
   
S' S1
Figure 6.81 illustrates the basic Sversion
2 S'
of
2 a pump test in
a pipe. The total head which is defined by the pressures

p1 and p2 and the velocities U1 and U2 in the inlet and
outlet flanges S1 and S2 can be calculated by means of pstat,in + pbar + 0 .5 ⋅ ρ ⋅ V12 pva
NPSH A = + z geo− H loss, friction, −
the following equation: ρ⋅g ρ⋅
pstat,in + pbar + 0 .5 ⋅ ρ ⋅ V12 pva
103 NPSH A = + z geo− H loss, friction,103
−
ρ⋅g ρ⋅
6. Pump tests
6.2.6 Power consumption

Distinction is made between measurement of the shaft power P2 and added
electric power P1. The shaft power can best be determined as the product of
measured angular velocity w and the torque on the shaft which is measured
by means of a torque measuring device. The shaft power can alternatively
be measured on the basis of P1. However, this implies that the motor char-
acteristic is known. In this case, it is important to be aware that the motor
characteristic changes over time because of bearing wear and due to chang-
es in temperature and voltage.
The power consumption depends on the fluid density. The measured power
consumption is therefore usually corrected so that it applies to a standard
fluid with a density of 1000 kg/m3 which corresponds to water at 4°C. Head
and flow are independent of the density of the pumped fluid.
6.2.7 Rotational speed

The rotational speed is typically measured by using an optic counter or mag-
netically with a coil around the motor. The rotational speed can alternative-
ly be measured by means of the motor characteristic and measured P1. This
method is, however, more uncertain because it is indirect and because the
motor characteristic, as mentioned above, changes over time.
The pump performance is often given for a constant rotational speed. By

means of affinity equations, described in section 4.5, the performance can
be converted to another speed. The flow, head and power consumption are
hereby changed but the efficiency is not changed considerably if the scaling
of the speed is smaller than ± 20 %.
104 104
6.3 Measurement of the pump’s NPSH
The NPSH test measures the lowest absolute pressure at the inlet before
cavitation occurs for a given flow and a specific fluid with vapour pressure
pvapour , see section 2.10 and formula (2.16).
A typical sign of incipient cavitation is a higher noise level than usual. If the
cavitation increases, it affects the pump head and flow which both typically
decrease. Increased cavitation can also be seen as a drop in flow at constant
head. Erosion damage can occur on the hydraulic part at cavitation.
The following pages introduce the NPSH3% test which gives information
about cavitation’s influence on the pump’s hydraulic performance. The test
gives no information about the pump’s noise and erosion damage caused
by cavitation.
In practise it is thus not an actual ascertainment of cavitation but a chosen

(3%) reduction of the pump’s head which is used for determination of NPSHR
- hence the name NPSH3%.
To perform a NPSH3% test a reference QH curve where the inlet pressure is

sufficient enough to avoid cavitation has to be measured first. The 3% curve
is drawn on the basis of the reference curve where the head is 3% lower.
Grundfos uses two procedures to perform an NPSH3% test. One is to gradual-
ly lower the inlet pressure and keep the flow constant. The other is to gradu-
ally increase the flow while the inlet pressure is kept constant.
105 105
6. Pump tests
6.3.1 NPSH3% test by lowering the inlet pressure

When the NPSH3% curve is flat, this type of NPSH3% test is the best suited.
The NPSH3% test is made by keeping the flow fixed while the inlet pressure
pstat,in and thereby NPSHA is gradually lowered until the head is reduced with
more than 3%. The resulting NPSHA value for the last measuring point before
the head drops below the 3% curve then states a value for NPSH3% at the
given flow.
The NPSH3% curve is made by repeating the measurement for a number of

different flows. Figure 6.9 shows the measuring data for an NPSH3% test
where the inlet pressure is gradually lowered and the flow is kept fixed. It is
these NPSH values which are stated as the pump’s NPSH curve.
Procedure for an NPSH3% test where the inlet pressure is gradually lowered: H
1. A QH test is made and used as reference curve

2. The 3% curve is calculated so that the head is 3% lower than the
reference curve.
3. Selection of 5-10 flow points
4. The test stand is set for the seleted flow point starting with the
largest flow
5. The valve which regulates the counter-pressure is kept fixed
6. The inlet pressure is gradually lowered and flow, head
and inlet pressure are measured
7. The measurements continue until the head drops below the 3% curve Q
8. Point 4 to 7 is repeated for each flow point Figure 6.9: NPSHA measurement by lowering
the inlet pressure.
Referencekurve
3% kurve
Målt løftehøjde
Reference curve
3% curve
Measured head
106 106
6.3.2 NPSH3% test by increasing the flow
For NPSH3% test where the NPSH3% curve is steep, this procedure is prefer- H
able. This type of NPSH3% test is also well suited for cases where it is difficult
to change the inlet pressure e.g. an open test stand.
The NPSH3% test is made by keeping a constant inlet pressure, constant wa-
ter level or constant setting of the regulation valve before the pump. Then
the flow can be increased from shutoff until the head can be measured be-
low the 3% curve, see figure 6.10. The NPSH3% curve is made by repeating the
measurements for different inlet pressures.
Procedure for NPSH3% test where the flow is gradually increased Q

1. A QH test is made and used as reference curve Figure 6.10: NSPHA measurement by
2. The 3% curve is calculated so that the head is 3% lower than the increasing flow.
Referencekurve
3% kurve
reference curve. Reference curve
Målt løftehøjde
3% curve
3. Selection of 5-10 inlet pressures
Measured head
4. The test stand is set for the wanted inlet pressure
5. The flow is increased from the shutoff and flow, head and inlet
pressure are measured
6. The measurements continue until the head is below the 3% curve
7. Point 4-6 is repeated for each flow point Vacuum pump
Shower
Flow valve
6.3.3 Test beds
When a closed test bed is used for testing pumps in practise, then the in-
let pressure can be regulated by adjusting the system pressure. The system Flow meter
Baffle plate
pressure is lowered by pumping water out of the circuit. The system pres-
sure can, furthermore, be reduced with a throttle valve or a vacuum pump,
see figure 6.11. Heating/
cooling coil
Test pump
Pressure
control
Throttle valve pump
Figure 6.11: Draft of closed

test bed for NPSH measurement.
107 107
6. Pump tests
In an open test bed, see figure 6.12, it is possible to adjust the inlet pressure Adjustable water level for flow valve
and flow meter
in two ways: Either the water level in the well can be changed, or a valve can Pump
be inserted before the pump. The flow can be controlled by changing the
pump’s counter-pressure by means of a valve mounted after the pump.
6.3.4 Water quality

If there is dissolved air in the water, this affects the pump performance which
can be mistaken for cavitation. Therefore you must make sure that the air con-
tent in the water is below an acceptable level before the NPSH test is made. In
practise this can be done by extracting air out of the water for several hours.
The process is called degasification.
In a closed test bed the water can be degased by lowering the pressure in
the tank and shower the water hard down towards a plate, see figure 6.11, Throttle valve
forcing the air bubbles out of the fluid. When a certain air volume is gath- Figure 6.12: Drafts of open test beds for
ered in the tank, a part of the air is removed with a vacuum pump and the NPSH measurement.
procedure is repeated at an even lower system pressure.
6.3.5 Vapour pressure and density

The vapour pressure and the density for water depend on the temperature
and can be found by table look-up in ”Physical properties of water” in the
back of the book. The fluid temperature is therefore measured during the
execution of an NPSH test.
6.3.6 Reference plane

NPSH is an absolute size which is defined relative to a reference plane. In
this case reference is made to the center of the circle on the impeller shroud
which goes through the front edge of the blades, see figure 6.13.
Reference plan
Figure 6.13: Reference planes at
NPSH measurement.
108 108
  p'  U '2 
H = z 2' +  M 2 + z 'M 2  + 2 + H loss, friction, 2 −
ρ⋅g 2 ⋅ g
   
  p'M1  U1'2 
z 1' +pressure
6.3.7 Barometric ρ⋅g
+ z'M1  +
2⋅g
− H loss, friction,1 (6.4)
  
In practise the inlet pressure is measured as a relative  pressure in relation to
the surroundings. It is therefore necesarry to know the barometric pressure
at the place and time where the test is made.
6.3.8 Calculation of NPSHA and determination of NPSH3% H
NPSHA can be calculated by means of the following formula:

•
•
•
•
pstat,in + pbar + 0 .5 ⋅ ρ ⋅ V12 pvapour •
NPSH A = + z geo− H loss, friction, − (6.5)

•
ρ⋅g ρ⋅g
pstat,in = The measured relative inlet pressure •
pbar = Barometric pressure

•
V1 = Inlet velocity •
•
zgeo = The pressure sensor’s height above the pump •
•
Hloss,friction = The pipe loss between pressure measurement and pump Q
pvapour = Vapour pressure (table look-up) Figure 6.14: Determination of NPSH3%.
ρ = Density (table look-up) Referencekurve

3% kurve
Reference curve
Målt løftehøjde
3% curve
The NPSH3% value can be found by looking at how the head develops during NPSH 3%
Measured head
NPSH A
the test, see figure 6.14. An NPSH3% value is determined by the NPSHA value NPSH3%
NPSHA
which is calculated from the closest data point above the 3% curve.
6.4 Measurement of force

Measurement of axial and radial forces on the impeller is the only reliable
way to get information about the forces’ sizes. This is because these forces
are very difficult to calculate precisely since this requires a full three-dimen-
sional numerical simulation of the flow.
109 109
6. Pump tests
6.4.1 Measuring system

The force measurement is made by absorbing the forces on the rotating system Dynamometer
(impeller and shaft) through a measuring system.

Axial bearing
The axial force can e.g. be measured by moving the axial bearing outside the mo-
tor and mount it on a dynamometer, see figure 6.15. The axial forces occuring
during operation are absorbed in the bearing and can thereby be measured with a
dynamometer.
Axial and radial forces can also be measured by mounting the shaft in a magnetic
bearing where it is fixed with magnetic forces. The shaft is fixed magnetical both in
the axial and radial direction. The mounting force is measured, and the magnetic
bearing provides information about both radial and axial forces, see figure 6.16.
Radial and axial force measurements with magnetic bearing are very fast, and
both the static and the dynamic forces can therefore be measured.
By measurement in the magnetic bearing, the pump hydraulic is mounted directly

on the magnetic bearing. It is important that the fixing flange geometry is a pre-
cise reflection in the pump geometry because small changes in the flow condi-
tions in the cavities can cause considerable differences in the forces affecting on
the impeller.
Axial sensor Axial magnetic bearing Radial magnetic bearing Figure 6.15: Axial force measurement
Radial magnetic bearing Radial sensor
through dynamometer on the bearing.
Support Radial sensor Radial sensor Axial sensor

bearing
Support bearing
Figure 6.16: Radial and axial force meas-

urement with magnetic bearing.
110 110
6.4.2 Execution of force measurement
During force measurement the pump is mounted in a test bed, and the test
is made in the exact same way as a QH test. The force measurements are
made simultaneously with a QH test.
At the one end, the shaft is affected by the pressure in the pump, and in the
other end it is affected by the pressure outside the pump. Therefore the sys-
tem pressure has influence on the size of the axial force.
If comparison between the different axial force measurement is wanted, it

is necesarry to convert the system pressure in the axial force measurements
to the same pressure. The force affecting the shaft end is calculated by mul-
tiplying the area of the shaft end with the pressure in the pump.
6.5 Uncertainty in measurement of performance

At any measurement there is an uncertainty. When testing a pump in a test bed,
the uncertainty is a combination of contributions from the measuring equip-
ment, variations in the test bed and variations in the pump during the test.
6.5.1 Standard demands for uncertainties

Uncertainties on measuring equipment are in practise handled by specify-
ing a set of measuring equipment which meet the demands in the standard
for hydrualic performance test, ISO09906.
ISO09906 also states an allowed uncertainty for the complete measuring

system. The complete measuring system includes the test beds’ pipe circuit,
measuring equipment and data collection. The uncertainty for the com-
plete measuring system is larger than the sum of uncertainties on the single
measuring instrument because the complete uncertainty also contains vari-
ations in the pump during test which are not corrected for.
Variations occuring during test which the measurements can be correct-

ed for are the fluid’s characteristic and the pump speed. The correction is
111 111
to convert the measuring results to a constant fluid temperature and a
constant speed.
To ensure a measuring result which is representative for the pump, the

test bed takes up more measurements and calculates an average value.
ISO09906 has an instruction of how the test makes a representative aver-
age value seen from a stability criteria. The stability criteria is a simplified
way to work with statistical normal distribution.
6.5.2 Overall uncertainty

The repetition precision on a test bed is in general better than the collected
precision. During development where very small differences in performance
are interesting, it is therefore a great advantage to make all tests on the
same test bed.
There can be significant difference in the measuring results between several

test beds. The differences correspond to the overall uncertainty.
6.5.3 Measurement of the test bed’s uncertainty

Grundfos has developed a method to estimate a test beds’ overall uncer-
tainty. The method gives a value for the standard deviation on the QH curve
and a value for the standard deviation on the performance measurement.
The method is the same as the one used for geometric measuring instru-
ments, e.g. slide gauge.
The method is outlined in the Grundfos standard GS 241A0540: Test bench-

es and test equipment.
6.6 Summary
In this chapter we have introduced the hydraulic tests carried out on com-
plete pumps and their hydraulic components. We have described which
sizes to measure and which problems can occur in connection with planning
and execution of a test. Furthermore, we have described data treatment,
e.g. head and NPSH value.
112 112
Appendix
Appendix A. Units
Appendix B. Check of test results
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
Q
A. Units
A. Units
Some of the SI system’s units
Basicunits
Basic units
Unit for Name Unit
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second S
Temperature Kelvin K
Additional units
Unit for Name Unit Definition
Angle radian rad One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a
circle by an arc of circumference that is equal in length
to the radius of the circle..
Derived units
Unit for Name Unit Definition
Force Newton N N = kg ⋅ m / s2
Pressure Pascal Pa Pa = N/m2 = kg /(m ⋅ s2 )
Energy, work Joule J J = N⋅m = W ⋅ s
Power Watt W W = J/ s = N ⋅ m/ s = Kg ⋅ m2/s3
Impulse kg ⋅ m/ s
Torque N⋅m
114
Conversion of units
Length
m in (inches) ft (feet)
1 39.37 3.28
0.0254 1 0.0833
Time
s min h (hour)
1 16.6667 . 10-3 0.277778 . 10-3

60 1 16.6667 . 10-3
3600 60 1
Flow, volume flow
m3/s m3/h l/s gpm (US)
1 3600 1000 15852

0.277778 . 10-3
1 0.277778 4.4
10 -3
3.6 1 15.852
0.000063 0.2271 0.063 1
Mass flow Speed
kg/s kg/h kg/s kg/h ft/s
1 3600 1 3600 3.28

0.277778 . 10-3 1 0.277778 . 10-3 1 0.9119
0.3048 1.097 1
115
A. Units
Rotational speed
RPM = revolution per minute s-1 rad/s
1 16.67 . 10-3 0.105

60 1 6.28
9.55 0.1592 1
Pressure
kPa bar mVs
1 0.01 0.102
100 1 10.197
9.807 98.07 . 10-3 1
Temperature Work, energy
K o
C J kWh
1 t(oC) = T - 273.15K 1 0.277778 . 10-6

T(Kelvin) = 273.15 C + t 1
o
3.6 . 106 1
Kinematic viscosity Dynamic viscosity
m /s2
cSt Pa . s cP
1 106 1 103
10-6 1 10-3 1
116
B. Check of test results

When unexpected test results occur, it can be difficult to find out why. Is the
tested pump in reality not the one we thought? Is the test bed not measur-
ing correctly? Is the test which we compare with not reliable? Have some
units been swaped during the data treatment?
Typical examples which deviate from what is expected is presented on the

following pages. Furthermore, some recommendations of where it is ap-
propriate to start looking for reasons for the deviating test results are pre-
sented.
The test shows that the efficiency is below the catalogue curve.
Possible cause What to examine How to find the error
Power consumption is too high Decide whether it is the power Use one of the three schemes
and/or the head is too low consumption or the head which below, scheme 1 -3
deviates
117
Table 1: The test shows that the power consumption for a produced pump lies
above the catalogue value but the head is the same as the catalogue curve.
The catalogue curve does not Compare 0-series test with If the catalogue curve and
reflect the 0-series testen. catalog curve 0-series test do not correspond,
it can not be expected that the
pump performs according to
the catalogue curve.
The impeller diameter or outlet Make a scaling of the test where Make sure that the right impeller
width is bigger than on the the impeller diameter D2 is is tested.
0-series reduced until the power matches
most of the curve. If the head Measure the impeller’s outlet on
also matches the curve, then the the 0-series pump.
diameter on the produced pump Adjust impeller diameter and
is probably too big. Repeat the outlet width in the production
same procedure with the impeller
outlet width b2. Scaling of D2
and b2 is discussed in chapter 4.5
Mechanical drag is found Listen to the pump. If it is noisy, Remove the mechanical drag
turn off the pump and rotate by
hand to identify any friction.
Look at the difference of the
two power curves. Is it constant,
there is probably drag.
The motor efficiency is lower Separate motor and pump. Test If the pump’s power consumption
than specified. them separately. The pump can is ok, the motor is the problem.
be in a test bench with torque Find cause for motor error.
meter or with a calibrated motor.
118
Table 2: The test shows that the power consumption and head lies below
the catalogue curve.
Curves have been made at Find the speed for the catalogue Convert to the same speed and
different speeds. curve and the test. compare again.
The catalogue curve does not Compare the 0-series test with If the catalogue curve and 0-series
reflect the 0-series test. the catalogue curve. test do not correspond, it can not
be expected that the pump
performs according to catalogue
curve.
The impeller’s outlet diameter or Make a scaling of the test where Measure the impeller outlet on
outlet width is smaller than on the impeller diameter D2 is the 0-series pump. Adjust impeller
the 0-series test. increased until the power matches diameter and outlet width in
over most of the curve. If the the production.
head also matches over most of
the curve, then the diameter on
the produced pump is probably
too small. Repeat the same
procedure with the impeller’s
outlet width b2. Scaling of D2
and b2 is discussed in chapter 4.5
Curve 1
Impellere D2/D1: 99/100=0.99 Curve 1
H[m]
100
83.3333
66.6667
50
33.3333
16.6667
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Q [m³/h]
Curve 1
Impellere D2/D1: 99/100=0.99 Kurve 1
P1 [kW]
34,2857
28,5714
22,8571
17,1429
11,4286
5,71429
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Q [m³/h]
119
Table 3: The power consumption is as the catalogue curve but the head is too low.
The catalogue curve does not Compare O-series test with If the catalogue curve and 0-series
reflect the 0-series test. catalogue curve. test do not correspond, it can not
be expected that the pump performs
according to the catalogue curve.
Increased hydraulic friction Compare the QH curves at the same Remove irregularities in the
speed. Is the difference developing surface. Reduce surface roughness.
as a parabola with the flow, there Remove elements which block
could be an increased friction loss. the inlet.
Examine surface roughness and
inlet conditions.
Calculation of the head is not Examine the information about pipe Repeat the calculation of the head.
done correctly. diameter and the location of the
pressure transducers. Examine
whether the correct density has been
used for calculation of the head.
Error in the differential pressure Read the test bed’s calibration report. If it has been more than a year
measurement. Examine whether the pressure since the pump has been
outlets and the connections to the calibrated, it must be calibrated
pressure transducers have been bleed. now. Use the right pressure
Examine that the pressure transducers transducers.
can measure in the pressure range
in question.
Cavitation Examine whether there is Increase the system pressure.
sufficient pressure at the pump’s
inlet. See section 2.10 and 6.3)
120
Table 3 (continued)
Increased leak loss. Compare QH curves and power Replace the impeller seal.
curves. If the curve is a horizontal Close all unwanted circuits.
displacement which decreases
when the head (the pressure
difference above the gap) falls,
there could be an increased leak l
oss. Leak loss is described in section
5.3.7. Measure the sealing diameter
on the rotating and fixed part.
Compare the results with the
specifications on the drawing.
Examine the pump for other
types of leak loss.
0-series
Pump with leakage
H [m ]
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Q [m ^3/h]
0-series
Pump with leakage
H [m ]
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
500
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Q [m ^3/h]
121
Bibliography
European Association of Pump Manufacturers (1999), ”NPSH for rotordy-

namic pumps: a reference guide”, 1st edition.
R. Fox and A. McDonald (1998), ”Introduction to Fluid Mechanics”.

5. edition, John Wiley & Sons.
J. Gulich (2004), ”Kreiselpumpen. Handbuch für Entwicklung, Anlagenplanung

und Betrieb”. 2nd edition, Springer Verlag.
C. Pfleiderer and H. Petermann (1990), ”Strömungsmachinen”.

6. edition, Springer Verlag, Berlin.
A. Stepanoff (1957), ”Centrifugal and axial flow pumps: theory, design and
application”. 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons.
H. Albrecht and others (2002), ”Laser Doppler and Phase Doppler Measure-
ment Techniques”. Springer Verlag, Berlin.
H. Hansen and others (1997), ”Danvak. Varme- og klimateknik. Grundbog”.

2nd edition.
Pumpeståbi (2000). 3rd edition, Ingeniøren A/S.
Motor compendium. Department of Motor Engineering, R&T, Grundfos.
G. Ludwig, S. Meschkat and B. Stoffel (2002). ”Design Factors Affecting

Pump Efficiency”, 3rd International Conference on Energy Efficiency in Motor
Driven Systems, Treviso, Italy, September 18-20.
122
Standards
ISO 9906 Rotodynamic pumps – Hydraulic performance acceptance test-

Grades 1 and 2. The standard deals with hydraulic tests and contains
instructions of data treatment and making of test equipment.
ISO2548 has been replaced by ISO9906
ISO3555 has been replaced by ISO9906
ISO 5198 Pumps – Centrifugal-, mixed flow – and axial pumps – Hydraulic
function test – Precision class
GS 241A0540 Test benches and test equipment. Grundfos standards for

contruction and rebuilding of test benches and data loggers.
123
Index
A Cavity. ............................................................................................................ 19
Absolute flow angle............................................................................. 61 Centrifugal force ....................................................................................12
Absolute pressure. .................................................................................33 Centrifugal pump principle ............................................................12
Absolute pressure sensor..................................................................33 Chamber. ......................................................................................................23
Absolute temperature.........................................................................33 Circulation pumps .......................................................................... 24, 25
Absolute velocity . .................................................................................60 Closed system . ........................................................................................ 49
Affinity .......................................................................................................... 70 Constant-pressure control ..............................................................54
Affinity equations . .........................................................53, 104 Contraction.................................................................................................87
Affinity laws . .............................................................................. 68 Control. ......................................................................................................... 39
Air content................................................................................................ 108 Control volume . ..................................................................................... 64
Angular frequency . .............................................................................. 62 Corrosion .................................................................................................... 85
Angular velocity............................................................................. 64, 104 Cross section contraction. ................................................................87
Annual energy consumption ........................................................ 56 Cross section expansion. .................................................................. 86
Area relation . ........................................................................................... 86 Cross section shape.............................................................................. 83
Auxiliary pump ....................................................................................... 50 Cutting system ........................................................................................27
Axial bearing............................................................................................. 20
Axial forces.........................................................................................44, 110 D
Axial impeller. .......................................................................................... 16 Data sheet . ................................................................................................ 30
Axial thrust. .........................................................................................19, 20 Degasification ....................................................................................... 108
Axial thrust reduction........................................................................ 20 Density........................................................................................................ 108
Axial velocity.............................................................................................60 Detail measurements ........................................................................98
Differential pressure . ................................................................... 34, 35
B Differential pressure sensor ...........................................................33
Balancing holes ...................................................................................... 20 Diffusor...................................................................................................21, 86
Barometric pressure . ..................................................................33, 109 Disc friction................................................................................................ 91
Bearing losses ..........................................................................................80 Double pump............................................................................................ 50
Bernoulli’s equation. ............................................................................37 Double suction pump .........................................................................14
Best point.................................................................................................... 39 Down thrust ............................................................................................. 44
Blade angle. .........................................................................................73, 90 Dryrunner pump. .................................................................................... 17
Blade shape. ..............................................................................................66 Dynamic pressure...................................................................................32
Bypass regulation...................................................................52 Dynamic pressure difference .........................................................35
C E
Cavitation .......................................................................................... 40, 105 Eddies..............................................................................................................87
124
Efficiency...................................................................................................... 39 Hydraulic power .................................................................................... 38
Electrical motor........................................................................................17
Electrical power. ................................................................................... 104 I
End-suction pump..................................................................................14 Ideal flow .....................................................................................................37
Energy class. ...............................................................................................57 Impact losses............................................................................................90
Energy efficiency index (EEI). ..........................................................57 Impeller. ........................................................................................................15
Energy equation. .....................................................................................37 Impeller blades...................................................................................15, 16
Energy labeling........................................................................................ 56 Impeller outlet heigth........................................................................ 70
Equilibrium equations. ...................................................................... 64 Impeller shape..........................................................................................75
Euler’s turbomachinery equation........................................64, 65 Industrial pumps ................................................................................... 24
Inlet ...........................................................................................................14, 62
F Inlet flange..................................................................................................14
Final inspection test . ..........................................................................99 Inline-pump................................................................................................14
Flow angle . ................................................................................... 61, 73, 90
Flow forces . ............................................................................................... 64 L
Flow friction . .............................................................................................81 Laminar flow............................................................................................. 83
Flow meters ............................................................................................100 Leakage......................................................................................................... 92
Fluid column. ............................................................................................ 34 Leakage loss.........................................................................................19, 92
Force measurements........................................................... 110 Load profile. ................................................................................................54
Friction.......................................................................................................... 19 Loss distribution..................................................................................... 95
Friction coefficient ............................................................................... 82 Loss types.....................................................................................................78
Friction loss..........................................................................................49, 81 Low specific speed pumps................................................................74
G M
Geodetic pressure difference ................................................. 35, 36 Magnetic bearing. ............................................................................... 110
Grinder pump ...........................................................................................27 Magnetic drive..........................................................................................18
Guide vanes ...............................................................................................23 Maintenance test. .................................................................................99
Measuring holes................................................................................... 101
H Mechanical losses. .................................................................................78
Head ........................................................................................31, 34, 100, 102 Meridional cut. ........................................................................................60
Head loss calculation........................................................... 85 Meridional velocity...............................................................................60
High specific speed pumps .............................................................74 meterWaterColumn............................................................................ 34
Hydraulic diameter. ............................................................................. 82 Mixing losses............................................................................................ 86
Hydraulic losses................................................................................78, 80 Momentum equation......................................................................... 64
125
Index
Moody chart.............................................................................................. 84 Pressure sensor. .......................................................................................33

Motor. .............................................................................................................17 Pressure taps................................................................. 100, 102
Motor characteristics..........................................................................98 Pressure transducer................................................................. 100, 101
Primary eddy............................................................................................. 91
N Primary flow.............................................................................................. 19
Non-return valve.....................................................................................51 Proportional-pressure control.......................................................54
NPSH . ..................................................................................... 31, 40, 105, 109 Pump curve.................................................................................................31
NPSH3%-test................................................................................ 105 Pump efficiency....................................................................................... 39
NPSHA (Available)....................................................................40 Pump losses............................................................................................... 79
NPSHR (Required)......................................................................41 Pump performance. ............................................................................. 30
Pumps for pressure boosting........................................................ 24
O Pumps in parallel................................................................................... 50
Open impeller. ......................................................................................... 16 Pumps in series. .......................................................................................51
Open system............................................................................................. 49 Pumps in series....................................................................... 51
Operating point............................................................................... 48, 49
Optical counter. .................................................................................... 104 Q
Outlet............................................................................................................. 63 QH-curve...................................................................................................... 34
Outlet diameter...................................................................................... 70
Outlet diffusor..........................................................................................22 R
Outlet flange..............................................................................................14 Radial forces............................................................................... 22, 44, 110
Radial impeller......................................................................................... 16
P Radial velocity..........................................................................................60
Parasitic losses.........................................................................................80 Recirculation losses..............................................................................89
Pipe diameter........................................................................................... 36 Recirculation zones..............................................................................89
Pipe friction. .............................................................................................. 82 Reference curve. ................................................................................... 105
Pipe friction losses.............................................................................. 102 Reference plane............................................................................. 36, 108
Potential energy......................................................................................37 Regulering af omdrejningstal..................................................51, 53
Power consumption. ...................................................................31, 104 Regulation of pumps............................................................................51
Power curves............................................................................................. 38 Relative flow angle............................................................................... 61
Prerotation.......................................................................................... 62, 72 Relative pressure.....................................................................................33
Pressure.........................................................................................................32 Relative speed..........................................................................................60
Pressure loss coefficient..............................................................81, 88 Relative velocity......................................................................................60
Pressure measurement. ....................................................................98 Representative power consumption. ...................................... 56
126
Return channel.........................................................................................23 System characteristics. ...................................................................... 49
Reynolds’ number. ................................................................................ 83 System pressure................................................................................... 107
Ring area...................................................................................................... 62
Ring diffusor...............................................................................................22 T
Rotational speed.................................................................................... 91 Tangential velocity...............................................................................60
Rotor can.......................................................................................................18 Temperature........................................................................................... 101
Roughness......................................................................................81, 82, 85 Test bed uncertainty. .........................................................................112
Test results................................................................................................ 117
S Test types....................................................................................................98
Seal ..................................................................................................................18 Test uncertainty. ................................................................................... 111
Secondary eddy....................................................................................... 91 Throat. ............................................................................................................22
Secondary flow........................................................................................ 19 Throttle regulation..........................................................................51, 52
Self-priming................................................................................................25 Throttle valve. ...........................................................................................52
Semi axial impeller............................................................................... 16 Tongue. ..........................................................................................................22
Separation. ..................................................................................................87 Torque. .......................................................................................................... 64
Sewage pumps........................................................................................ 24
Shaft bearing lossses . ........................................................................80 Torque balance........................................................................................ 64
Shaft power............................................................................................. 104 Torque meter.......................................................................................... 104
Shaft seal......................................................................................................17 Total efficiency. ....................................................................................... 39
Shaft seal loss...........................................................................................80 Total pressure. ..........................................................................................32
Single channel pumpe. ............................................................... 16, 27 Total pressure difference. .................................................................35
Slip factor.....................................................................................................73 Transition zone. ...................................................................................... 83
Specific number............................................................................... 74, 95 Turbulent flow...................................................................................83, 84
Speed control.......................................................................................51, 53
Stage ...............................................................................................................23 U
Standard fluid. ......................................................................................... 38 Up-thrust..................................................................................................... 44
Standby pump. ........................................................................................ 50
Start/stop regulation ....................................................................51, 53 V
Static pressure..........................................................................................32 Vapour bubbles.......................................................................................40
Static pressure difference.................................................................35 Vapour pressure............................................................................ 40, 108
Submersible pump. ...............................................................................14 Velocity diffusion....................................................................................21
Suction pipe...............................................................................................40 Velocity measurements....................................................................98
Surface roughness. ............................................................................... 91 Velocity profile. .....................................................................................100
127
Index
Velocity triangles.............................................................................60, 75
Volute. ............................................................................................................22
Volute casing.............................................................................................21
Vortex pump............................................................................................. 16
W
Water quality. ........................................................................................ 108
Water supply pumps........................................................................... 24
Wetrunner pump....................................................................................17
128
List of Symbols Symbol Definition Unit
POWER
Symbol Definition Unit P Power [W]
FLOW P1 Power added from the electricity
Q Flow, volume flow [m3/s] supply network [W]
Qdesign Design flow [m3/s] P2 Power added from motor [W]
Qimpeller Flow through the impeller [m3/s] Phyd Hydraulic power transferred to
Qleak Leak flow [m3/s] the fluid [W]
m Mass flow [kg/s] Ploss,{loss type} Power loss in {loss type} [W]
HEAD SPEED
H Head [m] w Angular frequency [1/s]
f Frequency [Hz]
Hloss,{loss type} Head loss in {loss type} [m]
n Speed [1/min]
NPSH Net Positive Suction Head [m]
NPSHA NPSH Available VELOCITIES
(Net Positive Suction Head available V The fluid velocity [m/s]
in system) [m]
U The impeller tangential velocity [m/s]
NPSHR, NPSH3% NPSH Required C The fluid absolute velocity [m/s]
(The pump’s net positive suction
head system demands) [m] W The fluid relative velocity [m/s]
SPECIFIC NUMBERS
GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONS
Re Reynold’s number [-]
A Cross-section area [m2]
n q Specific speed
b Blade height [m]
b Blade angle [o] FLUID CHARACTERISTICS
b’ Flow angle [o] r The fluid density [kg/m3]
s Gap width [m] n Kinematic viscosity of the fluid [m2/s]
D, d Diameter [m] MISCELLANEOUS
Dh Hydraulic diameter [m] f Coefficient of friction [-]
k Roughness [m] g Gravitational acceleration [m/s2]
L Length (gap length, length of pipe) [m] z Dimensionless pressure loss coefficient [-]
O Perimeter [m]
r Radius [m] General indices
z Height [m]
Dz Difference in height [m] Index Definition Examples
PRESSURE
1, in At inlet, into the component A1, Cin
p Pressure [Pa]
2, out At outlet, out of the component A2, Cout
∆p Differential pressure [Pa]
m Meridional direction Cm
psteam The fluid vapour pressure [Pa]
r Radial direction Wr
pbar Barometric pressure [Pa]
U Tangential direction C1U
pbeho Positive or negative pressure
a Axial direction Ca
compared to pbar if the fluid is in a
stat Static pstat
closed container. [Pa]
dyn Dynamic pdyn, Hdyn,in
Ploss,{loss type} Pressure loss in {loss type} [Pa]
geo Geodetic pgeo
EFFICIENCIES tot Total ptot
hhyd Hydraulic efficiency [-] abs Absolute pstat,abs, ptot,abs,in
hcontrol Control efficiency [-] rel Relative pstat,rel
hmotor Motor efficency [-] Operation Operation point Qoperation
htot Total efficiency for control,
motor and hydraulics [-]
Physical properties for water Affinity rules
T pvapour r n
n  
[°C] [105 Pa] [kg/m3] [10-6 m2/s] QB = Q A⋅  B  
 nA  
0 0.00611 1000.0 1.792
nB   Scaling of
2
4 0.00813 1000.0 1.568
HB = HA⋅   
10 0.01227 999.7 1.307 nA   rotational speed
 nB  
20 0.02337 998.2 1.004 3
25 0.03166 997.1 0.893 PB = PA ⋅   
30 0.04241 995.7 0.801  nA 
40 0.07375 992.3 0.658
50 0.12335 988.1 0.554
 D 2 ⋅b  
60 0.19920 983.2 0.475 Q B = Q A⋅  B2 B  
70 0.31162 977.8 0.413  DA ⋅ bA  
80 0.47360 971.7 0.365 2  Geometric
 DB 
90 0.70109 965.2 0.326 HB = HA ⋅    scaling
100 1.01325 958.2 0.294  DA  
110 1.43266 950.8 0.268  D ⋅b  
4
120 1.98543 943.0 0.246 PB = PA ⋅  B4 B  

130 2.70132 934.7 0.228  DA ⋅ bA  
140 3.61379 926.0 0.212
150 4.75997 916.9 0.199
160 6.18065 907.4 0.188
Pictograms
Pump Valve Stop valve Pressure gauge Heat exchanger

Being responsible is our foundation
Thinking ahead makes it possible
Innovation is the essence
www.grundfos.com

The Centrifugal Pump

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Centrifugal Pump

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

GRUNDFOS

RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY

The Centrifugal Pump

Chapter 1. Introduction to Centrifugal Pumps................11 2.5.4 Geodetic pressure difference......................... 36

2.1 Standard curves . ..................................................................... 30

6.1 Test types......................................................................................98 Bibliography ............................................................................................122

1.2 Hydraulic components

1.3 Pump types and systems

1. Introduction to Centrifugal Pumps

1.1 Principle of the centrifugal pump

The centrifugal pump creates an increase in pressure by transferring me-

Figure 1.1: Fluid path through

Figure 1.2: Hydraulic

Cavity below impeller

Outlet flange Inlet flange

Pump housing Impeller Impeller seal Inlet

Impeller Inlet Impeller Inlet Impeller Inlet

Inline pump Endsuction pump Doublesuction pump Submersible pump

Trailing edge Leading edge

Shroud plate Impeller blade

In a radial impeller, there is a significant difference between the inlet

Figure 1.11: Dry-runner with magnet drive.

1.2.4 Impeller seal

1.2.5 Cavities and axial bearing

Primary and secondary flows influence the pressure distribution on the

Another approach to reduce the axial thrust is to combine balancing holes

power without contributing to the pump performance. The construction

Figure 1.17: Axial thrust reduction using impel-

Figure 1.18: Axial thrust reduction through

Figure 1.20: Change of fluid velocity

The primary task of the volute is to collect the fluid from

The outlet diffusor connects the throat with the out-

The rotation is controlled by guide vanes in the return channel. Chamber

When designing a return channel, the same design considerations of impel-

Figure 1.22: Hydraulic components in an

1.3 Pump types and systems

Wastewater pumps are used for pumping contaminated water in sewage

1.3.2 The TP pump

1.3.3 The NB pump

1.3.5 The SP pump

1.3.6 The CR pump

1.3.7 The MTA pump Inlet

The installation length, the part of the pump which is submerged

Figure 1.29: MTA pump. Inlet

1.3.9 The SEG pump Outlet

Figure 1.31: SEG pumps.

2.1 Standard curves

pressure 20 2.12 Radial thrust 40

2.6 Energy equation for an ideal 10 2.13 Summary 20

2.1 Standard curves

P2 [kW] NPSH [m]

Figure 2.2.: The performance curves are

p tot = pstat + pdyn [Pa] (2.1)

where ∆ p tot= =p ∆p+statp + ∆p[Pa

2.3 Absolute and relative pressure

The barometric z ⋅ ρ ⋅ g is[Pa

pabs = prel + pbar [Pa] (2.3)

Δp tot pressure is measured by means of three different types of

P1 > P2 > Phyd [W] (2.14)

η tot = η control ⋅ η motor ⋅ η hyd [ ⋅ 100 % ] (2.15)

2.4 Head∆p tot = ∆pstat + ∆pdyn + ∆pgeo [Pa] (2.5) H [m]

The different performance curves are introduced on the following pages.

the head prel + pbar by[Pa

the head in [m]. As seen in the