A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MICRO SILICA, PAPERCRETE,

AND ASHCRETE AS POTENTIAL ECO-FRIENDLY

ALTERNATIVES TO COMMERCIAL CONCRETE

GABUNAL, JOEMAR JR.

ROQUINA, KIM ALSON
TAYONGTONG, JAMES ARTHUR

A Research Proposal Presented

to the Department of Chemistry
College of Arts and Sciences
Iloilo Science and Technology University

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

In Chemistry For Engineers 1

January 2022
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Nowadays, the world faces a great turning point wherein modernization and
technology rule. A lot of new things and improvements are being witnessed, including
high-technology gadgets, exceptional innovations, and of course tall and modernized
buildings and roads. Truly, many countries right now are gaining their full-length step
by step and the world is changing into a place that everyone desires. According to the
International Monetary Fund (2021), even with a pandemic ongoing, the global
economy is projected to grow 5.9 percent in 2021 and 4.9 percent in 2022. Even if,
the projected economic growth is 0.1 percentage points lower for 2021 than in the
July forecast, it is still a high rate of growth wherein it could lead for more buildings
and infrastructures specifically for commercial buildings to occur because of
expansion and occurrence of further businesses. As of 2020, as reported by Philippine
Statistics Authority, in the Philippines alone, the total number of constructions from
approved building permits was recorded at 123,783. These buildings are a lot and it is
expected that the number of buildings constructed in successive years will be higher
in number. With these, it is undeniable that the demands for construction materials are
really booming. Wood, cement, aggregates, metals, bricks, clay, and concrete are the
common materials used in constructing infrastructures (The Constructor, 2021). But
among them, the most widely used material is concrete.

Commercial concrete (the most popular form of concrete) is a construction

material composed of cement, fine aggregates (sand), and coarse aggregates mixed
with water which hardens with time (The Constructor, 2021). Indeed, concrete is the
most demanded material but also because of the fact that it is widely used, it also
adversely impacts the environment. Concrete can take our civilization upwards, up to
163 stories high in the case of the Burj Khalifa skyscraper in Dubai, creating living
space out of the air. But it also pushes the human footprint outwards, sprawling across
fertile topsoil and choking habitats (Watts, 2019). For the past few years, concrete has
been one of the driving forces that take every society into a ―better‖ life but as a
contradiction to what it may seem, it depletes nature, it downgrades our living.

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According to Dan T. Babor, et. al (2009), concrete produces a significant amount of
carbon emission. There are two very different sources of carbon dioxide emissions
during cement production. Combustion of fossil fuels to operate the rotary kiln is the
largest source: approximately 3/4 t of CO2 per tonne of cement. The chemical process
of calcining limestone into lime in the cement kiln also produces CO2. Combining
these two sources, for every tonne of cement produced, 1.25 t of CO2 is released into
the atmosphere. Worldwide, cement production now accounts for more than 1.6 × 109
t of CO2 emissions from all human activities. The manufacture of cement produces
about 0.9 pounds of CO2 for every pound of cement. Since cement is only a fraction
of the constituents in concrete, manufacturing a cubic yard of concrete (about 3900
lbs) is responsible for emitting about 400 lbs of CO2 (Portland Cement Association,
n.a.). Concrete is a low-key contributor of carbon footprint.

Aside from that, concrete also pollutes the water supply. Wash water from
equipment cleaning is frequently dumped into setting ponds at the batch plant, where
the particles settle out. Some of the returned concrete is washed away and the
aggregate recovered in settling ponds. Concrete floors and walls can also produce
moisture difficulties, which can lead to mould and mildew growth, both of which can
cause serious health issues in certain people.

With this, in order to provide a solution in mitigating or somehow to reduce

the adverse effects of commercial concrete to the environment, the researchers find
some alternative concrete for the commercial ones which are said to be more eco-
friendly than the concrete we mostly use. Upon browsing websites and conversing
with construction-related people, these derived the study to focus on ashcrete (made
from fly ash, borate, bottom ash, and a certain chemical from the chlorine family),
papercrete (made with waste paper, cement and water) and micro silica concrete ( by-
product of producing silicon metal or ferro-silicon metal).

To know if these three are good replacements for commercial concrete,

knowing that they are environmentally friendly concretes, the researchers come up
with the study of comparing Micro Silica, Papercrete and Ashcrete in terms of tensile

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strength and availability as potential eco-friendly alternatives to commercial concrete
to explore if the alternative concretes can also surpass commercial concrete in terms
of the other factors.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Generally, this study aims to determine the best eco-friendly alternative to
commercial concrete by conducting a comparative study between micro silica,
papercrete, and ashcrete. Specifically, this study aim to answer the following
questions:
1. Do the micro silica concrete, papercrete, and ashcrete are way better types
of concrete than commercial concrete in terms of tensile strength and
availability?
2. Is there any significant difference between micro silica concrete,
papercrete, and ashcrete when compared in terms of availability?
3. Is there any significant difference between micro silica concrete,
papercrete, and ashcrete when compared in terms of their tensile strength?
4. Is there any significant difference when commercial concrete is compared
to: (a) tensile strength and availability of micro silica concrete, (b) tensile
strength and availability of ashcrete, (c) tensile strength and availability of
papercrete?

1.3 Objectives of the Study

General Objective
This study aims to determine the best eco-friendly alternative to commercial
concrete by conducting a comparative study between micro silica, papercrete, and
ashcrete.

Specific Objectives
1. Determine if micro silica concrete, papercrete, and ashcrete are way better
types of concrete than commercial concrete in terms of tensile strength and
availability

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 2. Determine if there is a significant difference between micro silica concrete,
papercrete, and ashcrete when compared in terms of availability
3. Determine if there is a significant difference between micro silica concrete,
papercrete, and ashcrete when compared in terms of their tensile strength
4. Determine if there is a significant difference when commercial concrete is
compared to: (a) tensile strength and availability of micro silica concrete, (b)
tensile strength and availability of ashcrete, (c) tensile strength and availability
of papercrete.

1.4 Assumptions of the Study

1. There is a significant difference between micro silica concrete, papercrete, and
ashcrete when compared in terms of availability
2. There is a significant difference between micro silica concrete, papercrete, and
ashcrete when compared in terms of their tensile strength
3. There is a significant difference when commercial concrete is compared to: (a)
tensile strength, availability, and environmental impact of micro silica
concrete, (b) tensile strength, availability, and environmental impact of
ashcrete, (c) tensile strength, availability, and environmental impact of
papercrete.

1.5 Significance of the Study

Eco-friendly alternatives to commercial concrete may be deemed useful to the
entirety of humanity, especially to homeowners, environmentalists, environmental
engineers, and people in the government.

To homeowners, this study will provide them with enough information about
eco-friendly alternatives to commercial cement. With this, they would be able to
weigh the advantages and disadvantages of using such materials and they would have
more options when choosing what kind of cement to use in the construction of their
homes.

To environmentalists, they could utilize this study as a scientific reference in

their advocacy to educate people and encourage the world to live a greener lifestyle.

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They could utilize all the information presented in this study when writing articles,
hosting workshops, and creating campaign posters.

To environmental engineers, this study could serve as an additional reference to

them when developing solutions to environmental problems. This study could give
them an idea to further study and research on these eco-friendly alternatives to
commercial cement as well as other widely used materials in the construction
industry.

To the people in the government, this study would give them the idea to utilize
environmentally-friendly materials in the construction and renovation of public
infrastructures. This could also serve as a reference if they would like to encourage
people to shift to an environmentally-friendly lifestyle.

1.6 Definition of Terms

For a better and clear understanding of the study, the following words are
conceptually and operationally defined:

Alternative – refers to something that is different from what is accustomed to and

oftentimes offers the possibility of choice (Cambridge Dictionary)

Availability – refers to the state of being able to be obtained or used (Macmillan

Dictionary)

Chemical Composition – refers to the arrangement, type, and ratio of atoms in

molecules of chemical substances. (Libretexts, 2020). Chemical composition also
determines the properties of a substance. (Byju‘s, 2021)

Eco-friendly - refers to helping the earth (Webb, 2021) and not being harmful to the
environment (Meriam-Webster Dictionary)

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Environmental Impact – refers to any change in the environment, whether beneficial
or adverse, (Donev et al., 2021) caused by socio-economic activities and natural
events. (OECD, 2001)

Production – refers to the method of turning raw materials into goods or products
through a manufacturing process (My Accounting Course, n.d.)

Tensile Strength – refers to the amount of load or stress that can be handled by a
material before failure (such as stretching and breaking) (Corrosionpedia, 2020).

1.7 Scope and Limitation

This study will be limited only to the testing of tensile strength and knowing
the availability of concrete to Micro Silica, Papercrete and Ashcrete in terms of tensile
strength and availability as potential eco-friendly alternatives to commercial concrete.
The resources will be gathered in the province and city of Iloilo. The micro silica
concrete, papercrete, ashcrete and commercial concrete will be coming from the same
shop or company to maintain the same production that can affect the tests that will be
conducted. Post-test experimental and descriptive research design will be applied and
will be used in this study to distinguish the difference of the results that had been
gathered and accumulated.

The eco-friendly alternative concretes that will be utilised will only focus on
Micro silica concrete, papercrete, and ashcrete. Getting the mean and One-way
analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for inferential analysis with significance
level at .05. The study will be conducted for at most three (3) months. Flexural test
machine will be used in determining tensile strength of the ashcrete, papercrete, micro
silica and commercial concrete in terms of flexural strength. Questionnaires, on the
other hand, will be used to determine the availability of these concretes.

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 CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Concrete
Thenceforth, concrete is a popular material that is being used in building and
infrastructure constructions. Concrete is a structural material consisting of a hard,
chemically inert particulate substance, known as aggregate (usually sand and gravel),
that is bonded together by cement and water (Britannica, 2021). While modern
concrete is made of Portland cement, coarse and fine aggregates of stone and sand,
and water, crushed and burned gypsum or limestone were used to make primitive
cements in ancient times. Crushed and burned limestone is also referred to as lime.
When these cements were mixed with sand and water, they created mortar, a plaster-
like compound used to hold stones together. These materials were developed, blended
with other materials, and eventually transformed into modern concrete over thousands
of years (Gromicko et al., 2019). Concrete is really ruling the world then and now
because it is not just widely used in the modern times but also back then, in ancient
times. According to Giatec Scientific (2017), in 600BC, Ancient Romans, even
though they are not the first inventors of concrete, they still managed to utilize the
concrete in constructing buildings widespread civilization. On the other hand, in the
time of 200 BC, the Romans were successful in incorporating concrete into the
majority of their construction. To make the combination, they combined volcanic ash,
lime, and seawater. They then pressed the mixture into wooden moulds and stacked
the blocks like bricks once they had solidified. It is undeniable that concrete was one
of the game-changer of the world in terms of construction. Compared to other
construction materials, concrete is the most widely used material in the world. In fact,
concrete is the world's most consumed material after water, with over four billion
tonnes produced in 2017, making it the most consumed man-made material on the
planet. Concrete is extremely vital in the building industry, but few people realise
how widespread its use has become in recent years, notably in China and Asia.
Cement production has increased by 3,000 percent since 1950, and has quadrupled
since 1990. Between 2011 and 2013, China used more cement than the United States
did throughout the twentieth century (Morgan, 2019).

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 Concrete had a vast impact on the lives of humanity, making everyone‘s life
more convenient and way better but then, due to the reality that is in-demand and
widely used, it also took off adverse effects to the environment. One of the most
dangerous compositions of concrete is cement. Cement is a substance used for
binding and hardening other materials. Water and cement set and harden through a
chemical reaction known as 'hydration' (The Construction Wiki, 2021). Concrete has a
colossal carbon footprint — at least 8% of global emissions caused by humans due to
cement production alone. Decarbonization is crucial to lessen its bad impact on the
environment. The most carbon-intensive element of the cement making process is
heating a mixture of limestone and clay to over 1,400 °C in a kiln using fossil fuels. In
addition, when limestone (calcium carbonate) is heated with clays, approximately 600
kilos of CO2 are generated for every tonne of cement produced ((Nature, 2018).
Concrete is really one of the big contributors of carbon footprint. With this, its
environmental effect should be lessened through innovating new and better ways.

2.2 Micro Silica Concrete

According to Specify Concrete (2019), one of the most eco-friendly concrete
that is good substitutes for traditional or commercial concrete is the Micro Silica
concrete. Micro Silica, also known as silica fume, which is a by-product of producing
silicon metal or ferro-silicon metal. It is collected from the flue gases from electric arc
furnaces. It is a highly reactive pozzolanic powder and it is more important for the
concrete industry (Al Rashed Cement, n.a.). Micro silica is a very fine powder that is
frequently used in concrete buildings that demand a high level of impermeability or
high strength. Micro silica is increasingly being employed in projects where long-term
durability and strength are critical.

2.2.1 Advantages of Micro Silica Concrete

Micro silica concrete or silica-fume when introduced to concrete will
have the advantages that are beneficial to a construction. First of all, Silica
fume is a type of inorganic filler that has very consistent physical and
chemical properties. It contains no crystalline water, does not participate in the
curing reaction, and has no effect on the mechanics of the reaction. Microsilica
is a grey; nearly white to nearly black powder. Its spherical particles are less
than 1mm in diameter. The bulk density of micro silica is based on the degree

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of densification and varies from 130 to 600 kg/m3 and the specific gravity of
micro silica ranges between 2.2 to 2.3 (Hamakareem, 2021). SF (silica-fume)
is also composed primarily of pure silica in noncrystalline form. Micro silica
has a very high content of amorphous silicon dioxide and consists of very fine
spherical particles. Small amounts of iron, magnesium, and alkali oxides are
also found (Panesar, 2019). Micro silica is thought to contain more than 85%
silicon dioxide. If the source is a ferrosilicon furnace, considerable levels of
iron are likely to be present, while other elements are only present in trace
amounts (1 percent and less). Second, micro silica has good infiltration for
various kinds of resin, has good adsorption performance, is easy to mix, and
has no agglomeration phenomenon. Micro-silica can be used as an integral
water-proofer for below-ground constructions when some dampness is
acceptable due to its low permeability (Abhishek Kanoungo et al, 2014).

Aside from the two, other advantages of micro silica include the
following according to Superior (2018):
1. The size distribution of silica fume is reasonable, with strong
densification, large hardness, and wear resistance. It can greatly
improve the tensile strength, compressive strength, impact strength,
and wear resistance of the cured products, and the abrasion resistance
can be increased 0.5 – 2.5 times.
2. It can increase the thermal conductivity, change the adhesive
viscosity and increase flame retardancy.
3. The exothermic peak temperature of curing reaction of epoxy resin
can be reduced, the linear expansion coefficient of solidified products
and the shrinkage rate of solidified products can be reduced, so as to
eliminate internal stress and prevent cracking.
4. Due to the fine grain size and reasonable distribution of silica fume,
it can effectively reduce and eliminate precipitation and stratification.
5. Pure silicon powder, low content of impurities, stable physical and
chemical properties, so that the curing material has good insulation
properties and arc resistance.
6. The chemical composition of silica fume is silica (SiO2), which
belongs to inert material. It doesn‘t react with most acids or alkaloids.

9
 The silicon powder is evenly distributed and covered on the surface of
objects. It has strong corrosion resistance and cavitation resistance
increased 3-16 times.
7. Small bulk density, 0.2 – 0.8, or 1 – 2.2. As polymer filling material,
it can reduce the cost of the product by reducing the amount of loading
and saving the amount of polymer.
8. Frost resistance is good, and the relative elastic modulus of micro
silica fume is 10 to 20% after 300-500 fast freeze-thaw cycles, while
the average elastic modulus of ordinary concrete is 30 to 73% after 25-
50 cycles. Therefore, the frost resistance of concrete can be improved.
9. Early strength, micro silica concrete can shorten the induction period
and have the characteristics of early strength.

2.2.2 Disadvantages of Micro Silica Concrete

Other than its advantages, micro silica also poses disadvantages when
used during construction. As stated by Mastercivilengineer (2021), micro
silica has dry shrinkage; when it is used, the construction is difficult; and it is
easy to produce temperature cracks.

(a) Micro silica has dry shrinkage.

The shrinkage rate of silica fume concrete is high, especially early dry
shrinkage, making it easy to crack during the application, affecting the overall
strength and use effect. After construction, for example, strengthening water
and sprinkler maintenance can help to mitigate this issue, although cracks are
unavoidable in many construction projects.

(b) Construction is difficult when micro silica is applied.

The workability of concrete is an important parameter in the design of
concrete mix proportions; silica fume concrete workability is poor, making it
difficult to make close-grained concrete vibrate and plaster, affecting the
smoothness of concrete quality and surface uniformity.

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(c) Micro silica is easy to produce temperature cracks.
Early strength development of concrete with silica fume,
corresponding concrete hydration heat dissipation quickly, resulting in a rise
in concrete hydration heat temperature, easy to produce high-temperature
stress in the concrete, stress concentration at the top of the dry shrinkage
crack, causing dry shrinkage cracks to extend even through the formation of
transfixion cracks.

2.2.3 Production of Micro Silica Concrete

Micro silica is a by-product obtained during the manufacture of silicon
and ferrosilicon alloys in a submerged-arc electric furnace, according to A.M.
Neville (Author of the Properties of Concrete). High-purity quartz and coal are
used to make these alloys. Other silicon alloys, such as ferrochromium,
ferromanganese, Ferro magnesium, and calcium silicon, produce silica fume
as a by-product (GharPedia, 2019). Silicon is an element that is found in large
quantities in most rocks but never in a pure state. Approximately 26% of the
earth‘s crust is made up of silicon. Quartz is one of the rocks that contain high
amounts of silicon, but it is strongly combined with oxygen. The raw materials
that normally go to the smelter are metallurgical grade quartz, coke, wood
chips and coal. The mixtures are transported to the furnace silo and then
directly downed into the furnace via rotating charging tubes that distribute the
mixture around the electrodes in the furnace. Three large electrodes heat the
mixture to more than 2000°C. In a reduction process, the oxygen in the quartz
is liberated and recombines with the carbon at this temperature. It oxidizes and
condenses to microscopic particles of non-crystalline Silica in the low
temperature zone. The manufacturing of silica fume necessitates a lot of
electricity. To generate one tonne of pure silicon, 11,000 kilowatt hours are
required. Refining of the silicon is performed by adding oxygen to the melt
through the bottom of the refining label. When the refining process is
completed, the silicon is cast in large iron chills. Casting is an important part
of the production because it is vital that the slag produced by the refining
process remains in the refining label. The presence of even a small amount of
slag may spoil the quality of the final product. When the ingots have cooled,

11
 they are crushed to the desired size, filled in containers and transported to the
customer. Efficient filtering removes almost all the dust from gases emitted
from the furnaces. This dust consisting of tiny particles of silica is the micro
silica and is proved to be very useful for various purposes, for example, as an
additive to concrete.

2.3 Papercrete
One possible eco-friendly alternative to commercial concrete is papercrete.
Discovered by Eric Patterson and Mike McCain, papercrete is an innovative
construction material that consists of re-pulped paper fiber with Portland cement
and/or clay. As a partial replacement to cement, wastepaper is being utilized in the
production of papercrete to reduce the amount of cement used which makes the
building material more environmentally friendly. (Shermale, Y.D. and Varma, M.B.,
2015).

2.3.1 Advantages of Papercrete

Solar Energy may be used in the production of papercrete.
Additionally, power is only needed for the purpose of mixing the ingredients
that comprise the papercrete. As mentioned above, the utilization of cement is
reduced in the production of papercrete which greatly reduces the carbon
footprint during production and the total cost and weight of the material,
resulting in a lightweight and eco-friendly material. Furthermore, papercrete
encourages the recycling of wastepaper especially in developing countries and
communities with no recycling practices. (Sheth, J.T., Joshi, S., 2015).
According to Happho (2021), papercrete is slowly taking over the low-cost
construction market with its useful properties such as thermal insulation, good
sound absorption, mold resistance, does not easily catch fire and fungi, and
can be manufactured in different sizes and shapes. Additionally, according to
Sheth, J.T. and Joshi, S. (2015), papercrete have several advantages in the
construction industry such as low embodied energy, high strength to weight
ratio, recycled material usage, aesthetics, and cost-effectiveness.

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2.3.2 Disadvantages of Papercrete
Despite all the above mentioned advantages, papercrete has some
limitations in its application. Apart from the fact that papercrete is not
standardized nor commercially accepted and still in the process of being
researched, there is also some inadequacy in the material‘s chemical and
mechanical properties. Some constraints for commercial usage of papercrete
are as follows: 1) lack of literature; 2) lack of official data and guidelines on
its preparation, and 3) lack of information on its structural behavior and long-
term viability. Papercrete is brittle. It has low tensile strength and it expands
and contracts often, resulting in cracks, fractures, buckling, and bulging. It is
also a challenge to perform quality control of the mix and achieve a smooth
surface. Papercrete is not waterproof nor flameproof; therefore, it is not
desirable for building applications. (Sheth, J.T., Joshi, S., 2015). Paper absorbs
moisture which weakens the material‘s structural strength. (Happho, 2021).
Furthermore, a huge amount of water is utilized in the production of
papercrete. Lastly, due to the tendency of paper to degrade due to thermal,
biological, and chemical activity, it poses a key concern in terms of durability.
(Sheth, J.T., Joshi, S., 2015).

2.3.3 Overcoming the Limitations in Properties

Sheth, J.T., and Joshi, S. (2015) presented in their paper some
measures that may be done to overcome the limitations in the properties of
Papercrete. Firstly, to achieve optimal properties, the proportions of the
mixture may be modified. Secondly, reinforcements such as coconut fiber or
fly ash may be added to the mix to improve the compressive strength of the
material. Furthermore, ingredients such as silicon, epoxy compound, or
concrete sealer may be added to the mix to improve the material‘s
waterproofing capability. To improve bonding and setting properties,
admixtures may also be added to the mix. To produce a stronger papercrete, a
higher grade of cement may be used. There are also certain mixtures of
papercrete that are resistant to pests, fire, and fungi.

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2.3.4 Production of Papercrete
Making efforts to achieve an optimal mix is challenging since the
nominal mix has yet to be specified and recommendations for mix design of
papercrete are not yet available. Each ingredient plays an important role in the
mixture. The most commonly used ingredient in the production of papercrete
is newspapers because it produces consistent results. When paper and cement
are combined, a strong bond is formed and the final product is both strong and
lightweight. Fibers in the paper help in heat and sound insulating properties
and contribute to crack control. Portland cement is an essential component in
the mixture which also acts as a binder. Cement helps in reducing the drying
time and increases the strength and stability of the material. However, cement
makes the material heavier and more brittle. (Titzman, L.C., 2006) To increase
the volume and mineral content of papercrete, coir, sand, pumice, or dirt may
be added. The presence of sand adds thermal mass and makes the material
stronger and impermeable to water but results in a much heavier structure.
(Sheth, J.T., Joshi, S., 2015).

The basic ingredients of papercrete are water and any kind of paper
(newspaper, cardboard, brochures, magazines, junk mail, or any other type of
paper). The fibers that these papers contain add strength to the cement. The
process of the production of papercrete includes soaking of paper in water
overnight to soften the fibers and mixing the soaked paper up until the point
that a homogenous pulp is achieved. Then, sand, Portland cement, and water
are added to the pulp and blended. Lastly, the mixture is poured into the forms
to create the desired size and shape and then the forms are removed once the
mixture is dry. (Shermale, Y.D. and Varma, M.B., 2015).

Because paper is the primary component in the production of

papercrete, its qualities are determined by the microstructure of the paper.
(Y.D. Shermale and M.B. Varma, 2015). Wood cellulose is a fibrous
substance that makes up the majority of paper. Cellulose is a primary building
material for most textiles and papers, as well as the principal component of

14
 plant cell walls. It is an organic polysaccharide made up of hundreds to
thousands of linked D-glucose units in a linear chain (C6H10O5 ). (Akshit,
2021). The links in the cellulose chain are a type of sugar: β-D-glucose. The
OH groups on the cellulose chain are polar. These groups form many
hydrogen bonds with neighboring OH groups, binding the chains together. The
chains also pack regularly in places to create hard, stable crystalline areas,
which add even more stability and strength to the bundled chains. This
hydrogen bonding forms the basis of papercrete‘s strength. (Singh, A., 2013).

Fig. 2.1. Cellulose hydrogen bonds

(Source: Singh, A., 2013)

2.4 Ashcrete
Ashcrete was first created by Pliny Fisk III in his pursuit of mitigating the high
rate of carbon dioxide emissions during cement production as well as making use of
fly ash instead of disposing it. (Nair, 2021) Ashcrete is an eco-friendly substitute for
commercial concrete which utilizes fly ash as its predominant raw material. (The
Uptide, 2021). Fly ash is a by-product produced in the combustion of coal, usually in
an electrical generating station. Specifically, fly ash is the unburned residue carried
away from the burning zone in the boiler by the flue gases and then collected by either
mechanical or electrostatic separators. Moreover, fly ash is a finely-divided
amorphous alumino-silicate with varying amounts of calcium, which when combined
with water and Portland cement, will form a reaction with the calcium hydroxide
released by the hydration of Portland cement to produce various calcium-silicate
hydrates and calcium aluminate hydrates. (Thomas, M., 2007). The utilization of fly

15
ash as a replacement to Portland cement in Ashcrete makes it an eco-friendly
alternative since it leads to reduced CO2 emissions.

2.4.1 Advantages of Ashcrete

The utilization of Fly Ash and Ashcrete in the construction industry is
becoming more popular as they can be a cost-effective alternative for Portland
cement. (The Uptide, 2021). Moreover, according to Beyondhomes (2021), the
most significant advantage in using ashcrete is its property of having reduced
permeability to aggressive chemicals and water. The proper process of curing
enables ashcrete to have smaller pores, resulting in better permeability and
strength. Nair (2021) also stated that the strength and permeability of Ashcrete
came from the fine particles of fly ash and its pozzolanic properties which
helped reduce bleeding and cracking.

In addition to the abovementioned benefits of Ashcrete, Nair (2021)

presented more advantages of Ashcrete which are as follows:
1. In comparison to commercial concrete which requires large quantities
of water in production, less water is required to begin the hardening
reaction in the production of Ashcrete due to the spherical particles of
fly ash.
2. Ashcrete possesses excellent pumpability and workability which
results to clean edges and smooth finishes during production.
3. Ashcrete also possesses higher resistance to fire, acid, corrosion, and
drastic changes in temperature. Compared to commercial concrete, it
also performs better in slump and shrinkage tests.

2.4.2 Disadvantages of Ashcrete

Despite the many advantages that Ashcrete offers, disadvantages are
inevitable. The EPA or The Environmental Protection Agency is still
undecided whether to classify products that utilize fly ash as safe or
hazardous. One probable disadvantage of Ashcrete is the increased chance of
health risks due to the fact that fly ash is a by-product of coal. (Beyondhomes,
2021).

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 As stated by Rodriguez, J. (2021) there are also other disadvantages in
the use of fly ash in concrete namely: slower strength gain, seasonal limitation,
increased need for air-entraining admixtures, and increase of salt scaling
produced by higher proportions of fly ash. Consequently, Nair (2021) further
expanded on some of these disadvantages which are as follows:
1. Due to the presence of fly ash in Ashcrete, it takes a longer time to
reach the maximum strength, resulting in more time in the construction
process.
2. Ashcrete also has seasonal limitations, specifically in low temperatures
or during winter seasons. When pouring, ashcrete is more vulnerable to
low temperatures, resulting in longer strength gain and setting times.
Due to this, many regions don‘t allow the use of fly ash during winter.
3. The production of Ashcrete may be appealing at first glance since it
turns a waste product into something useful, it still has controversies
regarding sustainability. Since the predominant raw material of
Ashcrete is derived from coal, it utilizes an unsustainable production
process in the long run. Moreover, ashcrete contains a chlorine
compound which is known to be hazardous. Although, researchers are
finding alternatives to this chlorine-based material.

2.4.3 Production of Ashcrete

Ashcrete is a mixture of a chlorine compound, bottom ash, borate, and
fly ash – its predominant raw material. (Nair, 2021). Fly ash is a by-product of
the combustion of coal in power plants. It is the unburned residue present in
the burning zone in the boiler which is then collected by electrostatic or
mechanical separators. Moreover, there are heavier unburned substances that
drop and settle at the bottom of the furnace. (Thomas, M., 2007). These
heavier substances are called bottom ash, which also is an ingredient of
Ashcrete mixture. Thomas, M. (2007) also presented in his study two different
classes of fly ash used for making Ashcrete namely Class C Fly Ashes and
Class F Fly Ashes. Class C Fly Ashes are high-calcium fly ashes with a carbon
content that is less than 2%. (Beyondhomes, 2021). Class C Fly Ashes are
produced from sub-bituminous coal or lignite. Class C Fly Ashes, the main
component of Ashcrete (Nair, 2021), has pozzolanic properties as well as

17
some cementitious properties. (Thomas, M., 2007) On the other hand, Class F
Fly Ashes are low-calcium fly ashes with 5-10% carbon content.
(Beyondhomes, 2021). Having pozzolanic properties as well, these fly ashes
are produced from the combustion of anthracite or bituminous coal. (Thomas,
M., 2007)

Moreover, Saito et al. (2006) presented three (3) technologies for the
production of ashcrete which are as follows:
1. The Super Fluidizing Method
This method involves the mixing of cement particles and fly ash using
a low amount of water, just close to the optimum content (see figure
2.2), and the compaction and fluidization of the mixture into a
pudding-like shape through the application of vibration (see figure
2.3). The Super Fluidizing Method utilizes less water; hence, it is
possible to (i) use a lesser amount of cement in achieving the ideal
strength, (ii) reduce hairline cracks, and (iii) make a uniform body.

Fig. 2.2. before vibration Fig. 2.3. after vibration

Source: Saito et al. (2006) Source: Saito et al. (2006)

2. Hardening Accelerators
In this process, inorganic salts such as NaCl and CaCl2, are
utilized in the production of ashcrete. These inorganic salts accelerate
the hardening process of ashcrete. These hardening accelerators
increase both the initial and long-term strengths.

18
3. Method of Selecting Mix Proportion
Power plants utilize combinations of different types of coal
from different origins to ensure a stable water supply; therefore, the fly
ash produced usually varies considerably. Because of this issue, a
special method is used to select the proportions of the ashcrete mix. A
flow test (JIS R 5201) is performed on the coal-fly ash received, and a
mix proportion is chosen in the procedures described in Fig.3
(Fukudome et al., 2001). The test is based on the close relationship that
exists between a water-cement and coal-fly ash ratio at a flow of 140
and the optimal water-cement and fly ash ratio. Based on the flow
tests, choosing the best water-powder ratio resulted in a linear
relationship between the water-powder ratio and compressive strength,
as well as a linear relationship between the cement content and
compressive strength. Hence, it is possible to adjust the amount of
cement content to obtain the desired strength. (Saito et al., 2006)

Fig. 2.4. Mix proportion designing flow

Source: Saito et al. (2006)

19
 CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Identification of Research Design

This study will undergo a quantitative research approach wherein it will be
used to compare Micro Silica, Papercrete and Ashcrete in terms of tensile strength and
availability as potential eco-friendly alternatives to commercial concrete. This study
will both have descriptive design (for availability) and post-test only experimental
design for tensile strength. It will need quantitative data collected primarily by
researchers in the process. Post-test only experimental design is where subjects will
be measured and assessed only after the treatment and will be also used as a gathering
tool that identifies the differences between the controlled variable and the alternative
concretes. On the other hand, descriptive quantitative design will be conducted to
determine the relationship between one thing and another within a population. These
research designs are the basis if the Micro Silica, Papercrete, and Ashcrete are worthy
alternatives of commercial concrete and if either of the Micro Silica, Papercrete, and
Ashcrete is better from others as alternatives of commercial concrete knowing that
they are environmentally friendly. The researchers will use these research designs to
utilize and employ the gathered data on the Micro Silica, Papercrete, and Ashcrete as
alternatives of commercial concrete.

Quantitative Research Approach will be employed in this study because it can

be used to collect data which can determine whether empirical evidence to support
that hypothesis exists. It is also appropriate to use this approach since the study deals
with numerical data. Qualitative approach cannot be utilised because the study does
not deal with non-numeric variables and the study uses deductive approach where the
theory is being tested not being formulated. The research designs that will be utilised
in this study are post-test experimental design and descriptive design. Research design
is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher. The
design allows researchers to hone in on research methods that are suitable for the
subject matter and set up their studies up for success (QuestionPro, 2020). In
descriptive research design, it establishes associations between variables. While post-
test experimental design will be used because the study used random assignment so it
can be assumed that the two groups are probabilistically equivalent to begin with and

20
the pre-test is not required. In this design, the groups will be determined through their
differences after the program. Typically, the groups are being measured on one or
more measures (the Os in notation) and being compared by testing for the differences
between the means using a t-test or one way Analysis of Variance (AN OVA). While
on descriptive design, it establishes associations between variables.

3.2 Materials and Instruments

Micro silica, papercrete, and ashcrete will be the subjects of this study. Micro
Silica, also known as silica fume, which is a by-product of producing silicon metal or
ferro-silicon metal. It is collected from the flue gases from electric arc furnaces. It is a
highly reactive pozzolanic powder and it is more important for the concrete industry
(Al Rashed Cement, n.a.). Papercrete is essentially a type of industrial strength paper
maché made with paper and cardboard, sand and Portland cement (Mishra, 2021).
AshCrete is a substitute for traditional concrete that relies on the use of fly ash
(Beyondhomes, 2020).

The alternative concrete (micro silica, papercrete, ashcrete) that will be used in
the study (in determining environmental impact and tensile strength) will be coming
from the same shop with the same composition.

The instruments that will be used are the flexure strength testing machine (for
knowing the tensile strength) and questionnaires (for determining availability of
concrete).

3.3 Concrete Gathering

Micro Silica concrete, Papercrete and Ashcrete will be gathered in concrete
shops within Iloilo (City and province). It does matter if they are coming from
different shops, so, the concrete shall be purchased in the same shop to maintain the
same concrete preparation because this will affect the variability of the test that will
be done. The six papercretes along with six micro silica concrete and six ashcrete are
the same respectively in terms of the size and shape. It is needed to have six counts of
those different eco-friendly concrete because each of them will undergo three trials in
measuring their tensile strength in terms of flexural strength test and slump test. The
same as the eco-friendly concrete, commercial concrete will be also fetched in the

21
same shop within Iloilo. Six counts of commercial concrete are needed for conducting
its tensile strength wherein, these will also undergo flexural strength test and slump
test.

3.4 Concrete Preparation

Before micro silica, papercrete, ashcrete will be undergoing certain
procedures, they will be placed in a safe room wherein they are not prone to rain,
wetting, excessive sunlight, and crushing. Purchasing of the concrete must be 2 days
before the treatment. In preparing them for the experimentation of their tensile
strength, they will be assessed in terms of size and shape and according to the Indian
Code, the specimens are stored in water at 24-30oC for 48 hours before testing. All
concrete, including commercial concrete shall be rectangular in form but if
rectangular block is unavailable, cube blocks or cylindrical blocks shall be used.
Uniformity in shape is important to maintain fairness during the tests and also to
determine what type of instrument will be used in the test. In terms of size of the
concrete, all should be in ASTM standard size of 150mm by 150mm by 750mm
(750mm long, 150m width, and 150m depth). Concrete blocks are in full size with
regards to the standard size. If concretes will be wished to cut, circular saw or cut-off
saw will be utilised to maintain uniformity in sizes of the eco-friendly and
commercial concretes but as long as possible, leave the concretes not sawed because it
can be a factor in variability in flexural strength test results.

3.5 Tensile Strength Test (Flexure Test)

3.5.1 Conducting the Flexural Test
Three (3) specimens for each trial of every kind of concrete will be
utilised in this tensile strength test. Factors affecting variability of the test are
concrete specimen preparation, specimen size, and moisture condition of the
concrete specimen, curing of the concrete specimen and whether the specimen
is moulded or sawed to the required size, so they should be monitored before
conducting the test. Specimens will also be soaked in water at 24-30oC for 48
hours and then it will be ready for testing. In the first stage of flexural testing,
the concrete specimens will be placed on the loading points of Flexural Test
Machine (ASTM C78). The hand finished surface of the specimen should not
be in contact with loading points. This will ensure an acceptable contact

22
between the specimen and loading points. The loading system should be
centred in relation to the applied force. The block applying force will be
brought in contact with the specimen surface at the loading points, applying
loads between 2 to 6 percent of the computed ultimate load. After that, over a
length of 25 mm or more, identify whether any space between the specimen
and the load-applying or support blocks is greater or less than each of the
gages using 0.10 mm and 0.38 mm leaf-type feeler gages. Any gap greater
than 0.10mm will be eliminated using leather shims (6.4mm thick and 25 to
50mm long) and it should extend the full width of the specimen. To remove
gaps larger than 0.38mm, capping or grinding should be considered.
Continuously load the specimen at a consistent rate until it fails (Indian
standard specifies 400 kg/min for 150mm specimens and 180 kg/min for
100mm specimens, stress rise rate 0.06+/-0.04N/mm2.s according to British
standard).

The following equation can be used to calculate the loading rate

according to ASTM standards:
R = Sbd^2 / L
Where: r: loading rate S: rate of increase of extreme fibre b: average
specimen width d: average specimen depth L: span length

Finally, determine average depth and height by measuring the cross

section of the tested specimen at each end and in the middle.

3.5.2 Computation of Modulus of Rupture

The following expression is used for estimation of modulus of rupture:
MR = 3PL / 2bd^2
Where: MR: modulus of rupture P: ultimate applied load indicated by
testing machine L: span length b: average width of the specimen at the fracture
d: average depth of the specimen at the fracture

23
3.6 Availability Survey of Concrete (Commercial and Eco-friendly Concrete)
3.6.1 Formulation of Survey and its Questionnaire
The survey for concrete availability will be taking at least 2 months
time frame. In the first week of the first month, the researchers will be
identifying all of the construction supplies shops and companies within Iloilo
City since the city is the centre economy of the whole Iloilo and particularly,
most of the shops including construction suppliers are here. It will be made
sure that the companies and shops that will be involved in the study are pure
suppliers of construction goods. After the identification of all the shops and
companies in Iloilo City, the researchers will start doing the survey
questionnaire.

The researchers will be making questionnaires that will be used to

gather data about the concrete (ashcrete, papercrete, micros silica concrete,
and commercial concrete) if these are available in companies‘ shops, if the
companies, themselves, are the ones‘ who do the production, if the demand on
concretes are high or low, and if concretes are available in great number.

Aside from questionnaires, the researchers will also make letters for
the following: (1) for individuals who will validate and check the
questionnaires made and provided and (2) for the construction supplies shops
and companies for them to signify if they can participate in the survey for
availability of concretes.

3.6.2 Conducting the Survey

If questionnaires were validated and approved, it will be ready for
survey, but first it is a necessity to get the permission of construction supply
companies‘ through permission letters before the conduct of survey.

After the confirmation of participation, researchers will survey through

the means of an online platform using the ‗Google Forms‘ so that it will not be
a hassle for researchers to keep and gather the information from the conduct of
the survey.

24
 After the survey, the data will be gathered and will be analysed by
using statistical tools.

3.7 Statistical Data Analysis

Mean will be used as descriptive statistical tool for the measurement of tensile
strength and availability of four concretes, and One-way Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA), t-test and Post Hoc LSD (Least Significant Difference) as inferential
statistical tools (ANOVA for tensile strength and availability, while Post Hoc LSD is
just for the measurement of tensile strength and t-test is just for the determination of
availability). All statistical analysis will be done using SPSS v21 at 0.05 alpha levels.

Descriptive Statistics
Mean. Mean is the sum of all of the data values divided by the number of data
values.
In this study, the obtained mean score will be used to describe the tensile
strength and availability of ashcrete, papercrete, micro silica concrete (eco-friendly
concretes), and commercial concrete.

Inferential Statistics

ANOVA. Analysis of Variance is a collection of statistical models used to

analyze the differences between group means and their associated procedures.

In this study, it will determine the significant difference between the

specimens.

Post Hoc LSD (Least Significant Difference). Post hoc means to analyze the
results of your experimental data. They are often based on a family-wise error rate;
the probability of at least one Type I error in a set (family) of comparisons.

In this study, it will be determine the significant difference between the

specimens in terms of tensile strength.

25
 T-test. A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to determine if there is a
significant difference between the means of two groups, which may be related in
certain features.

In this study, it will determine the significant difference between the

specimens in terms of availability.

All statistical computations will be computer-processed through the Statistical

Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Software. If there is no significant difference
between the groups then the null hypothesis will fail to be rejected. If there is a
significant difference between the groups then further statistical analysis will be
taken. A Multiple Comparisons test (Bonferroni) will be conducted in order to
determine if there is a significant difference between specific groups or setups.

26
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