04 Bacterial Structure

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Processes of Life
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Responsiveness
• Metabolism

Examples of types of cells
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.1

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells: An Overview
• Prokaryotes
– Lack nucleus
– Lack various internal structures bound with phospholipid
membranes
– Are small, ~1.0 µm in diameter
– Have a simple structure
– Composed of bacteria and archaea

Typical prokaryotic cell

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells: An Overview
• Eukaryotes
– Have nucleus
– Have internal membrane-bound organelles
– Are larger, 10–100 µm in diameter
– Have more complex structure
– Composed of algae, protozoa, fungi, animals, and plants

Typical eukaryotic cell

Approximate size of various types of cells

External Structures of Bacterial Cells
• Glycocalyces
– Gelatinous, sticky substance surrounding the outside of the cell
– Composed of polysaccharides, polypeptides, or both

• Two Types of Glycocalyces

– Capsule
– Composed of organized repeating units of organic chemicals
– Firmly attached to cell surface
– May prevent bacteria from being recognized by host
– Slime layer
– Loosely attached to cell surface
– Water soluble
– Sticky layer allows prokaryotes to attach to surfaces

Glycocalyces

Animation: Motility
• Flagella
– Are responsible for movement
– Have long structures that extend beyond cell surface
– Are not present on all bacteria

• Flagella
– Structure
– Composed of filament, hook, and basal body
– Basal body anchors filament and hook to cell wall by a rod
and a series of either two or four rings of integral proteins

External Structures of Prokaryotic Cells
Animation: Flagella: Structure

Proximal structure of bacterial flagella

Basic arrangements of bacterial flagella

Animation: Flagella: Arrangement

Animation: Flagella: Spirochetes

Axial filament

• Flagella
– Function
– Rotation propels bacterium through environment
– Rotation reversible; can be counterclockwise or clockwise
– Bacteria move in response to stimuli (taxis)
– Runs
– Tumbles

Motion of a peritrichous bacterium

Animation: Flagella: Movement

• Fimbriae and Pili

– Rod-like proteinaceous extensions

• Fimbriae
– Sticky, bristlelike projections
– Used by bacteria to adhere to one another, to hosts, and
to substances in environment
– Shorter than flagella
– Serve an important function in biofilms

Fimbriae

External Structures of Prokaryotic Cells
• Pili
– Tubules composed of pilin
– Also known as conjugation pili
– Longer than fimbriae but shorter than flagella
– Bacteria typically only have one or two per cell
– Mediate the transfer of DNA from one cell to another
(conjugation)

Pilus

Bacterial Cell Walls
• Provide structure and shape and protect cell from osmotic forces
• Assist some cells in attaching to other cells or in resisting antimicrobial
drugs
• Can target cell wall of bacteria with antibiotics
• Give bacterial cells characteristic shapes
• Composed of peptidoglycan
• Scientists describe two basic types of bacterial cell walls
– Gram-positive and Gram-negative

Bacterial shapes and arrangements

Comparison of structures of glucose, NAG, and NAM

Bacterial Cell Walls
• Gram-positive Bacterial Cell Walls

– Relatively thick layer of peptidoglycan
– Contain unique polyalcohols called teichoic acids
– Appear purple following Gram staining procedure
– Up to 60% mycolic acid in acid-fast bacteria helps cells survive
desiccation

Gram-positive bacteria
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.15a

Prokaryotic Cell Walls
• Gram-Negative Bacterial Cell Walls

– Have only a thin layer of peptidoglycan
– Bilayer membrane outside the peptidoglycan contains
phospholipids, proteins, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
– May be impediment to the treatment of disease
– Appear pink following Gram staining procedure

Gram-negative bacteria
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.15b

Bacterial Cytoplasmic Membranes
• Structure
– Referred to as phospholipid bilayer
– Composed of lipids and associated proteins
– Fluid mosaic model describes current understanding of
membrane structure

Structure of prokaryotic cytoplasmic membrane

• Function
– Energy storage
– Harvest light energy in photosynthetic bacteria
– Selectively permeable
– Naturally impermeable to most substances
– Proteins allow substances to cross membrane
– Maintain concentration and electrical gradient

Electrical potential of a cytoplasmic membrane

• Function
– Passive processes
– Diffusion
– Facilitated diffusion
– Osmosis

Passive processes of movement

Osmosis

Effects of solutions on cells

Prokaryotic Cytoplasmic Membranes
• Function
– Active processes
– Active transport
– Group translocation
– Substance chemically modified during transport

Mechanisms of active transport

Animation: Active Transport: Overview

Animation: Active Transport: Types

Group translocation

Cytoplasm of Bacteria
• Cytosol
– Liquid portion of cytoplasm
• Inclusions
– May include reserve deposits of chemicals
• Endospores
– Unique structures produced by some bacteria that are a
defensive strategy against unfavorable conditions

The formation of an endospore

Cytoplasm of Prokaryotes
• Nonmembranous Organelles
– Ribosomes
– Sites of protein synthesis
– Cytoskeleton
– Plays a role in forming the cell’s basic shape

A simple helical cytoskeleton

External Structures of Archaea
• Glycocalyces
– Function in the formation of biofilms
– Adhere cells to one another and inanimate objects
• Flagella
– Consist of basal body, hook, and filament
– Numerous differences with bacterial flagella

External Structures of Archaea
• Glycocalyces
– Function in the formation of biofilms
– Adhere cells to one another and inanimate objects
• Flagella
– Consist of basal body, hook, and filament
– Numerous differences with bacterial flagella
• Fimbriae and Hami
– Many archaea have fimbriae
– Some make fimbriae-like structures called hami
– Function to attach archaea to surfaces

Archaeal Cell Walls and Cytoplasmic Membranes
• Most archaea have cell walls

– Do not have peptidoglycan
– Contain variety of specialized polysaccharides and proteins
• All archaea have cytoplasmic membranes
– Maintain electrical and chemical gradients
– Control import and export of substances from the cell

Cytoplasm of Archaea
• Archaeal cytoplasm similar to bacterial cytoplasm

– Have 70S ribosomes
– Fibrous cytoskeleton
– Circular DNA
• Archaeal cytoplasm also differs from bacterial cytoplasm
– Different ribosomal proteins
– Different metabolic enzymes to make RNA
– Genetic code more similar to eukaryotes

External Structure of Eukaryotic Cells
• Glycocalyces
– Never as organized as prokaryotic capsules
– Help anchor animal cells to each other
– Strengthen cell surface
– Provide protection against dehydration
– Function in cell-to-cell recognition and communication

Eukaryotic Cell Walls and Cytoplasmic Membranes
• Fungi, algae, plants, and some protozoa have cell walls

• Composed of various polysaccharides
– Cellulose found in plant cell walls
– Fungal cell walls composed of cellulose, chitin, and/or
glucomannan
– Algal cell walls composed of a variety of polysaccharides

A Eukaryotic Cell Wall

Eukaryotic Cell Walls and Cytoplasmic Membranes
• All eukaryotic cells have cytoplasmic membrane

• Are a fluid mosaic of phospholipids and proteins
• Contain steroid lipids to help maintain fluidity
• Contain regions of lipids and proteins called membrane rafts
• Control movement into and out of cell

Eukaryotic Cytoplasmic Membrane

Endocytosis

Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes
• Flagella
– Structure and arrangement
– Differ structurally and functionally from prokaryotic flagella
– Within the cytoplasmic membrane
– Shaft composed of tubulin arranged to form microtubules
– Filaments anchored to cell by basal body; no hook
– May be single or multiple; generally found at one pole of cell
– Function
– Do not rotate but undulate rhythmically

Eukaryotic Flagella
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.31a / b

Movement of Eukaryotic Flagella and Cilia

• Cilia
– Shorter and more numerous than flagella
– Coordinated beating propels cells through their environment
– Also used to move substances past the surface of the cell

Eukaryotic Cilia
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.31c

• Other Nonmembranous Organelles

– Ribosomes
– Larger than prokaryotic ribosomes (80S versus 70S)
– Composed of 60S and 40S subunits
– Cytoskeleton
– Extensive network of fibers and tubules
– Anchors organelles
– Produces basic shape of the cell
– Made up of tubulin microtubules, actin microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments

Eukaryotic Cytoskeleton

• Other Nonmembranous Organelles

– Centrioles and centrosome
– Centrioles play a role in mitosis, cytokinesis, and formation of
flagella and cilia
– Centrosome is region of cytoplasm where centrioles are
found

Centrosome

• Membranous Organelles
– Nucleus
– Often largest organelle in cell
– Contains most of the cell’s DNA
– Semi-liquid portion called nucleoplasm
– Contains chromatin
– One or more nucleoli present in nucleoplasm; RNA
synthesized in nucleoli
– Surrounded by nuclear envelope
– Contains nuclear pores

Eukaryotic Nucleus

– Endoplasmic reticulum
– Netlike arrangement of flattened, hollow tubules continuous
with nuclear envelope
– Functions as transport system
– Two forms
– Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
– Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

Endoplasmic Reticulum

– Golgi body
– Receives, processes, and packages large molecules for
export from cell
– Packages molecules in secretory vesicles that fuse with
cytoplasmic membrane
– Composed of flattened hollow sacs surrounded by
phospholipid bilayer
– Not in all eukaryotic cells

Golgi Body

– Lysosomes, peroxisomes,vacuoles, and vesicles
– Store and transfer chemicals within cells
– May store nutrients in cell
– Lysosomes contain catabolic enzymes
– Peroxisomes contain enzymes that degrade poisonous
wastes

Vacuole

Roles of Vesicles in Destruction of Phagocytized Pathogen

– Mitochondria
– Have two membranes composed of phospholipid bilayer
– Produce most of cell’s ATP
– Interior matrix contains 70S ribosomes and circular molecule
of DNA

Mitochondrion

– Chloroplasts
– Light-harvesting structures found in photosynthetic eukaryotes
– Have two phospholipid bilayer membranes and DNA
– Have 70S ribosomes

Chloroplast

• Endosymbiotic Theory
– Eukaryotes formed from union of small aerobic prokaryotes with
larger anaerobic prokaryotes
– Smaller prokaryotes became internal parasites
– Parasites lost ability to exist independently
– Larger cell became dependent on parasites for aerobic ATP
production
– Aerobic prokaryotes evolved into mitochondria
– Similar scenario for origin of chloroplasts
– Not universally accepted

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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.1

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.2

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.3

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.4

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Two Types of Glycocalyces

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.5

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Animation: Flagella: Structure

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.6

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.7

Animation: Flagella: Arrangement

Animation: Flagella: Spirochetes

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.8

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.9

Animation: Flagella: Movement

• Fimbriae and Pili

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.10

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.11

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.12

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.13

• Gram-positive Bacterial Cell Walls

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.15a

• Gram-Negative Bacterial Cell Walls

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.15b

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.16

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.17

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Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.18

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.19

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.20

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Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.21

Animation: Active Transport: Overview

Animation: Active Transport: Types

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.22

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.24

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.25

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Most archaea have cell walls

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Archaeal cytoplasm similar to bacterial cytoplasm

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Fungi, algae, plants, and some protozoa have cell walls