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Chapter 4
Lecture Outline

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 4.1 Cells-1
Cell theory states the importance of cells to life.
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. Cells are the smallest living things.
3. Cells arise only by division of previously existing cells.

© McGraw-Hill Education 2
 4.1 Cells-2
All cells are small.
• Most cells can only be observed under a microscope.
• Robert Hooke first described cells in 1665.

Cells are fundamentally important.

• Matthias Schleiden in 1838 recognized that cells were
fundamental to plant composition.
• Theodor Schwann in 1839 reported that all animal tissues are
also comprised of cells.

© McGraw-Hill Education 3
 Figure 4.1: The Size of Cells and Their Contents

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 4.1 Cells-3
Cells are not all the same size, but most cells are
small because larger cells do not function as
efficiently.
• Larger cells are more difficult to control because of the distance
between the command center at the core and the peripheral
regions.
• Organisms that are comprised of many small cells are at an
efficiency advantage over organisms comprised of few larger
cells.

© McGraw-Hill Education 5
 4.1 Cells-4
Smaller cells have a greater surface area.
• A cell’s surface provides the interior’s only opportunity
to interact with the environment.
• As cell size increases, the volume grows more rapidly
than surface area.

© McGraw-Hill Education 6
 4.1 Cells-5
Most cells are too small to be viewed by the naked eye,
which has limited resolution.
• Resolution refers to the minimum distance that two points can be
apart and still be distinguished as two separated points.
• The human eye’s resolution is about 100 micrometers.

One way to increase resolution is to increase magnification,

such as using a microscope.

© McGraw-Hill Education 7
 4.1 Cells-6
Different types of microscopes are used to
increase magnification for viewing.
• Compound light microscopes use sets of magnifying lenses to
resolve structures that are separated by more than 200
nanometers.
• Electron microscopes have 1000 times the resolving power of
light microscopes and can resolve objects as close as 0.2
nanometers apart.

© McGraw-Hill Education 8
 Figure 4.3: A Scale of Visibility

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© McGraw-Hill Education 9
 4.2 Prokaryotic Cells-1
There are two major types of cells.
• Prokaryotic:
• Lacks a nucleus and does not have an extensive system of
internal membranes.
• All bacteria and archaea have this cell type.
• Eukaryotic:
• Has a nucleus and has internal membrane-bounded
compartments.
• All organisms other than bacteria or archaea have this cell
type.

© McGraw-Hill Education 10
 4.2 Prokaryotic Cells-2
Prokaryotes are the simplest cellular organisms.
• Have a plasma membrane surrounding a cytoplasm
without interior compartments.
• Some bacteria have additional outer layers to the
plasma membrane.
• Cell wall is comprised of carbohydrates to confer rigid
structure.
• Capsule may surround the cell wall.

© McGraw-Hill Education 11
 4.2 Prokaryotic Cells-3
The interior of the prokaryotic cell shows simple
organization.
• Cytoplasm is uniform with little or no internal support
framework.
• Ribosomes (sites for protein synthesis) are scattered throughout
the cytoplasm.
• Nucleoid region (an area of the cell where DNA is localized).
• Not membrane-bounded, therefore not a true nucleus.

© McGraw-Hill Education 12
 4.2 Prokaryotic Cells-4
Other structures sometimes found in prokaryotes
relate to locomotion, feeding, or genetic
exchange.
• Flagellum (plural, flagella) is a threadlike structure of protein
fibers that extend from the cell surface.
• May be one or many.
• Aids in locomotion and feeding.
• Pilus (plural, pili) is a short flagellum.
• Aids in attaching to substrates and in exchanging genetic
information between cells.

© McGraw-Hill Education 13
 Figure 4.5: Organization of a Prokaryotic Cell

© McGraw-Hill Education 14
 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells-1
Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than
prokaryotic cells.
• Have a plasma membrane encasing the cytoplasm.
• Internal membranes form compartments called organelles.
• The cytoplasm is semifluid and contains a network of protein
fibers that form a scaffold called a cytoskeleton.

© McGraw-Hill Education 15
 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells-2
Many organelles are immediately conspicuous
under the microscope.
• Nucleus:
• A membrane-bounded compartment for DNA that gives
eukaryotes (literally, “true-nut”) their name.
• Endomembrane system:
• Gives rise to the internal membranes found in the cell.
• Each compartment can provide specific conditions favoring a
particular process.

© McGraw-Hill Education 16
 4.3 Eukaryotic Cells-3
Not all eukaryotic cells are alike.
• The cells of plants, fungi, and many protists have a cell
wall beyond the plasma membrane.
• All plants and many protists contain organelles called
chloroplasts.
• Plants contain a central vacuole.
• Only animal cells contain centrioles.

© McGraw-Hill Education 17
 Figure 4.6: Structure of an Animal Cell

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 Figure 4.7: Structure of a Plant Cell

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© McGraw-Hill Education 19
 4.4 The Plasma Membrane-1
The plasma membrane is conceptualized by the
fluid mosaic model.
• A sheet of lipids with embedded proteins.
• The lipid layer forms the foundation of the membrane.
• The fat molecules comprising the lipid layers are called
phospholipids.

© McGraw-Hill Education 20
 4.4 The Plasma Membrane-2
• A phospholipid has a
polar head and two
nonpolar tails.
• The polar region
contains a phosphate
chemical group and is
water soluble.
• The nonpolar region is
comprised of fatty
acids and is water
insoluble.

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© McGraw-Hill Education 21
 4.4 The Plasma Membrane-3
• A lipid bilayer forms spontaneously whenever a
collection of phospholipids is placed in water.

Figure—The phospholipid
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 4.4 The Plasma Membrane-4
The interior of the lipid bilayer is completely
nonpolar.
• No water-soluble molecules can freely cross through it.
• Cholesterol is also found in the interior.
• It affects the fluid nature of the membrane.
• Its accumulation in the walls of blood vessels can cause
plaques.
• Plaques lead to cardiovascular disease.

© McGraw-Hill Education 23
 4.4 The Plasma Membrane-5
Another major component of the membrane is a
collection of membrane proteins.
• Some proteins form channels that span the membrane.
• These are called transmembrane proteins.
• Other proteins are integrated into the structure of the
membrane.
• For example, cell surface proteins are attached to the outer
surface of the membrane and act as markers.

© McGraw-Hill Education 24
 Proteins Embedded within the Lipid Bilayer

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© McGraw-Hill Education 25
 4.5 The Nucleus: The Cell’s Control Center-1
The nucleus is the command and control center of
the cell.
• It also stores hereditary information.

The nuclear surface is bounded by a double-

membrane called the nuclear envelope.
• Groups of proteins form openings called nuclear pores that
permit proteins and RNA to pass in and out of the nucleus.

© McGraw-Hill Education 26
 4.5 The Nucleus: The Cell’s Control Center-2

The DNA of eukaryotes is packaged into segments

and associated with protein.
• This complex is called a chromosome.
• The proteins enable the DNA to be wound tightly and
condense during cell division.
• When the cell is not dividing, the chromosomes exist as
threadlike strands called chromatin.
• Protein synthesis occurs when the DNA is in the
chromatin form.

© McGraw-Hill Education 27
 4.5 The Nucleus: The Cell’s Control Center-3
The cell builds proteins on structures called
ribosomes.
• Ribosomes consist of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and several
different kinds of proteins.

Ribosomes are assembled in a region of the

nucleus called the nucleolus.

© McGraw-Hill Education 28
 Figure 4.8: The Nucleus

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© McGraw-Hill Education 29
 4.6 The Endomembrane System-1
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an extensive
system of internal membranes.
• Some of the membranes form channels and
interconnections.
• Other portions become isolated spaces enclosed by
membranes.
• These spaces are known as vesicles.

© McGraw-Hill Education 30
 4.6 The Endomembrane System-2
The portion of the ER dedicated to protein synthesis is
called the rough ER.
• The surface of this region looks pebbly.
• The rough spots are due to embedded ribosomes.

The portion of the ER that aids in the manufacture of

carbohydrates and lipids is called the smooth ER.
• The surface of this region looks smooth because embedded
ribosomes are scarce.

© McGraw-Hill Education 31
 Figure 4.9: The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

© McGraw-Hill Education 32
 4.6 The Endomembrane System-3
After synthesis in the ER, the newly made
molecules are passed to the Golgi bodies.
• Golgi bodies are flattened stacks of membranes
scattered through the cytoplasm.
• Their function is to collect, package, and distribute
molecules manufactured in the cell.
• The Golgi bodies of a cell are collectively called the
Golgi complex.

© McGraw-Hill Education 33
 Figure 4.10: Golgi Complex

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© McGraw-Hill Education (B): ©Biophoto Associates/Science Source 34

 4.6 The Endomembrane System-4
• The ER and Golgi
complex function
together as a
transport system
in the cell.

Figure 4.11: How the

endomembrane system works.

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© McGraw-Hill Education 35
 4.6 The Endomembrane System-5
The Golgi complex also gives rise to lysosomes.
• These membrane-bounded structures contain enzymes
that the cell uses to break down macromolecules.
• Worn-out cell parts are broken down and their components
recycled to form new parts.
• Particles that the cell has ingested are also digested.

© McGraw-Hill Education 36
 4.6 The Endomembrane System-6
Vacuoles are membrane-bounded storage
compartments.
• In plants, the central vacuole stores water and
dissolved substances.
• In some protists, the contractile vacuole is found near
the cell surface of some protists and accumulates
excess water from inside the cell that it then pumps
out.

© McGraw-Hill Education 37
 4.7 Organelles that Harvest Energy-1
Eukaryotic cells contain energy harvesting
organelles that contain their own DNA.
• These organelles appear to have been derived from
ancient bacteria.
• These organelles include mitochondria and
chloroplasts.

© McGraw-Hill Education 38
 4.7 Organelles that Harvest Energy-2
• Mitochondria are
cellular powerhouses. Figure 4.13a: Mitochondria
• Sites for chemical
reactions called
oxidative metabolism.
• The organelle is
surrounded by two
membranes.

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© McGraw-Hill Education 39
 4.7 Organelles that Harvest Energy-3
• Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis.
• The organelle is also surrounded by two membranes.

Figure 4.14: A chloroplast

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© McGraw-Hill Education ©Science History Images/Alamy 40

 4.7 Organelles that Harvest Energy-4
Both mitochondria and chloroplasts possess their
own molecule of circular DNA.
They cannot be grown free of the cell.
• They are totally dependent on the cells within which
they occur.

© McGraw-Hill Education 41
 4.7 Organelles that Harvest Energy-5
The theory of endosymbiosis:
• States that some organelles evolved from a symbiosis in which
one cell of a prokaryotic species was engulfed by and lived
inside of a cell of another species of prokaryote that was a
precursor to eukaryotes.
• The engulfed species provided their hosts with advantages
because of special metabolic activities.
• The modern organelles of mitochondria and chloroplasts are
believed to be found in the eukaryotic descendants of these
endosymbiotic prokaryotes.

© McGraw-Hill Education 42
 Figure 4.15: Endosymbiosis

© McGraw-Hill Education 43
 4.7 Organelles that Harvest Energy-6
In addition to the double membranes and circular DNA
found in mitochondria and chloroplasts, there is a lot of
other evidence supporting endosymbiotic theory.
• Mitochondria are about the same size as modern bacteria.
• The cristae in mitochondria resemble folded membranes in
modern bacteria.
• Mitochondrial ribosomes are similar to modern, bacterial
ribosomes in size and structure.
• Mitochondria divide by fission, just like modern bacteria.

© McGraw-Hill Education 44
 4.8 Cytoskeleton: Interior Framework of the Cell-1

The cytoskeleton is comprised of an internal framework of

protein fibers that:
• Anchors organelles to fixed locations.
• Supports the shape of the cell.
• Helps organize ribosomes and enzymes needed for synthesis activities.

The cytoskeleton is dynamic and its components are continually

being rearranged.

© McGraw-Hill Education 45
 4.8 Cytoskeleton: Interior Framework of the Cell-2

Three different types of protein fibers comprise

the cytoskeleton.
• Microfilaments (actin filaments)—7 nm in diameter.
• Long, slender microfilaments.
• made up of the protein actin.
• Microtubules—25 nm in diameter.
• Hollow tubes made up of the protein tubulin.
• Intermediate filaments—10 nm in diameter.
• Thick ropes of intertwined protein.

© McGraw-Hill Education 46
 Protein Fibers of the Cytoskeleton

© McGraw-Hill Education 47
 4.8 Cytoskeleton: Interior Framework of the Cell-3

• Some cells swim by coordinating the beating of

microtubules grouped together to form flagella
or cilia.

© McGraw-Hill Education 48
 Figure 4.16: Flagella and Cilia

© McGraw-Hill Education ©Aaron J. Bell/Science Source 49

 4.9 Diffusion and Osmosis-1
Movement of water and nutrients into a cell or
elimination of wastes out of cell is essential for survival.
This movement occurs across a biological membrane in
one of three ways:
• Diffusion.
• Membrane folding.
• Transport through membrane proteins.

© McGraw-Hill Education 50
 4.9 Diffusion and Osmosis-2
Molecules move in a random fashion but there is a
tendency to produce uniform mixtures.
The net movement of molecules from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration is
termed diffusion.
Molecules diffuse down a concentration gradient from
higher to lower concentrations.
• Diffusion ends when equilibrium is reached.

© McGraw-Hill Education 51
 Essential Biological Process 4A: Diffusion

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© McGraw-Hill Education 52
 4.9 Diffusion and Osmosis-3
Only certain substances undergo diffusion across the
plasma membrane.
• Molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nonpolar lipids.
• Ions and polar molecules cannot cross the interior of the
membrane.

Water, although polar, is able to diffuse freely across the

plasma membrane.
• Aquaporins are selective channels that permit water to cross.

© McGraw-Hill Education 53
 4.9 Diffusion and Osmosis-4
Water moves down its concentration gradient
into or out of a cell through a process called
osmosis.
• The movement of water is dependent on the
concentration of other substances in a solution.
• The greater the amount of solutes that are dissolved in
a solution, the lesser the amount of water molecules
that are free to move.

© McGraw-Hill Education 54
 Essential Biological Process 4B: Osmosis

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© McGraw-Hill Education 55
 4.9 Diffusion and Osmosis-5
The concentration of all molecules dissolved in a solution
is called the osmotic concentration of the solution.
• If the osmotic concentrations of two solutions are equal, the
solutions are each called isotonic.
• If two solutions have unequal osmotic concentration, the
solution with the higher solute concentration is said to be
hypertonic, and the solution with the lower solute
concentration is said to be hypotonic.

© McGraw-Hill Education 56
 4.9 Diffusion and Osmosis-6
Movement of water by osmosis into a cell causes
pressure called osmotic pressure.
• Enough pressure may cause a cell to swell and burst.
• Osmotic pressure explains why so many cell types are
reinforced by cell walls.

© McGraw-Hill Education 57
 Figure 4.17: Osmotic Pressure in Animal/Plant Cells

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© McGraw-Hill Education 58
 4.10 Bulk Passage into and out of Cells-1
Bulky substances are contained within vesicles as
they are moved into and out of a cell.
• Endocytosis is the engulfing of substances outside of
the cell in order to form a vesicle that is brought inside
the cell.
• Exocytosis is the discharge of substances from vesicles
at the inner surface of the cell.

© McGraw-Hill Education 59
 4.10 Bulk Passage into and out of Cells-2
Forms of endocytosis:
• Phagocytosis is
endocytosis of
particulate (solid)
matter.
• Pinocytosis is
endocytosis of liquid
matter.

Figure 4.18 Endocytosis

© McGraw-Hill Education 60
 Figure 4.19: Exocytosis

© McGraw-Hill Education ©Dr. Birgit Satir, Albert Einstein College of Medicine 61

 4.11 Selective Permeability-1
Selective permeability allows cells to control
specifically what enters and leaves.
• Involves using membrane proteins to transport
substances across.
• Transport can be down a concentration gradient (i.e.,
diffusion) or against a concentration gradient (i.e.,
active transport).

© McGraw-Hill Education 62
 4.11 Selective Permeability-2
Selective diffusion:
• Membrane proteins act as open channels for whatever is small
enough to fit inside the channel.
• This form of diffusion is common in ion transport.

Facilitated diffusion:
• Membrane proteins act as carriers that can bind only to specific
molecules and transport them.
• Transport is limited by the availability of carriers.
• When all the carriers are in use, then the transport is saturated.

© McGraw-Hill Education 63
 Essential Biological Process 4C: Facilitated Diffusion

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 4.11 Selective Permeability-3
Active transport:
• Utilizes protein channels that open only when energy is
supplied.
• Energy is used to pump substances against or up their
concentration gradients.
• Allows cells to maintain high or low concentration of certain
molecules.
• Recall that diffusion always ends in equilibrium.

Most of the active transport in cells is carried out by the

sodium-potassium pump.

© McGraw-Hill Education 65
 4.11 Selective Permeability-4
Sodium-potassium Na 
 K   pump.

• Uses energy, in the form of ATP, to pump three Na

out of the cell and to pump two K into the cell.

• Nearly ⅓ of the energy expended by the body’s cells is

given over to driving these pumps.

• Results in fewer Na inside the cell than outside.

© McGraw-Hill Education 66
 Sodium-Potassium Pump

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 4.11 Selective Permeability-5
The cell membrane has many facilitated diffusion channels for Na
but it is only transported if partnered with another substance.
• This is called coupled transport.

The concentration gradient favoring the entry of Na into the cell
is so strong that a coupled substance will be transported even if it
is against the concentration gradient.
• Coupled transport is a common way for cells to accumulate
sugars and amino acids.

© McGraw-Hill Education 68
 Table 4.1: Eukaryotic Cell Organelles and Functions

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© McGraw-Hill Education 69
 Inquiry & Analysis
• About 1,000 genes in Why Does a Cell’s Disposal
human DNA are of Damaged Proteins
involved in the Consume Energy?
breakdown and
recycling of proteins.
Into what molecules are
proteins recycled?
• What is the effect of

adding ATP to the ubi

treatment? The ubi
treatment?
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 End of Main Content

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