Chapter 7

DNA Structure and Gene

Function

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 What is DNA?

DNA is a molecule of nucleic acid.

It is made up of many monomer

subunits called nucleotides.

DNA stores the information that

the cell needs to produce
proteins.
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 How did scientists discover DNA?

Griffith’s experiment
showed that some
unidentified substance in a
lethal strain of bacteria
could transform a harmless
stain into a lethal strain.

Later it was discovered that

DNA was transmitted
between the toxic and
harmless bacteria.

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 Changing DNA changes properties of cells
Hershey and Chase showed that DNA, not protein, contains genetic
information. Viruses use DNA to change cellular genes.

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 7.1 Mastering concepts

How did Hershey and Chase’s experiment

confirm Griffith’s results?

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 DNA is composed of nucleotides

Each nucleotide consists of:

• One phosphate group

• One molecule of the 5-
carbon sugar deoxyribose
• One nitrogenous base,
either Adenine, Guanine,
Cytosine, or Thymine

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 Nucleotides join
together into strands
of DNA

The nucleotide sequence of

DNA is the order of the
nitrogenous bases in a strand.

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 DNA is a “double helix”
One DNA molecule is made of two
strands of nucleotides.

The two strands wind together into

a helical shape.

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 DNA strands are held together by base
pairing
Hydrogen bonds form between
nitrogenous bases to connect the
two DNA strands:

Adenine bonds with Thymine

Guanine bonds with Cytosine

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 DNA strands are complementary
Hydrogen bonds can only form
between complementary base
pairs (A-T and G-C).

The nucleotide sequence in one

strand determines the sequence
in the other strand.

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 DNA strands are antiparallel

Each end of the DNA strand is

different.
• 5-prime (where the
phosphate group is attached
to deoxyribose)
• 3-prime (where the OH group
is attached to deoxyribose)
The strands are antiparallel:
oriented in different directions,
with one upside down with respect
to the other.

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 7.2 Mastering concepts

Describe the components of DNA and its

three-dimensional structure.

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 Protein production starts with DNA

A gene is a small region of a

chromosome.

The sequence of DNA in each

gene encodes a specific
protein.

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 RNA is a nucleic acid
a. DNA RNA

Sugar

Figure 7.9

Nucleotide
bases

Form

Stores RNA- and protein-encoding Carries protein-encoding

Functions information; transfers information to information; helps to make proteins;
next generation of cells catalyzes some reactions

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 Making proteins is like making brownies
Protein production occurs in two stages:
• Transcription = RNA synthesis
• Translation = Protein synthesis

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 Transcription is RNA synthesis

Transcription uses DNA as a

template to produce RNA.

The nucleotide sequence of the

DNA determines the nucleotide
sequence of the RNA that is
transcribed.

RNA sequence is complementary

to the DNA.

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 Translation is protein synthesis
Translation takes place at
ribosomes.

Three types of RNA interact

with each other to carry out
translation:
• Messenger RNA (mRNA)
brings the information.
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
makes up the ribosome.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings
the amino acids.

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 Clicker question #1

What is the main function of DNA?

A. encode proteins
B. produce ATP
C. speed up cell reactions
D. provide structural support to the cell
E. All of the choices are correct.

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Clicker question #1, solution

What is the main function of DNA?

A. encode proteins

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 7.3 Mastering concepts

What is the relationship between a gene

and a protein?

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 Transcription uses DNA to create RNA

Let’s first look at how a cell

produces an RNA copy of a
gene.

Transcription occurs in the

nucleus.

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RNA nucleotides pair with DNA nucleotides

To make RNA, base pairing

takes place between RNA
and DNA.

Adenine (A) – Uracil (U)

Cytosine (C) – Guanine (G)
Guanine (G) – Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T) – Adenine (A)

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 Transcription occurs in three steps

We will look at
these steps one at a
time:
• Initiation
• Elongation
• Termination

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 Transcription initiation:
RNA polymerase gets it started

RNA polymerase binds to

the promoter, which is the
beginning of the gene.

RNA polymerase also

unwinds the two strands
of DNA.

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 Transcription initiation:
DNA is the template

The DNA template

strand encodes the RNA
molecule.

The other DNA strand

does not participate in
transcription.

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 Transcription elongation:
RNA polymerase synthesizes RNA
RNA polymerase moves
along the template strand,
making an RNA copy.

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 Transcription elongation:
RNA is complementary to the DNA

RNA nucleotides base pair

with the template strand.

RNA
polymerase
joins them
together into
a strand of
RNA.

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 Transcription elongation:
RNA is antiparallel to the DNA
The 3’ end of RNA
matches the 5’ end of
DNA.

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 Transcription termination:
RNA polymerase reaches the end

RNA polymerase reaches

the terminator, which is a
region of DNA found at
the end of the gene.

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 Transcription termination:
The RNA is complete

At the terminator, the

RNA, DNA, and RNA
polymerase separate from
each other.

DNA becomes a double

helix again.

The cell produced an RNA

copy of a gene!

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 RNA is processed in the nucleus

RNA is not ready

yet.

The cell must

modify the RNA
before it can carry
out its function.

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 RNA processing protects RNA

A “cap” structure
is added to the 5’
end of mRNA.

A poly-A tail
structure is added
to the 3’ end of
mRNA.

The cap and tail

protect mRNA
from degradation.

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 RNA processing removes extra sequences
Introns are
sequences in genes
that are not used
for producing a
protein.

Exons are the

sequences that
specify amino
acids.

Introns are
removed from the
mRNA.
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 Processed RNA is ready for translation
The processed
RNA is now a
functional
molecule.

When processing
is complete, it
leaves the
nucleus.

Onward to
translation!

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 Clicker question #2

If the DNA template strand has the following

sequence, what would be the nucleotide
sequence of the complementary RNA
molecule produced in transcription?
Template strand: AGTCTT

A. AGTCTT
B. AGUCUU
C. TCAGAA
D. TCUGUU
E. UCAGAA

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Clicker question #2, solution

If the DNA template strand has the following

sequence, what would be the nucleotide
sequence of the complementary RNA
molecule produced in transcription?
Template strand: AGTCTT

E. UCAGAA

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 7.4 Mastering concepts

How is mRNA modified before it leaves

the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell?

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 Translation builds the protein

Now let’s look at how a

ribosome uses RNA to
produce a protein.

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 All cells have the same genetic code

A codon is a three-nucleotide sequence that encodes one amino acid.

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 mRNA “codes” for proteins
The genetic code shows which
mRNA codons correspond to
which amino acids.

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 tRNA “translates” the genetic code

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

molecules bring the
amino acids to the
ribosome.

tRNAs are adapters

that recognize the
genetic code.

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 tRNA matches up to mRNA

tRNA binds to an mRNA

codon here, at the
anticodon…

and binds to the

corresponding amino acid
here.

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 Each step in translation happens at
ribosomes
Ribosomes help the
three types of RNA
interact with each other
to build a protein.

The large subunit binds

to tRNA.

The small subunit binds

to mRNA.

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 Translation occurs in three steps

We will look at these steps

one at a time:
• Initiation
• Elongation
• Termination

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 Translation initiation:
mRNA is the template
• Small ribosomal
subunit binds to
mRNA.

• Large ribosomal
subunit binds.

• Initiator tRNA
molecule binds; its
anticodon matches up
with the “START”
codon in mRNA.

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 Translation initiation:
tRNA is the adaptor
• Initiator tRNA
anticodon
complementary base
pairs to the mRNA start
codon.

• Initiator tRNA already

carries an amino acid
(Met). This will be the
first amino acid in the
protein.

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 Translation elongation:
Amino acids are joined together
• The second tRNA enters
the ribosome next to
the initiator tRNA. Its
anticodon matches the
second mRNA codon.

• The amino acids are

joined together when
enzymes in the
ribosome form a
peptide bond.

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 Translation elongation:
tRNAs bring more amino acids
• The first tRNA leaves the
ribosome, but its amino
acid stays behind.
• The ribosome moves to
the right, and a third
tRNA comes in. Its
anticodon matches up to
the third mRNA codon.
• Enzymes form another
peptide bond to join the
amino acids.

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 Translation termination:
Release factor ends the process
• The ribosome reaches
the stop codon, which
is at the end of the
gene.

• A protein called release

factor binds to the stop
codon. There is no
tRNA that can bind
there, so no more
amino acids will be
added.
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 Translation termination:
The protein is complete
The polypeptide detaches
from the mRNA and folds
into a functional protein.

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 Translation is efficient
Multiple ribosomes attach to an mRNA molecule
simultaneously, so the cell can make many molecules of protein
all at once.

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 Clicker question #3

Look at the image below. Which ribosome

has been on the mRNA the longest?

A. the one on the far right

B. the one on the far left

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Clicker question #3, solution

Look at the image below. Which ribosome

has been on the mRNA the longest?

A. the one on the far right

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 7.5 Mastering concepts

If the DNA template strand has the following

sequence, what would be the amino acid
sequence of the corresponding protein?

Template strand:
ATGAGTCTTGAATAA
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 Protein synthesis is highly regulated
• Protein synthesis requires lots of energy!

• Cells save energy by only producing needed

proteins.

• Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes regulate protein

synthesis, but in different ways.

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Prokaryotes regulate several genes at once

Genes in prokaryotes are organized into operons,

groups of genes that are always transcribed together.

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 Prokaryotes:
Operons contain related genes

The lac operon includes three genes that encode

lactose-digesting enzymes.

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 Prokaryotes:
Promoter, operator control gene expression

• The promoter is the region of DNA where RNA polymerase binds

to initiate transcription.
• The operator is the region of DNA where regulatory proteins
bind, which can affect the activity of RNA polymerase.

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 Prokaryotes:
Repressor proteins block transcription
When lactose is
absent, lactose-
digesting enzymes
are not needed.
The cell would be
wasting energy
producing these
Repressor blocks enzymes.
transcription, by stopping
RNA polymerase from
moving forward. A repressor
protein binds to
the operator.

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 Prokaryotes:
Lactose removes the repressor protein
When lactose is
present, it binds to
the repressor,
changes its shape,
and releases the
operator.

Protein synthesis of
lactose-digesting
enzymes occurs.

Enzymes that break down

lactose are produced.
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 Eukaryotes have multiple levels of gene
regulation
In eukaryotes, gene regulation
starts in the nucleus.

Some genes are wound up very

tightly and cannot be used for
transcription, but other genes
are available.

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 Eukaryotes have transcription factors

Many different proteins

called transcription factors
can bind to a gene to affect
the activity of RNA
polymerase.

Transcription of the gene

can only occur if the
correct transcription
factors are present.

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 RNA polymerase needs transcription factors

Proteins called
transcription factors bind
to nucleotide sequences
in genes called
enhancers.

RNA polymerase can only

become activated when
the correct transcription
factors are present.

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Eukaryotic genes can be regulated by splicing

Some eukaryotic genes can

encode multiple proteins by
using different combinations
of exons.

Alternative splicing creates

different proteins from the
same mRNA.

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 RNA export can be regulated

Gene regulation continues

in the cytoplasm.

Certain eukaryotic
proteins can hold mRNAs
inside the nucleus,
preventing them from
reaching a ribosome.

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 RNA can be regulated

Some mRNA may be

quickly degraded before it
is translated into protein.

Other mRNA may be

silenced by microRNA,
short sequences of
nucleotides that bind to
the mRNA and prevent
translation.

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 Proteins can be regulated

Proteins must be properly

folded before they are
functional. They must also
reach their correct cellular
location.

Cells can add or remove

chemical modifications to
proteins that change protein
activity or cause proteins to
become degraded.

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 7.6 Mastering concepts

Why do cells regulate which genes are

expressed at any given time?

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 Mutations change DNA
A mutation is a change in a cell’s DNA sequence. Mutations
come in several varieties.

This mutation
caused the fly to
grow legs where it
should have
antennae!

(a): ©Andrew Syred/Science Source; (b): ©Eye of Science/Science Source

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 Mutations change the DNA sequence
A point mutation changes one or a few base pairs in a gene.

TABLE 7.2 Types of Mutations

Type Illustration
Original THE ONE BIG FLY HAD ONE RED EYE
sentence

Substitution
(missense)
THQ ONE BIG FLY HAD ONE RED EYE The table to the left
Nonsense THE ONE BIG uses sentences to
Insertion THE ONE BIG WET FLY HAD ONE RED EYE show a few examples
Insertion
(frameshift)
THE ONE QBI GFL YHA DON ERE DEY
of point mutations.
Deletion THE ONE BIG HAD ONE RED EYE
Expanding Generation1: THE ONE BIG FLY HAD ONE RED EYE
repeat Generation2: THE ONE BIG FLY FLY FLY HAD ONE
RED EYE
Generation 3: THE ONE BIG FLY FLY FLY FLY FLY FLY
HAD ONE RED EYE

Remember that codons are sequences of three nucleotides.

Each word in the sentences above represents one codon.
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 Nucleotide substitutions cause small
changes in protein structure
TABLE 7.2 Types of Mutations
Type Illustration
Original
Sentence
THE ONE BIG FLY HAD ONE RED EYE Wild type = original
Substitution THQ ONE BIG FLY HAD ONE RED EYE
(missense)
nucleotide sequence
Nonsense THE ONE BIG
Insertion
Insertion
THE ONE BIG WET FLY HAD ONE RED EYE
THE ONE QBI GFL YHA DON ERE DEY
Substitution =
(frameshift)
changed nucleotide(s)
Deletion THE ONE BIG HAD ONE RED EYE
Expanding Generation 1: THE ONE BIG FLY HAD ONE
repeat RED EYE
Generation 2: THE ONE BIG FLY FLY FLY
HAD ONE RED EYE
Generation 3: THE ONE BIG FLY FLY FLY FLY
FLY FLY HAD ONE RED EYE

Only one codon is altered, so only one amino acid in the protein
will be affected.
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 Some mutations cause disease
Normal red blood cells

A single base
substitution in a
hemoglobin gene
causes blood cells to
form abnormally,
Sickled red blood cells
leading to sickle cell
disease.

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 “Frameshift” mutations cause large
changes in protein structure
TABLE 7.2 Types of Mutations
Type Illustration
Original
Sentence
THE ONE BIG FLY HAD ONE RED EYE
Insertion of one
Substitution THQ ONE BIG FLY HAD ONE RED EYE
(missense) nucleotide changes
Nonsense THE ONE BIG every codon after the
Insertion THE ONE BIG WET FLY HAD ONE RED EYE
Insertion THE ONE QBI GFL YHA DON ERE DEY insertion.
(frameshift)
Deletion THE ONE BIG HAD ONE RED EYE
Expanding Generation 1: THE ONE BIG FLY HAD ONE
repeat RED EYE
Generation 2: THE ONE BIG FLY FLY FLY
HAD ONE RED EYE
Generation 3: THE ONE BIG FLY FLY FLY FLY
FLY FLY HAD ONE RED EYE

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 Frameshifts affect multiple amino
acids
Original DNA sequence

One base added (frameshift mutation)

Two bases added (frameshift mutation)

Three bases added (reading frame not disrupted)

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 Mutations create genetic variety
Mutations are not
always harmful.

Mutations create
different versions of
alleles, which are alternative
versions of the same gene.

Genetic variation is important for

evolution.

Plant breeders even induce

mutations to create new varieties
of plants.
(a): ©Erich Schlegal/Dallas Morning News/Corbis; (b): ©Pallava Bagla/Corbis;
(c): ©Scott Olson/Getty Images

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 Clicker question #4

The DNA template strand sequence below

mutates as shown. What happens to the
amino acids encoded by these two codons?
(Hint: you will need to look at figure 7.12,
the genetic code.)

Original sequence: AGT TCT

Mutated sequence: GGT TCC

A. Both amino acids change.

B. Only one amino acid changes.
C. Neither amino acid changes.
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Clicker question #4, solution

The DNA template strand sequence below

mutates as shown. What happens to the
amino acids encoded by these two codons?
(Hint: you will need to look at figure 7.12,
the genetic code.)

Original sequence: AGT TCT

Mutated sequence: GGT TCC

B. Only one amino acid changes.

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 7.7 Mastering concepts

What are the types of mutations, and how

does each alter the encoded protein?

©Dr.Gopal Murti/Science Source

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 Investigating life:
Clues to the origin of language
FOXP2 is the “language
gene.”

Few amino acids differ

between FOXP2 genes of
humans, primates, and
mice.

Two recent mutations in the

human genome might set
our language skills apart
(human): ©Creatas/PictureQuest RF; (chimp): ©Darryl Estrine/Getty Images
from those of our ancestors.
RF; (gorilla): ©Paul Souders/Corbis; (orangutan): ©Getty Images RF; (monkey): ©Judi
Mowlem/Flickr/Getty Images RF; (mouse): ©imageBROKER/SuperStock RF

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