А2.2.

Cell structure
A2.2.1. Cells as the basic structural unit of
all living organisms

Cell theory states:

- All organisms are composed of cells.

- Cells are the smallest units of all living organisms.
- Cells arise only from pre-existing cells.

All cells today represent a continuous line of descent

from the first living cells.
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A2.2.4. Structures common to cells in all
living organisms
• There are four basic structures common to all cells:
• Plasma Membrane – All cells must have an outer border to
maintain an internal chemistry that is different to the exterior
(homeostasis)
• Genetic Material – All cells must contain coded instructions
(DNA) that function to control internal activities within a cell
(metabolism)
• Ribosomes – All cells must contain ribosomes in order to
translate the cell’s coded instructions into functional elements
(proteins)
• Cytosol – All cells must contain an internal fluid that functions
as a reaction medium for all necessary metabolic processes

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A2.2.5. Prokaryote cell structure
(Pro means before and karyon means nucleus.)

• All prokaryotic cells share a number of key cellular components:

• The genetic material is found within a region of the cytosol called
the nucleoid (the single DNA strand is called the genophore)
• Prokaryotes may contain additional DNA molecules (plasmids)
that can be exchanged via bacterial conjugation
• The ribosomes within the cell that are responsible for protein
synthesis are characteristically small in size (70S)
• Prokaryotic cells all possess a cell wall and may possess an
additional outer covering called capsule.
• They may possess hair-like extensions called pili used in
attachment
• Additionally, many prokaryotes may possess several projections
called flagella, which facilitate movement
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A2.2.6. Eukaryote cell structure
(Eu means "true" and karyon means “nucleus“)
Characteristics:
- possess a membrane-bound nucleus
- multiple linear chromosomes found inside the nucleus
- are more complex than prokaryotic cells
- perform many cellular functions within organelles
- ribosomes within the cell that are responsible for protein synthesis are comparatively larger in size (80S)

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3. Common organelles for plant and animal cells
•Ribosomes are the protein factories of the cell.
•Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is involved in protein and vital lipids production.
•Golgi apparatus stores and transports the processed in the cell proteins.
•Mitochondria are the site of cellular respiration where glucose molecules are transformed into
energy molecules.
•Lysosomes contain enzymes for breaking down components of cells. They are important in cell
death, in breaking down old organelles.
•Nucleolus- the site of production of ribosomes.

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4. Additional organelles in plant cells

-Chloroplasts- site of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts contain a pigment known

as chlorophyll, which captures the sun’s energy to transform water and carbon
dioxide into glucose for food.
-Vacuole – where water, organic and inorganic substances are stored
-Cell wall - composed of cellulose and other carbohydrates such as lignin and
pectin, giving plant cells further support

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEXC8
A2.2.7. Processes of life in unicellular
organisms
• All living things carry out seven basic functions integral to survival:
• Metabolism – Living things undertake essential chemical reactions
• Reproduction – Living things produce offspring, either sexually or
asexually
• Sensitivity – Living things are responsive to internal and external
stimuli
• Homeostasis – Living things maintain a stable internal environment
• Excretion – Living things exhibit the removal of waste products
• Nutrition – Living things exchange materials and gases with the
environment
• Growth / Movement – Living things can move and change shape
or size

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A2.2.8. Differences in eukaryotic cell
structure between animals, fungi, and plants

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Eukaryotic Cells Comparison

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A2.2.9. Atypical cell structure in eukaryotes
• Red Blood Cells:
• Red blood cells have no nucleus or mitochondria when they are
mature (the organelles are ejected to allow more haemoglobin to
be stored)
• Without any genetic material, red blood cells cannot
independently replicate and new cells must be continually
produced within the bone marrow

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• Sieve Tube Elements:
• Sieve elements that line the phloem in plants are interconnected
by plasmodesmata into supracellular assemblies that transverse
the length of a plant
• These sieve elements also lack nuclei and have few organelles,
relying on local companion cells for survival
• Phloem sieve tube elements challenge the idea that multicellular
structures are composed of anatomically independent cells

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• Striated Muscle Fibres:
• Individual muscle cells fuse together to form long striated
muscle fibres
• These fibres are surrounded by a continuous plasma
membrane and possess multiple nuclei
• Striated muscle fibres challenge the idea that all living things
are comprised of discrete cell units

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• Aseptate Fungal Hyphae:
• Fungi may have filamentous structures called hyphae, which are
used for nutrient absorption and growth
• Hyphal cells are typically separated by internal walls (septa), but
some hyphae are not partitioned and have a continuous
cytoplasm (with multiple nuclei)
• Aseptate fungal hyphae challenge the idea that living structures
are composed of autonomous cells

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A2.2.10. Cell types and cell structures viewed
in light and electron micrographs
• Light microscopes possess low magnification and resolution,
but can view living specimens in their natural colors
• Eukaryotic cells will be much larger than prokaryotic cells but
without staining, only nuclei and chloroplast will likely be visible

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• Electron microscopes possess higher magnification but can
only view dead specimens in monochrome (false color can be
applied)

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Types of organelles
a. Nucleus
•The nucleus is a double membrane structure with
pores that stores the genetic material (DNA)
•Within the nucleus, a specific region called the
nucleolus is responsible for ribosome assembly

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b. Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are responsible for ATP
production via the process of aerobic cell
respiration
• It has an inner membrane that is highly folded
into cristae in order to increase the SA:Vol
ratio

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c. Endoplasmic reticulum
•The ER is a membranous network that synthesises
and transports materials via vesicles
•The smooth ER synthesises lipids, while the rough ER
synthesises proteins (via ribosomes)

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d. Golgi complex
•The Golgi apparatus is an assembly of folded
membranes responsible for material secretion
•Material is sorted, stored, modified and exported
from the cell within vesicles (exocytosis)

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e. Vesicles
•Vesicles are membranous containers involved in the
transport and storage of materials
•Peroxisomes are involved in the oxidation of lipids and
the digestion of toxic metabolites
•Lysosomes are responsible for the breakdown of
cellular wastes and pathogenic debris
•Vacuoles are comparatively larger containers that store
excess fluid and regulate pH

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f. Chloroplasts (in plants)
•An organelle responsible for photosynthesis
(converting light energy into chemical energy)
•Chloroplasts use the photosynthetic pigment
chlorophyll to absorb and utilize light energy

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g. Centrosomes (in animals)
•Centrosomes are composed of paired centrioles
•They contribute towards cell division in animal cells
(plants and fungi use other structures)

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A2.2.11. Drawing and annotation based
on electron micrographs
a. Prokaryote: Bacteria

• When drawing prokaryotic cells, the following should be

included:
• The genophore (bacterial chromosome) should be drawn as
a loop
• Pili and flagella should project from the cell wall
• Ribosomes should be drawn as filled in dots (not as empty
circles) and labelled as 70S in size
• A flagellum should be thicker than pili and significantly
longer in length

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b. Eukaryote: Animal Cell
•When drawing animal cells, the following should be included:
•The nucleus should be a double membrane structure with pores
•The ER network should be shown as connected membranes, but
Golgi membranes should be unconnected
•Ribosomes should be drawn as filled in dots and labelled as 80S
in size
•Mitochondria should be sausage-shaped and the inner
membrane highly folded (into cristae)
•Lysosomes and secretory vesicles should all look the same
(except for the labelling)

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c. Eukaryote: Plant Cell
•When drawing animal cells, the following should be
included:
•A large central vacuole should be included that
occupies significant space within the cell
•A cell wall made of cellulose should be included as a
thicker line external to the plasma membrane
•Chloroplasts should be double-membrane structures
with internal stacks of flattened discs (grana)

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B-CnLnOHijY&list=PLEnRjfGdbEtKRMdp_x5ywmUCRd6vVJNwU&index=2
A2.2.2. Microscopy skills
• 1. Using a Light Microscope
• Most light microscopes include both an ocular lens
(~10×) and objective lens (~10×; 40×; 100×)

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• 2.Calculating magnification and actual cell
size
• A photo taken down a microscope is called a
micrograph.
• To find the magnification of a micrograph or a drawing
we need to know two things:
- the size of the image (in the drawing or the
micrograph)
- the actual size of the specimen.
This formula is used for the calculation:

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oSd7Dlx56Xg&t=271s
• In order to calculate magnification, both image
size and actual size must be in the same units
• Metric conversions can be applied according
to the following table:

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• 3. Calculating cell size- examples
• Worked example 1
• The length of an image is 30 mm. It represents a
structure that has an actual size of 3 µm. Determine
the magnification of the image.

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Worked example 2

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• Worked example 3

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 A2.2.3. Developments in
microscopy
• 1. Light Microscopy
• Light microscopes can be used to view living
specimens in their natural colours
• These microscopes use glass lenses to bend light in
order to magnify images (extent of magnification is
determined by the lenses used)

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• 2. Electron Microscopy
• Electron microscopes can generate images at
a much higher magnification but cannot view living
specimens in natural color
• These microscopes use electromagnets to focus
electrons and produce monochromatic images (to
which false color may be applied)

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Surface area to volume ratio
• Cells need to produce chemical energy ( via
chemical metabolic reactions) to survive and this
requires the exchange of materials with the
environment.
• The rate of metabolism of a cell is a function of
its volume (larger cells need more energy to sustain
essential functions)
• The rate of material exchange is a function of
its surface area (large membrane surface allows
more material movements)

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Calculating SA/Vol ratio

volume (units3)
surface area (units2)

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15. Surface area to volume ratio importance to
cell functions

• As a cell grows, volume increases faster than

surface area , leading to a decreased SA/Vol ratio.

• If metabolic rate exceeds the rate of exchange of

vital materials and wastes (low SA/Vol ratio), the
cell will eventually die.

• Hence growing cells tend to divide and remain small

in order to maintain a high SA/Vol ratio suitable for
survival. 44
 16. Increasing SA/Vol Ratio
• Cells and tissues that are specialised for gas or material
exchanges will increase their surface area to optimize material
transfer
• Intestinal tissue of the digestive tract may form a ruffled
structure (villi) to increase the surface area of the inner lining
• Alveoli within the lungs have membranous extensions called
microvilli, which function to increase the total membrane
surface

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