CELLS

◦ the basic membrane-bound unit that contains the fundamental

molecules of life and of which all living things are composed.

◦ A single cell is often a complete organism in itself, such as a bacterium

or yeast. Other cells acquire specialized functions as they mature.

◦ the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism,

typically microscopic and consisting of cytoplasm and
a nucleus enclosed in a membrane.

◦ Microscopic organisms typically consist of a single cell, which is either

eukaryotic or prokaryotic.
PROKARYOTIC
◦ A prokaryote is a single-cell organism whose cell lacks a nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles
◦ Have no true nucleus as the DNA is not contained within a membrane or separated from the
rest of the cell, but is coiled up in a region of the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.

◦ The most common bacteria shapes

◦ spherical,
◦ rod-shaped, and
◦ spiral
PARTS OF A PROKARYOTIC CELLS
• Capsule: Found in some bacterial cells, this additional outer covering protects the cell when it
is engulfed by other organisms, assists in retaining moisture, and helps the cell adhere to
surfaces and nutrients.
• Cell Wall: The cell wall is an outer covering that protects the bacterial cell and gives it shape.
• Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is a gel-like substance composed mainly of water that also contains
enzymes, salts, cell components, and various organic molecules.
• Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane: The cell membrane surrounds the cell's cytoplasm
and regulates the flow of substances in and out of the cell.
• Pili (Pilus singular): Hair-like structures on the surface of the cell that attach to other
bacterial cells. Shorter pili called fimbriae help bacteria attach to surfaces.
• Flagella: Flagella are long, whip-like protrusions that aid in cellular locomotion.
• Ribosomes: Ribosomes are cell structures responsible for protein production.
• Plasmids: Plasmids are gene-carrying, circular DNA structures that are not involved in
reproduction.
• Nucleoid Region: Area of the cytoplasm that contains the single bacterial DNA molecule.

◦ Prokaryotic cells lack organelles found in eukaryoitic cells such

as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticuli, and Golgi complexes.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
◦ Eukaryotic cells are defined as cells that contain an
organized nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells
◦ The basic characteristic features of a eukaryotic cell are:
• They contain membrane-bound organelles and a well-defined nucleus. A complex nuclear membrane
surrounds the nucleus
• Their cell wall consists of cellulose and some other carbohydrates
• The genetic material is DNA, which is linear and has multiple origins of replication. The DNA is
complexed with histone proteins
• They contain cytoskeletal structural elements (microtubules, microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments) that provide structural support to the cell
• Cilia and flagella are the locomotory organs
• Reproduce either asexually by mitosis or fission or sexually, involving two partners
Components
◦ The four main components that make up a eukaryotic cell are:
1.Cell (Plasma) Membrane
2.True Nucleus
3.Membrane-bound organelles like mitochondria, chloroplast,
endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus
4.Rod-shaped chromosomes
Parts of a typical eukaryotic cell
◦ 1) Cell (Plasma) Membrane: It is a semipermeable membrane that separates a cell inside from
outside.
◦ The cell membrane is made of proteins, carbohydrates, and phospholipid bilayer. The
phospholipids are arranged with the polar, hydrophilic heads facing outwards and inside the cell. They
interact with aqueous environments. The non-polar hydrophobic tails are found between the heads that
remain aloof from the watery environment.
◦ Functions
• Controlling the entry and exit of substances by selectively allowing certain substances to pass through
• Protecting the cell from shock and injury
• Allowing interaction of molecules and helps in secretion, growth, and division of cells
• Performing cell transport, either with the help of energy (active transport) or without it (passive transport)
◦ 2) Cell Wall: It is a non-living part, forming a rigid structure outside the
cell membrane. It is made of cellulose, hemicellulose, proteins, and
pectin in plants.
◦ Structurally, a cell wall is divided into three layers: a) the outer, middle lamella,
made of calcium pectate, b) the middle, primary wall, made of cellulose and
hemicelluloses, and c) the inner, secondary wall, having a similar
composition to the middle lamella.
◦ It is absent in animal cells.
◦ Functions
• Providing shape to the cell
• Helping in the cell-to-cell interaction
• Protecting the cell from external injury and shock
3) Nucleus: Unique to eukaryotic cells, it is a double-membrane bound
organelle that contains all the genetic information of the cell.
It is the most prominent and essential part, called the ‘brain
of the cell’.
They are found in all eukaryotic cells except for red blood cells
(RBCs) in animals and sieve cells in plants.
A nucleus has four main parts: a) nuclear envelope, b)
nucleoplasm, c) nucleolus, and d) chromatin.
◦ Functions
• Storing genetic information as DNA that is necessary for the development
and cell reproduction
• Containing information for protein synthesis and other cellular functions
4) Mitochondria: An oval-shaped structure, it is bounded by two membranes.
The outer and inner membranes divide the mitochondrial lumen into two compartments.
The outer membrane surrounds the organelle, while the inner member is semipermeable that forms
folds called cristae.
The region within the inner membrane is called the matrix, and between the two
membranes is called the intermembrane space.
Mitochondria contain DNA, RNA, and other components required for protein synthesis.

◦ Functions
• Producing energy as ATP, thus called the ‘energy-currency’ or ‘powerhouse’ of the cell
• Regulating cell metabolism
• Performing protein synthesis for itself
5) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): It is a small network of tubular structures. It divides
the cell cytoplasm into two parts: luminal and cytoplasm.
They are of two types:
a) smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) that is devoid of the ribosome
and
b) rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), with the attached ribosome.
◦ Functions
• Performing lipid synthesis (SER)
• Carrying out protein-folding and transporting them to Golgi apparatus (SER)
• Performing protein synthesis (RER)
6) Ribosomes: Structures not bounded by a membrane. They are made of ribonucleic acids
(RNA) and proteins.
Eukaryotic ribosome is the 80S, with 60S large subunit and 40S small subunit. It has a
size of between 25 and 30 nm.
◦ Function
• Acting as the site for proteins and polypeptides synthesis

7) Golgi Apparatus: Made of many flat, disc-shaped structures called cisternae. It is found in
every eukaryotic cell except human red blood cells and sieve cells of plants.
The cisternae are arranged concentrically in parallel to the nucleus. It has a cis (forming)
face that faces the cell membrane and the trans (maturing) face that faces the nucleus.
◦ Functions
• Packaging material within the cell
• Modifying and maturing of proteins
• Producing glycoproteins (proteins with carbohydrates) and glycolipids (lipids with carbohydrate)
8) Lysosomes: Membrane-bound organelles formed in the Golgi
apparatus. They contain rich hydrolytic enzymes such as lipases,
proteases, and peptidases. Lysosomes are thus called ‘suicidal bags’.
◦ Functions
• Digesting lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids
• Preventing the entry of foreign particles such as bacteria and viruses and
destroying them once they enter the cell through phagocytosis
9) Peroxisomes: Single membrane-bound small, round-shaped structures. They contain
digestive and oxidative enzymes. Peroxisomes are a group of heterogeneous organelles, and the
presence of marker enzymes distinguishes them from others.
◦ Functions
• Detoxifying poisons inside the body through various oxidation reactions (animals)
• Facilitating in photosynthesis and seed germination (plants)
• Converting stored fats into sugars (plants)
• Helping in metabolism, pathogen defense, and stress response (plants)
10) Plastids: Double-membrane bound organelle found only in plants. Based on the type of
pigment present.
three types: a) chloroplasts, containing green pigment, b) chromoplast,
containing green carotene, and c) leucoplast, with no pigment.
◦ Functions
• Helping to perform photosynthesis (chloroplast)
• Imparting flowers and fruits its yellow, red or orange color
• Storing carbohydrates (amyloplasts), oils and fats (elaioplasts), and proteins (aleuroplasts)
11) Cytoskeleton: A network of filaments present in the cell cytoplasm. The cytoskeleton is three types: a)
microtubules, b) microfilaments, and c) intermediate filaments.
◦ Functions
• Providing mechanical support to the cell
• Maintaining cell shape
• Helping in cellular motility

12) Cilia and Flagella: Cilia are short hair-like structures that cover the cell’s entire surface.
Flagella are long tube-like structures that are present at one end of the cell.
They are composed of microtubules.
◦ Functions
• Performing rowing movement (cilia)
• Performing up and down movement (flagella)
13) Vacuoles and Vesicles: Vacuoles are found centrally in plants, making up almost 30 to 80% of the total
plant cell volume.
It is the largest organelle in a plant cell, filled with fluids, ions, enzymes, and other
molecules.
In animal cells, they are small in size compared to a plant cell.

Vesicles are membrane-bound sacs that can fuse with the cell membrane or other membrane systems within
the cell.
◦ Functions
• Maintaining turgidity of the cell
• Transporting ions and molecules in and out of the cell through endocytosis and exocytosis, respectively
• Storing of reserve food, water, and wastes

14) Centrosome: Located only in animal cells, it is the microtubule-organizing center. It contains a pair of
centrioles that lie perpendicular to each other.
Each centriole is cylindrical and comprised of nine microtubule triplets.
◦ Function
• Help in cell division
 IMPORTANT
MICROORGANISMS
IN MEDICAL FIELD
 Viruses
◦ Acellular organism
◦ Singular nucleic acid-either DNA or RNA

◦ CHARACTERISTICS:
◦ CAPSID - - outer surface; composed of
repeating sub-units CAPSOMERES.
◦ Lack the necessary cellular parts that can
allow them to replicate independent of the
host cells.
◦ Lack genes and enzymes that are necessary
for energy production.
◦ INTRACELLULAR PARASITE.
Classification of Viruses
◦ Type of nucleic acid they posses
◦ Shape of the capsid (icosachedral, helical, polyhedral or complex)
◦ Number of capsomeres
◦ Size of the capsid
◦ Presence or absence of an envelope
◦ Type of host they infect (humans, plants or animals)
◦ Type of disease they cause
◦ Target cells or tropism
◦ Immunologic or antigen properties
Bacteriophages
◦ Special type of virus that infect bacteria.
◦ LARGEST among the VIRUS

◦ Characteristics:
◦ Obligated intracellular parasites
◦ Similar shape like other viruses
◦ Classified based on the type of nucleic acid
they posses

◦ Role in the acquisition of virulence

factor of certain bacteria.
◦ Transfer of genetic material from one
bacteria to another bacterium.
Bacteria
◦ Prokaryotic cells
◦ Possess both DNA and RNA; possess a nucleoid
instead of a true nucleus, smaller ribosomes and
lacks mitochondria.

◦ CATEGORIES;
◦ Gram- Negative with Cell walls
◦ Gram- Positive with cell walls
◦ Acid-Fast Bacteria with lipid rich cell wall
◦ Bacteria without cell wall
FUNGI
◦ Eukaryotic cells, with outer surface composed
mainly of chitin. Membrane are made up
mostly of ERGOSTEROL.
◦ Possess both DNA and RNA
◦ Posses TRUE Nucleus
Fungal Infections
Protozoa
◦ Representative for parasites.
◦ Eukaryotic cells
◦ PELLICLE –outer surface
◦ Unicellular organisms that usually divide
through binary fusion.
◦ Possess both DNA and RNA
◦ Nutrition- Protozoa are heterotrophic and have holozoic nutrition. They
ingest their food by phagocytosis. Some of the protozoan groups have
a specialized structure called cytostome for phagocytosis.
◦ The pseudopodia of amoeboids help in catching the prey. Thousands of
cilia present in ciliates drive the food-laden water into the gullet.
◦ The ingested food comes to the food vacuole and gets acted on by
lysosomal enzymes. The digested food gets distributed throughout the
cell.
◦ Locomotion- Most of the protozoa species have flagella, cilia or
pseudopodia. Sporozoa, which don’t have any locomotory structure,
have subpellicular microtubules, which help in the slow movement.
UNIT SUMMARY
LABORATORY
ACTIVITY 3
Learning Objective
◦ Familiarize and correctly identify with the various parts of the
cells and its functions.
◦ Differentiate accurately prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell under
the microscope
◦ Comprehensively describe the various cells under the
microscope
1. Draw the cells both prokaryote and eukaryote

2. Identify their parts and functions. (present in Tabular form)

VISUALIZING CELLS
UNDER THE
MICROSCOPE
Item Sketch Characteristics/ Challenges encountered
Description in performing the
activity
Human Hair
Cork Cell
Buccal Cavity Cell
Blood