Discovering Light - Fun Experiments With Optics

Discovering
Light
Fun Experiments
with Optics
MARÍA VIÑAS PEÑA
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Fun Experiments with Optics

Fun Experiments with Optics
Sara Aissati Rocío Gutiérrez Contreras

Xoana Barcala Gosende Juan Luis Méndez González
Clara Benedí García Roberta Morea
Camilo Florian Baron Javier Nuño del Campo
Francesca Gallazzi Pablo Pérez Merino
Mario García Lechuga Daniel Puerto García
Juan Luis García Pomar María Viñas Peña
Coordinator: María Viñas Peña

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020944342
ISBN: 978-1-5106-3936-2
e-ISBN: 978-1-5106-3935-5
DOI: 10.1117/3.2579764
English translation of Descubriendo la luz: Experimentos divertidos de óptica

Copyright © 2018 CSIC
Translated by Alexandra Stephens and Craig Cavanagh
ISBN: 978-84-00-10789-5
e-ISBN: 978-84-00-10790-1
NIPO: 833-21-043-3
e-NIPO: 833-21-044-9
DL: M-11258-2021
In cooperation with the OSA Foundation
Published by
SPIE
P.O. Box 10
Bellingham, Washington 98227-0010 USA
Phone: +1 360.676.3290
Fax: +1 360.647.1445
Email: books@spie.org
Web: http://spie.org
Copyright © 2021 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE)
Cover image courtesy of Francesca Gallazzi
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means
without written permission of the publisher.
The content of this book reflects the work and thought of the authors. Every effort has been made
to publish reliable and accurate information herein, but the publisher is not responsible for the validity of
the information or for any outcomes resulting from reliance thereon.
SAFETY NOTE: All of the experiments in this book are intended to be performed under adult supervision.
Appropriate and reasonable caution is required at all times, and the recommendations in the activities in
this book cannot replace sound judgment. The authors and publisher disclaim all liability for any damage,
mishap, or injury that may occur from engaging in the activities featured in this book.
Printed in the United States of America

Last edited 10 May 2021
For updates to this book, visit http://spie.org and type “PM324” in the search field

Contents
Preface by María J. Yzuel vii
Introduction ix
Acknowledgments xi
Safety rules for the use of laser pointers xiii
1. What is light? 1
2. Lights sources and detectors 37
3. Optical instruments 61
4. The human eye: a biological camera 105
5. Light in nature 139
6. Light–based technologies 175
Review of what we have learned 209
Glossary 225
Index 233
About the Authors 235

Preface
I
t is my great pleasure to write these lines as the preface for the book Discovering Light:
Fun Experiments with Optics, by Maria Viñas, project coordinator, with the collabora-
tion of 14 co-authors. The book was written first in Spanish with the title Descubriendo
la luz: Experimentos divertidos de óptica and published in 2018 by the CSIC (Consejo
Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Spanish National Research Council) and the
publisher Catarata Books. This book has had a great success in Spain, and I hope that this
edition in English will also be very successful worldwide. The group of co-authors had
more than ten years of experience working together before the publication of this book.
The authors met as young researchers at the Institute of Optics (IO-CSIC), and they were
members at some point of the IO-CSIC OSA student chapter. They organized very valuable
activities and experiments for students and also for the public in general.
The book that you have in your hands will help you to love optics, to understand what
light is, and to play with light. It is organised by topics of great interest, going from the fun-
damental concept of light, as wave and as particle (photon), to light-based technologies.
Some chapters in this book are indeed new and necessary for broadening the field that the
teachers show to students, such as the human eye: a biological photographic camera, light
in nature, and many easy and original experiments included in the book. All chapters have
the same structure: first, an introduction to the fundamentals of optics that teachers and
students should review for the specific topic under study; secondly, a description of the
experiments with questions about what the students have learned. At the end of the book,
the authors give the answers to these questions in an extended and open way that will
help teachers and students to deepen their knowledge of a particular field.
There is a need for books and courses that might help teachers to introduce experi-
ments in optics in their laboratories with students. The experiments in this book are very
inspiring and amusing; they open the way to discuss with the students the things that they
see in real life, and the students can be drawn to study more deeply the fundamentals. For
young people, experiments playing with light are magical. It is important in the education
process to open the world to students for exploration and to help children to find their
passion for discovering things.
The collaboration of the two major optics societies—SPIE (The international Society
for Optics and Photonics) and OSA (The Optical Society)—with the CSIC in this English
version of this book makes this project very attractive because it will reach a very wide
audience. This book can inspire the members of the student chapters of both societies to
organise outreach activities with students and adults for learning optics in an amusing way.
vii

OSA and SPIE collaborated very actively with the major optics and physics societies to
approach UNESCO and ask the United Nations General Assembly to declare 2015 as “The
International Year of Light and Light-based Technologies.” The success of this celebration
lead to a new goal: to get an International Day of Light (IDL). It was approved by UNESCO,
and 2018 was the first year we could celebrate the IDL on May 16th. The IO-CSIC and the
authors of this book have participated very actively with the organisation of education and
outreach events in schools and in the Institute of Optics.
The International Year of Light and Light-based Technologies, as well as the IDL, are
global initiatives to raise awareness of how optical technologies promote sustainable
development and provide solutions to worldwide challenges in energy, education, agri-
culture, communications and health. Light is central to life, science, technology, art and
culture. Light can promote education at all levels. Light technology drives development.
There was a United Nations observance that aimed to raise awareness of the achievements
of light science and its applications, and its importance to humankind. Books like this
communicate to society as a whole the importance of light in today’s world and inspire a
new generation of students and interest them in studying science.
People are familiar with many natural light phenomena that we see daily and with
light-based technologies because we use many devices in which light plays a crucial role.
However, they do not always know the science behind them. If it is explained in an easy
and amusing way, we can attract many people who will be surprised by the beauty of
science.
I hope that the readers of this book enjoy it as much as I have. I wish that the readers
will be inspired by the experiments described in this book for their outreach activities.
María J. Yzuel1
1
SPIE 2009 President
Fellow Member of OSA, SPIE, IOP, and EOS
Honorary Member of SEDOPTICA and RSEF
Professor Emeritus, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
Chair of the Spanish Committee for the International Day of Light
viii Preface

Introduction
L
ight is an element that draws together many areas of human knowledge (physics,
chemistry, biology, astronomy, engineering, art, etc.); moreover, optical phenomena
and the technologies based on them are widespread in our daily lives. However, it can
be difficult to understand or explain these phenomena.
What is light? Where are optics and photonics present in our lives? What lies behind
different optical phenomena? What is an optical instrument? How does the eye resem-
ble an optical instrument? How can we explain human vision? What are everyday optical
technologies based on? Where is optics found in nature? The book you are holding, written
by a group of young scientists, attempts to answer these questions and many more, and
help you to get to know the exciting world of optics and photonics.
Our aim is to look at optics from all sides, covering both basic phenomena occurring in
nature and the very latest applications and technologies. Although we want to reach out
to anyone interested in science, we have taken care to include experiments and explana-
tions covering the light-related topics on the syllabus for high school level. Our experience
in performing demonstrations at primary and secondary schools, as well as the general
public, has taught us that the best way to reach our goals is through experimentation and
interpretation of results. We have developed a set of exercise cards to help you complete
the different experiments step by step (color-coded by level of complexity), after which
the challenge is to show what you have learned. We provide help to fully understand the
experiments, with an introduction to all the necessary concepts at the beginning of each
chapter, as well as plenty of interesting facts.
Chapter 1 looks at the physical properties of light, how it is described, how it travels
and how it behaves on interaction with different materials. Some of the key words in this
chapter are wave, photon, reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference.
In Chapter 2, we explore the different sources and detectors of light that are so com-
monplace in our daily lives. It includes experiments using extraordinary light emitters like
lasers and building “invisible” light detectors.
Chapter 3 shows how you can use simple optical elements such as lenses, mirrors and
prisms to build different optical instruments. We will focus on understanding how light
travels and images are formed using these items and how we can manipulate light using
optical instruments such as cameras, microscopes and telescopes.
ix

Chapter 4 deals specifically with human vision. It contains experiments to show you
how our eyes work and how they compare to complex optical instruments, their enormous
capacity (color vision, depth of vision, etc.), as well as their defects (short sight, long sight,
etc.).
In Chapter 5, we show you how to recreate optical phenomena in your laboratory (home
or classroom) that happen every day in nature, such as mirages, rainbows, or star-gazing.
Finally, in Chapter 6 you will finally be convinced of the importance of optics in our
daily lives; you will learn about technologies where light is essential, such as telecommu-
nications, energy generation or even the food industry.
We hope you enjoy the book and that you have fun with optics and photonics.
The Authors
x Introduction

Acknowledgments
T
he project “Discovering Light” and the book you are holding in your hands would
have never been possible without the generous support of a large group of collabora-
tors and institutions.
The original edition of the book in Spanish, Descubriendo la luz: Experimentos divertidos
de Óptica, was published in 2018 by the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC). It was
an immediate success among both the general public and high-school teachers. The project
was the result of the collaborative work of former and current members that were part of the
young researchers association IOSA, an OSA student chapter of the Institute of Optics of the
CSIC (IO-CSIC). This team of tireless scientific disseminators has more than ten years of expe-
rience in outreach of science and optics. It is also worth mentioning all the feedback received
from students, teachers and scientific disseminators we have met over the years who were the
main reason for writing this book. We wanted to create and share with them a tool to make
optics fun at class, hoping it will help you approach optics in a more natural way.
We give thanks to our friends, collaborators, IO-CSIC peers, our families (young and
old) and all the members of the public we have met. In particular, Daniel Pascual, IO-CSIC
engineer, and the person we have always been able to turn to whenever one of our projects
comes up against a technical hitch. Carmen Guerrero, from the CSIC Scientific Culture
department, who always supports the challenging ideas we put before her and with whom
we have been working for more than five years on our dissemination projects, such as
Ciudad Ciencia. Dr. Lourdes Llorente, founding member of IOSA and reviewer of many
chapters of this book. Prof. Susana Marcos, Professor of Research at CSIC and IOSA super-
visor, our institutional and motivational support. We have learned a lot from you all.
The English version of the project is the result of a fruitful collaboration between the
International Society for Optics and Photonics (SPIE), the Optical Society (OSA) and the
Spanish National Research Council (CSIC). These three institutions are willing to expand
knowledge in optics and photonics among the youngest audience. Thank you for trusting
that our project might be able to accomplish that goal. No doubt, Prof. María Yzuel and
Prof. Susana Marcos have been significant promoters of this English version, looking at the
international audience of the optics and photonics community. We cannot forget the input
from Jennifer Mehltretter (OSA) and Patrick Franzen (SPIE), whose invaluable feedback
helped navigate the negotiation process between institutions. Finally, we want to thank
Pura Fernández, head of the CSIC Publications Office, for her generous support and help
through the publication process, which has allowed the international jump of our book.
xi

Safety rules for the use
of laser pointers
T
he safe use of a laser requires the knowledge and enforcement of a series of rules
that go beyond the usual precautions to be used for any electrical or mechanical
equipment. Low-power lasers (pointers) are used for the experiments in this book.
These are designed to be safe, provided that the laser light does not directly illuminate
the eyes. In general, pointers are labeled with the maximum output power and can con-
sequently be classified into four types. The recommended laser pointers for our experi-
ments are in classes 1 and 2 (low power), regardless of color.
Class Description Maximum power

1 Safe for the eyes in any case 0.1 mW
2 Dangerous for the eyes when looking directly at the beam 1 mW
3 Significant danger for the eyes 500 mW
4 Severe danger for the eyes; even reflected beams can cause skin > 500 mW
damage.
It is therefore very important to
• Find the label showing the operating power of the laser pointer you are going to use,
to assess the potential risk. Avoid using lasers with a power of more than 5 mW.
• Never look directly at the laser beam.
• Before switching on the laser pointer, calculate the approximate route of the beam to
prevent any reflections into the eyes.
• Never open the casing of the laser pointer. This can transform a Class-2 laser into a
higher-category one, increasing the risk of accident.
A warning label about the risk of working with laser radiation is included along-
side all experiments requiring the use of a laser source.
xiii

Chapter 1
What is light?
H
ave you ever tried to define light? If so, your definition is probably related to
vision, the ability to see things. The Merriam-Webster English dictionary defines
light as “something that makes vision possible”. However, the definition of the
“nature of light” is a complex term already discussed by philosophers of Ancient Greece.
In the 17th century, the debate on the matter focused on whether light was a particle or a
wave, based on the different properties of light that had been gradually discovered over
time. Isaac Newton (1642−1727) was a defender of the corpuscular theory of light, which
considered light to be formed by particles, i.e., small pieces of matter, like dust or grains
of sand. He was the author of Opticks (1706), the front cover of which appears in Fig. 1.1.
Christian Huygens (1629–1695), on the other hand, supported the theory that light is a
wave. These are two completely different definitions of the same physical concept.
A range of experiments were developed to attempt to clarify this dilemma, but it was only
until 1900 when Max Planck (1858-1947) introduced the basis of a theory that would go on to
revolutionize scientific thinking, marking the beginning of modern physics: quantum theory.
Developed during the 20th century thanks to advances made by scientists such as Niels
Bohr, Born, Heisenberg, Schrödinger, Pauli, Dirac, Einstein or de Broglie, quantum theory
clarified that light is neither a particle nor a wave, but that it has a dual nature: it behaves
like a wave as it spreads but like a particle in its interactions with matter. In this book, we
will specify where necessary whether light behaves as a particle or as a wave, although in
most cases we refer to rays of light, which always represent the direction of propagation of
light.
What is a wave?
A wave is a disturbance that transmits energy from one point of a medium to another,
without the medium itself moving noticeably. We have all seen how throwing a stone into
a pond causes ripples on the flat surface of the water, which spreads in all directions in the
form of waves. The wave moves via small oscillations or vibrations of the particles mak-
ing up the medium, which always return to the same position they were in when the wave
reached them: just as water in a pond rises and falls as a wave moves across it but does not
move along with it.
Light is a specific kind of wave known as an electromagnetic wave because of the type of
energy it carries. Figure 1.2 shows a wave in relation to distance. In other words, it shows
the wave as if taking a photograph as it spreads along the horizontal axis, observing mini-
mum values (“valleys”) and maximum values (“peaks”) on the vertical axis. The vertical
distance from the horizontal axis to the top of the crest is known as the amplitude of the

wave. The greater a wave’s amplitude is,
the stronger its vibration, meaning that it
produces greater intensity of light.
Figure 1.2 shows several of the charac-
teristics of an electromagnetic wave: we
can see that the shape of the wave is con-
tinuously repeated; this is what we call a
periodic wave, which is mathematically
described using the sine or cosine func-
tions. Furthermore, we can see how the
wave travels horizontally, while its vibra-
tion propagates vertically (oscillating up
and down, like a spring), perpendicular
to the direction of the wave. For this rea-
son, we say that electromagnetic waves are
transverse waves.
If we look again at the periodic shape of
the wave, we can see how there are always
points of vibration that “do the same”; they
are at the same point of oscillation: some are
at the crest; others at the valley; others on the
horizontal axis (the balance point); and oth-
Figure 1.1 Cover of Opticks, or a Treatise of ers at positions in between. When two par-
the reflections, refractions, inflections and colors ticles are at the same point of oscillation, we
of light, published by Newton (1706).
say that they are in phase. Phase is normally
Source: Newton, Wikimedia Commons.
expressed as an angle (degrees or radians). If
we look at the sine or cosine functions, the
Did you know...? values of the function are repeated every
360°, or the equivalent, 2π radians.
Newton, famous for his theory of gravity, The distance between two consecu-
also made great contributions to optics. The tive particles in the same phase is always
title of his 1706 publication contains terms the same, regardless of the phase in ques-
that are significant in this chapter: Opticks: tion, and is known as wavelength. It is rep-
or, a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, resented using the Greek letter λ (lambda).
Inflections, and Colors of Light (Fig. 1.1). As it is a concept related to distance, its
units are expressed in meters (or divisions).
Figure 1.2 Representation of a wave at a specific point of travel, i.e., as if it is “frozen”.

Source: Adapted from J. Donnelly and N. Massa (2007): Light: Introduction to Optics and Photonics.
2 Discovering Light: Fun Experiments with Optics

For example, the light from green laser pointers has a wavelength of around λ = 530 nm
(nm = nanometers, 1 nm = 1 × 10−9 m). A complete cycle is therefore completed when a
wave is equivalent to λ meters, and the phase has evolved 2π radians (360°).
Again, we can find points on the graph that represent, in this case, the same particle in the
same phase of vertical movement (e.g., on a crest). The time the vibration takes to reach that
same phase on the wave again, i.e., to complete a cycle, is known as the period. It is repre-
sented using the Greek letter Τ (tau) and is measured in seconds (and its multiples/divisions).
Another key concept is frequency, defined as the number of cycles (or oscilla-
tions) per unit of time (generally one second) and, therefore, is the inverse of the period
(frequency = 1/Τ): the more oscillations per second, the greater the frequency. It is repre-
sented using the Greek letter ν (nu). The unit used is hertz (Hz), which is the inverse of the
second (Hz = s−1).
If we know the wavelength and the period of a wave, we can calculate the speed of
the disturbance, or velocity. As speed is space/time, the velocity of a wave can be calcu-
lated as λ/Τ. The velocity of an electromagnetic wave in vacuum has a constant value of
299,792,458 m/s, or approximately 300,000 km/s. The speed of light in vacuum was offi-
cially included as a constant on the International System of Units on October 21, 1983. It
is represented by the letter c, taken from the Latin word celeritas (celerity or speed). As a
result, in vacuum:
c = λ/Τ=λ· ν.
One of the reasons why doubt was cast over the wave nature of light was precisely because
of the way it behaves in a vacuum: if a wave requires the oscillation of material particles
in order to propagate, like water in a pond when you throw in a stone, or molecules of
air in the case of sound waves, how then could light waves propagate in vacuum? The
answer is that electromagnetic waves propagate via the oscillation of their electrical and
magnetic fields, hence their name, rather than via a mechanical oscillation, which requires
the movement of matter. A static electrical charge (an electron) creates an electrical field
around itself that “repels” charges of the same sign and “attracts” charges of a different
sign. The electrical field created by that electrical charge does not require matter in order
to propagate. When the charge oscillates, the electrical field also oscillates. That variation
(disturbance) of the electrical field also affects the charges around it, i.e., that disturbance
will propagate through space. This is the reason why we can perceive the light emanating
from the stars, as it can travel through the vacuum of outer space, but their sounds cannot
reach us, as sound waves require material particles in order to propagate.
Finally, since the early 19th century, thanks to the discoveries of Ørsted, Ampère,
Biot and Savart, we know that the variation in the electrical field causes a change in the
magnetic field, and vice versa. The propagation of electromagnetic waves, with their
corresponding electrical and magnetic fields, was described by James Clerk Maxwell
(1831-1879) through his four famous equations.
Are there different types of light?

The electromagnetic spectrum
As we have seen, light is an electromagnetic wave. However, it is not difficult to imagine
that there are different types of EM waves, given that, for example, we can perceive dif-
ferent “colors” of light, as will be seen in Chapter 4. Although color is not a physical
property of light but rather an attribute created by our visual perception, the way in which
our visual system perceives color is related to a physical property of EM waves: frequency
Chapter 1 What is light? 3

(and, therefore, wavelength, if we remember that c = λ · υ → λ = c/υ). In fact, the range of
electromagnetic waves that we can “see” is small; it comprises a very specific region of
the EM spectrum that we call the visible region of the spectrum or the visible spectrum.
In reality, by “light” we are referring only to the small part of the spectrum visible to the
human eye, and by “radiation” we mean all types of EM waves in general.
The EM spectrum is the organizational “map” of electromagnetic radiation depending
on its frequency or wavelength, as shown in Figure 1.3. This is because these properties
define key characteristics of the different types of radiation, such as the energy with which
it interacts with matter, as we will see at the end of this chapter. The greater the frequency
(or the shorter the wavelength) is, the more energetic the radiation and therefore poten-
tially more dangerous to our health.
The range of EM waves on the spectrum includes, at one end, a wavelength of kilome-
ters (and therefore very low frequencies of hundreds or thousands of kilohertz), such as
radio waves, which as a result can travel through obstacles such as buildings and moun-
tains. As we move along the scale towards shorter wavelengths, we find microwaves, with
just a few centimeters or even microns of wavelength (frequency of hundreds or thousands
of megahertz), used by our mobile telephones and, more intensely, in the microwave ovens
in our kitchens. Next, as we will see, we have infrared waves, with a shorter wavelength
than that of microwaves.
At the other end of the electromagnetic spectrum, we find gamma rays, with the
shortest wavelength (0.03−0.003 nm) and the greatest energy on the EM spectrum. These
waves, which are generated in nuclear explosions, can kill live cells and are used in
medicine to remove cancer cells. Then we have X-rays, whose wavelengths can be
shorter than the distance between atoms. (0.1–0.01 nm). They therefore have quite high
frequency and associated energy, meaning that in high doses they can be harmful to
our health. This radiation does not naturally reach the Earth’s surface, as it cannot pass
through our atmosphere from outer space.
Figure 1.3 EM light spectrum. On the left, waves with shorter frequency (longer wavelengths), and on the right, waves
with greater frequencies (shorter wavelengths).
Source: Adapted from Wikimedia Commons.

Between the infrared radiation (IR) that we perceive as heat and ultraviolet radiation
(UV), which is responsible for both tanning and sunburn, we have the visible spectrum
(VIS), the kind of electromagnetic radiation that can be detected by the human eye and
whose wavelengths approximately cover the interval from 380 nm (violet) through to 440
nm (indigo), 480 nm (cyan), 530 nm (green), 580 nm (yellow), 650 nm (orange), 700 nm
(red) and 780 nm (dark red).
Optics arose from the study of vision and was therefore also related to the visible spec-
trum, but nowadays the range of the spectrum that is studied using the laws of optics is
larger, ranging from UV to near IR; the latter is extremely important in fiber optic commu-
nications. This range is sometimes called the optical spectrum.
How does light travel?

One of the properties of light that we can verify at first sight is that it travels in a straight
line. We can confirm this, for example, in the propagation of a ray of sunlight through
dusty atmospheres (Figure 1.4) or when using a laser pointer. This straight-line propaga-
tion is only observable when the medium through which the light is travelling is isotro-
pic, i.e., it presents the same properties in all directions. When light travels through a
non-homogeneous medium (e.g., air on a sunny day), it no longer does so in a straight line,
and depends on the properties of the material at each point, resulting in phenomena such
as mirages, as we will see in Chapter 5.
Figure 1.4 Rays of sunlight travelling in straight lines through the leaves of trees.
Photograph: in house.

This straight-line propagation of light has a common consequence: the appearance of
shadows where there are opaque obstacles positioned between the source and the target,
preventing the light from reaching its destination. The shadow created is the projection of
the obstacle on the plane of the target source. If there is more than one image point, an area
of penumbra is generated, as at certain points the presence of an obstacle prevents all light
from getting through, while at others, only part of the light is blocked as the light from
specific sources is not impeded. An interesting example of the formation of shadows and
penumbra are solar and lunar eclipses, as we will see in Chapter 5.
In cases where light travels from one medium to another, some of the light is reflected,
some is absorbed, and some is refracted, continuing to travel in a straight line provided that
the second medium is homogeneous and isotropic. In the case of reflected and refracted
light, we talk about angles of incidence, refraction and reflection. By common consensus,
these angles are always measured in relation to the normal that separates the two media,
i.e., a straight line running perpendicular to the surface at the point where the light meets
the surface.
What is reflection?
When a ray of light meets the boundary between two different media, part of that light
changes direction, returning to the first medium, at the same angle (angle of reflection) as
the incident light (angle of incidence), as shown in Figure 1.5. This phenomenon is known
as reflection. Not all materials behave in the same way: for example, metals reflect practi-
cally all the incident light (which is why they are used to make mirrors), while transparent
materials reflect a lot less light (e.g., the glass in a shop window).
Figure. 1.5 Example of reflection in nature. The River Tormes flowing through Salamanca.
Photograph: Warein Holgado.

There are two types of reflection: specu-
lar, typical of polished surfaces such as mir-
rors (Figure 1.5), and diffuse, typical of rough
surfaces where rays of lights are reflected in
different directions, such as on wood or our
skin. If we use the simile of a ball, specular
reflection is like bouncing a tennis ball on a
court, and diffuse reflection is like bouncing
it on a stony surface.
What is refraction?
Refraction is the change in the speed of light
that occurs when it travels through a medium
other than a vacuum. A consequence of this
change in speed is seen when light meets a
surface at an angle other than zero (i.e., in
a direction other than the normal). In these
conditions, the light changes direction when
it meets the second medium. An effect of
this diversion of refracted rays is that the
image of an object submerged in two differ-
ent media will have different characteristics
depending on the medium in which each Figure 1.6 Example of how a difference in the
part of the object is submerged. One exam- refraction index causes a diversion of light.
ple of this phenomenon is a pencil in a glass Photograph: in house.
of water; it looks like the pencil is broken
because the rays complete the image in a different position, depending on the refractive
index of the medium they are passing through—air or water—as shown in Figure 1.6.
Refraction also occurs when light passes through layers of air at different temperatures,
which affects the refractive index (the cause of mirages, for example).
The phenomenon of refraction, illustrated in Figure 1.7, is described mathematically
using a trigonometric equation known as Snell’s law, which relates the refractive index of
the material through which the ray of light is travelling (n1) and the angle of incidence (θ1)
to the index (n2) and angle (θ2) of the material where the ray is refracted:
sin (θ1) n2
n1 sin (θ1) = n2 sin (θ2) ↔ = =
sin (θ2) n1
Snell’s law tells us that refracted light bends in proportion to the difference between the
indices of refraction that it encounters along the way (see Experiment 1.1):
• When light passes from a material with a lower refractive index to one with a higher
refractive index, such as, for example, from air to water, the ray of light is refracted
at a smaller angle than the angle of incidence (Figure 1.7, left), i.e., the refracted light
bends away from the normal.
• However, when light passes from a larger index to a smaller one, e.g., from water to
air, the ray of light bends at a greater angle than the angle of incidence (Figure 1.7,
center), i.e., the refracted light bends towards the normal.
• In this case, as the angle of incidence increases, a point is reached in which the light is
not refracted, but travels parallel to the surface (angle of refraction = 90°). This angle of

Figure 1.7 A ray of light passing from one material to another with a different refractive index changes direction of travel.
When n1>n2 and the angle of incidence reach a critical angle, the rays are not refracted, but fully reflected. These photographs
illustrate these two situations, refraction and full reflection.
incidence, the point at which for the first time there is no refracted beam, is called the
critical angle, θ1 and it depends on the index of refraction of the media: sin(θcrit) = n2/n1.
For example, the value of the critical angle for water and air is
(
θcrit = arcsin
1
(= 37°
1.33
For incident light with an angle greater than the critical angle, there is total reflection
on the surface of the material: there is no refracted light; it is all reflected. For smaller
angles of incidence, only part of the light is reflected (and part is refracted).
• As we have already mentioned, where light is travelling perpendicular (normal) to the
surface (zero angle of incidence), it will not bend.
What is the refractive index?

Have you ever tried to run underwater? We find it harder to move in water than when we
are out in the air, as usual. This is because of the resistance of the medium we are mov-
ing through. In the case of light, the way it travels is also affected by a change in medium.
So, the speed at which light travels through a medium other than vacuum depends on the
refractive index of the specific material it is travelling through. The refractive index is a
number that indicates how the speed of light is reduced when travelling through a certain
medium other than vacuum. It is represented using the letter n, and it depends on the

properties of the material that affect the movement of light through it, such as electrical
and magnetic properties, or the density of the material in question. The speed at which
light travels through a medium is equal to
c
cmaterial =
nmaterial
Therefore, the refractive index of vacuum is 1.
What is dispersion?
We have seen how the refractive index depends on the properties of the material. However, we
have not yet mentioned that it also depends on the wavelength of the incident light: the shorter
the wavelength is, the greater the refraction. So, the index of refraction increases as wavelength
decreases, which, if we apply Snell’s law, means that shorter wavelengths (such as those cor-
responding to blue light) are refracted at a greater angle than longer wavelengths (the color red
at the opposite end of the visible spectrum). This phenomenon is known as chromatic disper-
sion, and it is responsible for the rainbow effect we see when white light (the combination of
all wavelengths on the visible spectrum) diagonally passes through drops of water or when a
beam of white light passes through a prism, as shown in Figure 1.8 (see Experiment 1.2).
Figure 1.8 Chromatic dispersion of a beam of white light passing through a prism.

Photograph: Spigget, Wikimedia Commons.

What is absorption?
Absorption is the process via which the
energy in any EM wave is captured by
matter. All materials absorb some kind of
radiation in part of the spectral range, and
that energy can be emitted in the form of
new radiation or transformed into another
type of energy, such as heat or electri-
cal energy. Materials that can absorb
across the entire range of visible light are
opaque, while materials that do allow that
range of wavelengths to pass are consid-
ered transparent.
Figure 1.9 View of an object through sunglasses. The colors of everything we see depend
Photograph: in house. on this process of absorption and re-
emission, as we only see the light that
Did you know...? reaches our retina. So, a white object is one
that reflects all types of visible radiation,
Sunglasses are made from materials that absorb while a black object is one that absorbs
visible light and reduce its transmission. They all visible light. This is one of the reasons
also have a special filter to protect our eyes why in summer we avoid wearing black.
from ultraviolet radiation. These filters are usually Interestingly, a green object absorbs all
covered with fine layers made from minerals to wavelengths except that of green, which is
reflect the radiation. Other types of sunglasses why we see that color. In Experiment 1.3,
use organic filters that are also very effective, we will see the importance of sunscreen
although their mechanism of action is different. for our skin to avoid damage from harmful
ultraviolet rays.
What are the wavelike properties of light?

We will now describe some phenomena associated with the wavelike behaviors of light, in
particular the following three properties: interference, diffraction and polarization.
Interference
Although you may not have realized, you are bound to have seen at one time or another an
interference pattern: typically, this is a series of stripes, sometimes colored (illuminated with
white light) or in a single color (illuminated with a laser), alternating bright and dark stripes.
Does that sound familiar? You have surely seen something similar on the surface of soap
bubbles or patches of oil on a wet road. These stripes are caused by light wave interference.
Interference takes place when two or more electromagnetic waves overlap (are at the
same place at the same time), giving rise to a new wave, which is the algebraic sum (con-
sidering the sign) of the overlapping wave. However, we do not see stripes every time
light hits the surface, because specific conditions also need to be met, e.g., the overlapping
waves must have the same wavelength and vibrate in the same direction.
The brightest stripes seen in the pattern, regardless of color, are called interference
maxima and appear when the two overlapping waves coincide at their highest (crests) and
lowest points (troughs), forming a new wave with an amplitude equal to the sum of the
amplitudes of the initial waves. In this case, the two waves are said to be in phase, and
they give rise to a constructive interference (Figure 1.10, left).

Figure 1.10 Pattern of constructive and destructive interference of two waves (left). Patch of petrol on a wet road (right).
Source: Internally created. Photograph: in house.
Figure 1.11 Aerial view of the Virgo interferometer near Pisa, Italy, showing the Mode Cleaner, the main building, the 3-km
western arm and the beginning of the northern arm.
Source: The Virgo Collaboration, Wikimedia Commons.
Did you know…?

An interferometer is an optical instrument that uses the interference of light waves to precisely
measure tiny variations in the space covered by two waves. In 2016, the Laser Interferometer
Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) allowed us to discover gravitational waves, which had been
predicted by Einstein based on his theory of relativity in 1915.

The darker stripes in the pattern are called interference minima, and they appear when
the maxima of one of the overlapping waves coincides with the minima of the other (i.e.,
the opposite of in phase). In this case, destructive interference is created. The resulting
wave has an amplitude equal to the difference between the amplitudes (Figure 1.12, right),
i.e., a faded wave (see Experiment 1.4).
Diffraction
So far, we have talked about how light travels in straight lines. However, in certain circum-
stances, light can “go around” the edge of objects, travelling beyond obstacles in its path.
This property is called diffraction, and it is an exclusive property of waves that allow us,
for example, in the case of sound waves, to hear people in another room despite not being
right outside the door; it is also the reason why in photographs taken at night, spots of
light (street lamps, stars) appear with spikes of light, generated by diffraction through the
slits in the camera shutter.
Huygens explained this phenomenon in the 17th century, considering that each of the
points making up a wavefront (points in phase) acts as a small emitter of secondary waves
with the same wavelength as the initial wave, forming part of the same wavefront. As the
wave advances, the new wavefronts are formed by the wave envelope.
When a wavefront meets an obstacle, part of the light is blocked (absorbed or reflected),
and part has its propagation altered as it passes along the edges of that object. It is like
a crowd of people that can only pass through a single door. Once everyone has passed
through that door one by one, they can then freely move forward in all directions. This is
known as diffraction, and it occurs in any type of wave (light, sound, etc.) As this wave-
front passes close to the edge of the object, new wavefronts are formed. In the early 18th
century, Fresnel adapted Huygens’ principle to explain that if the waves are coherent, they
overlap after passing the obstacle, creating a pattern of interference that is characteristic of
diffraction. This is what is known as a diffraction pattern, and it is made up of a set of light
and dark stripes, as shown in Figure 1.12 in the case of a small gap. You can see this effect
for yourself by forming a small slit with your fingers and looking at a light background
through them (see Experiment 1.5).
Figure 1.12 Diffraction of a wavefront through a small aperture. On the right, the diffraction pattern (distribution of light
intensity) is formed after passing through the aperture.
Source: Internally created.

In the particular case of a metal sheet with two small holes or slits, known as Young’s
double slit experiment, performed in 1801 and explained in the early 20th century using
quantum mechanics, the original wavefront gives rise to two new fronts, one “emerging”
from each of the slits (see Experiment 1.6). This is like a crowd of people having two doors
to go through rather than one. As they travel, these two fronts interfere with each other,
forming a pattern of interference. So, we can see how the phenomena of diffraction and
interference are closely related.
Polarization
As we have already mentioned, EM waves are transversal, i.e., the magnetic and electri-
cal fields created by the wave oscillate perpendicular to the direction in which they are
travelling. For simplicity, we will only represent the oscillations of the electric field (E).
Depending on the direction in which the electrical field oscillate, we can define:
• Polarized light: we say that an EM wave is polarized when its electrical vector oscil-
lates in an “orderly” fashion, i.e., not at random. Depending on the shape formed by
the oscillations of the electrical field as the wave moves, we can define different types
of polarized light: in the case of linear polarized light, the electrical field oscillates
along a line, hence the name. To get the idea, it is as if we—representing the oscilla-
tions of the electrical field—were to jump up and down while moving somewhere;
then we could say that “our wave” is vertically polarized. If, however, the person next
to us jumps left to right as they move forward, “their wave” is horizontally polar-
ized. The oscillation (up-down or right-left in this example) is known as the plane
of polarization. The wave that we normally represent, like in Figures 1.2 or 1.3, is
a linear polarized wave that oscillates vertically (at 90°), although in reality there
are linear polarized waves at all possible angles (at 180° (horizontal), at 30°, etc.). In
addition to the linear polarized light, we find other types of polarized light, circular
and elliptic, where the electrical field oscillations change direction as the wave pro-
gresses, creating a circle and an ellipse, respectively. In this book, we are only going to
look at linear polarized light, so where we refer to polarized light, this refers to linear
polarized light.
• Non-polarized light or natural light: the majority of the light around us, coming from
the sun or artificial sources, such as lightbulbs, is non-polarized. This means that
the oscillations of the electrical field are in random directions (although they always
remain perpendicular to the direction of travel) and change as the wave progresses. In
the above example, it is as if we were jumping up, to the right, to the left to the right,
diagonally, downwards, etc., in random order.
Although most of the light around us is non-polarized, there are different physical phe-
nomena that can polarize it:
• Polarization by absorption: just as we can use color filters to select a single wavelength
by absorbing the other wavelengths in white light, we can also use linear polarized fil-
ters (Figure 1.13) that only allow through waves vibrating in a certain direction, what
is known as the transmission axis of the polarizer, absorbing the waves that vibrate in
any other direction. In Experiment 1.7, we will block or let through light using linear
polarizers.
• Polarization by reflection: light reflected on a non-metallic surface, such as water or
glass, is at least partially polarized in the parallel direction to the reflective surface.

Figure 1.13 Diagram showing the effect of a linear polarizer on a source of natural light (non-polarized).
Source: Internally created.
Figure 1.14 Polarized sunglasses against a screen. Depending on the angle of the lenses, the polarized light from the screen
can pass through or it is blocked.
Did you know…?

If you put on a pair of polarized sunglasses and look at your phone from a diagonal (45°), you can't
see anything. Try it for yourself. This is because of the light and the polarizing filters that many
mobile telephone screens are filtered with. Note that this does not work with Apple devices such as
iPhones, as they do not emit linearly polarized light.
Only when light meets the reflective surface at a certain angle, known as Brewster’s
angle (θB) and which depends solely on the refractive indices of the media on either
side of that surface, is polarization total. Because the reflected light is polarized, we
can block it using a polarizer on the axis perpendicular to the reflective surface, so
that we can only see the light that is transmitted (rather than reflected). This is the
optical principle that allows us to see the bottom of a shallow pool using polarized
glasses.

Figure 1.15 Diffraction in nature as waves of water pass through a small gap in a natural dam. Three Fathoms Cove, near
Yong Shue O, Tai Po, Hong Kong.
Photograph: Lorenzarius, Wikimedia Commons.
Did you know…?

We find diffraction in electrons as well as in nature. A beam of electrons diffracts when it interacts
with the atoms in a material, providing us with information on the atomic structure of that material.
So, as predicted by the winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics Louis de Broglie in 1929, particles—
such as electrons—can also behave like waves.
• Polarization by birefringence (or double refraction): birefringence is a property of

certain materials with different refractive indices depending on the direction in
question (they are anisotropic). This means that when a ray of light passes through
the material, depending on the direction of incidence it may be affected by two dif-
ferent refractive indices, which we call ordinary (no), if it affects two of the three
directions inside the crystal and extraordinary (ne) if it affects only one direction.
This results in a “double refraction”: the incident light divides into two, each with
different polarization and travelling at a different speed. If we recall Snell’s law,
the angle of refraction depends on the refractive index, which means that each of
the rays of light will follow a different path, depending on the refractive index

it encounters along the way. Some materials that are isotropic under normal con-
ditions (and therefore not birefringent) can become birefringent under tension or
force. This phenomenon is known as photoelasticity or the photoelastic effect. If
the tension or force is not applied evenly, then the birefringence caused by the pho-
toelastic effect will also be uneven. If we place the material between two crossed
polarizers, we will see stripes showing the areas of the material under different
mechanical tension in different colors. These colors observed in the tension pattern
are due to the fact that birefringence depends on wavelength (as it is related to refrac-
tive indices); see Experiment 1.7.
The photon: light as a particle

At the end of the 19th century, just a few phenomena remained to be explained in the field
of what we now call “classical” physics, relating to optics: although the wave theory of
light was broadly accepted as it satisfactorily explained most of the phenomena observed
(such as the double slit experiment by Young), this theory could not explain the photoelec-
tric effect and blackbody radiation.
The photoelectric effect, discovered in an experiment by Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) in
1887, consists of the emission of electrons when light hits a metal. The explanation for this
phenomenon is that light provides electromagnetic energy to the electrons in the metal, and
when this energy reaches a certain level, they can “leave” the metal; this is why we say that
the metal emits those electrons. However, the emission of electrons, instead of depending
simply on the intensity of the light hitting the metal, depends on the wavelength of that
light. For example, certain metals would emit electrons under UV light but not under red
light (greater λ), despite the intensity of the red light being several times greater than that of
UV light.
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) put forward a theory to explain this effect in 1905, for
which he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921: the light that hits the metal
is not a wave with a continuous supply of energy but rather a flow of particles that
were named photons. The energy in each photon is directly proportional to its associ-
ated frequency of radiation and is therefore greater in photons of UV than in red light,
as the frequency of UV light is much greater (and its wavelength much shorter); see
Experiment 1.8.
The main applications of the photoelectric effect include the photovoltaic effect, well
known for its use in the manufacturing of photosensitive cells for the generation of renew-
able energy from sunlight. These devices transform solar energy into electricity by “excit-
ing” electrons as they absorb the energy from photons. The first solar cell was made by
Charles Fritts (1850-1903) in 1884.
So, what is a photon?

A photon is an elementary particle; the minimal part into which a ray of light can be
divided while still maintaining its properties: energy, frequency and wavelength. It makes
up the quantum unit of light energy. Photons are massless, and their (indivisible) energy is
proportional to the associated electromagnetic wave frequency. The energy of a photon is
equal to hn, where h is the so-called Planck constant—named after the German physicist
who discovered the relationship in the year 1900—and n is the oscillation frequency.

Bibliography
Barbero, S.; Dorronsoro, C. and Gonzalo, J. (2015): La luz: ciencia y tecnología, Madrid, CSIC-Los
Libros de la Catarata.
Casas, J. (1985): Óptica, Zaragoza, J. Casas, Librería Pons.
Donnelly, J. and Massa, N. (2007): Light: Introduction to Optics and Photonics, Boston, New England
Board of Higher Education.
Fundación española para la ciencia y la tecnología (2015): “Unidad Didáctica. Ciencia con luz propia.
Aplicaciones tecnológicas de la luz”, Madrid, Editorial SM.
Hecht, E. (2019): Optics, Pearson 5th edition.
Serway, R. A. and Jewett, J. W. (2018): Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Brooks/Cole; 10th edition.
Tippler, P.A. and Mosca, G. (2007): Physics for Scientists and Engineers, WH Freeman; 6th edition.

1.1 Experiment OBJECTIVES:
Objective 1: Understand the concept of refractive index.
Does Light Travel Objective 2: Observe the direction of light as it passes from one
material to another.
in a Straight Line?
MATERIAL
• Transparent bowl • Empty glass container (jar)
Refractive index, • Water • Colourless hydrogel beads
30 min (+) invisibility, refraction • Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) • Low-power laser pointer (<1 mW)
• Olive oil • Spoon
O
n partially cloudy days we can
see how sunlight passes more eas-
ily through the spaces where there
are no clouds or where the clouds are less
dense. In these cases we can see beautiful
scenes where the light streams through dif-
ferent areas in straight lines that we call
rays of light.
In this experiment, we will learn the
importance of the optical properties of
materials in the propagation of light.
Figure 1.1.1 Sunlight streaming through clouds.

Procedure
Photograph: MarcoRoosink, Pixabay.
Before the experiment: hydrate the
hydrogel beads
Fill a bowl with water. Place 20−40 dry hydrogel beads in the bowl. The beads take at least
2 hours to be completely hydrated.
Experiment with hydrogel beads

1. Once the beads are fully hydrated, note
that they are invisible in the bowl. Put
your hand in the bowl to check that
they are still in there (Figure 1.1.2).
2. Shine a laser beam from one end of the
bowl and observe the direction of travel
of the light.
3. Remove the water from the bowl, leav-
ing just the hydrated beads. Repeat
the previous step, shining the laser at
the bowl from some distance (at least
2 meters). Make sure that everyone Figure 1.1.2 Hydrated hydrogel beads. Laser beam
watching the experiment is positioned shining through the bowl with hydrogel beads.
behind the laser beam. Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica (CSIC)/IOSA.

1.1 Experiment: Does Light Travel in a Straight Line?
Column with different liquids

1. Pour approximately two fingers’ depth
of water into the glass jar.
2. Now pour more or less the same
amount of olive oil as water, then hold
the spoon over the surface of the oil
and pour the alcohol over it until you
have a similar depth layer to the other
two. You have created a tower of differ-
ent liquids (Figure 1.1.3).
3. Point the laser through the column of
liquids at an angle of about 45° and
observe what happens (Figure 1.1.3). Figure 1.1.3 Pouring liquids into the clear glass jar.
Column of three liquids and refracted red laser.
Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica (CSIC)/IOSA.
Explanation
In this experiment, we have seen the importance of a fundamental property of materials: their
refractive index. Their different refractive indices cause the light to refract, making the rays of
light change direction.
The hydrogel beads become invisible when submerged in water and visible when sur-
rounded by air. This is because, once hydrated, their refractive index is practically the
same as that of water (n = 1.33), and therefore there is no difference in index and no
change in the propagation of the light. We do see reflection and refraction when we
remove the water from the bowl, as the beads are now surrounded by air (n = 1). The
change in direction of travel is also seen in our column of liquids, as they have different
refractive indices.
According to Snell’s law, we can theoretically calculate the refraction phenomena
that we have observed. Specifically for the column of liquids we used: the refractive
index for water nwater = 1.33; for olive oil noil = 1.47; and for ethyl alcohol nalcohol = 1.36;
and an angle of incidence of θ1 = 45°:
Air-alcohol: nair · sen θ1 = nalcohol · sen θ2 → θ2 = 31.3

Alcohol-oil: nalcohol · sen θ2 = noil · sen θ3 → θ3 = 28.8
Oil-water: noil · sen θ2 = nwater · sen θ4 → θ4 = 32.1
You can repeat the experiment with a different initial angle θ1 and use these same equa-
tions to obtain the corresponding θ2, θ3, θ4
Tips
• You can do a similar invisibility experiment by filling the bowl with sunflower oil and
then adding something made from Pyrex glass. The refractive indices are very similar,
so we can make the Pyrex “disappear” by placing it in the oil.
• To see the path of the laser beam more clearly through the alcohol and the water, add
a drop of milk to the water and a drop of ink to the alcohol before pouring them into
the jar.

1.1 Experiment: Does Light Travel in a Straight Line?
Review of what we have learned

• Why do the hydrogel beads become invisible in water?
• How can we see if the refractive index of ethyl alcohol is lower than that of sunflower oil?
Related experiments
Experiment 3.4 Micro-lenses: beyond a magnifying glass
Experiment 5.1 Is everything we see real?

Objective 1: Build a prism with glass microscope slides and
Breaking Light: “decompose” white light into colors using the water-
glass prism.
Newton’s Prism Objective 2: Use a converging lens to “join” the spectrum of
colors obtained with the prism.
MATERIAL
Refraction, electromagnetic • Glass microscope slides (x4) • Black and white card
50 min (+) spectrum, frequency, speed • Hot glue gun or Superglue. • Cylindrical converging lens
of propagation
• Water
• Source of white light
I
n an era of great, revolutionary scientific
discoveries, Isaac Newton was one of the
first to understand why white light broke
down into colours.
In his experiment, Newton used triangu-
lar glass prisms and passed a beam of white
light through one of them. The result was the
formation of a continuous spectrum contain-
ing all the colors from red to violet. Once Figure 1.2.1 Isaac Newton completes his prism
the spectrum of colors had formed, Newton experiment (experimentum crucis) in his room at
proved that a second prism could “join” them Woolsthorpe Manor.
back together to form white light again. This Illustration : Sascha Grushe.
simple experiment proved that prisms do not
add color to light, as many people believed,
but rather broke white light down. In this
experiment, we will reproduce Newton’s
experiment with our own prism, and using a
cylindrical converging lens, we will blend all
the colors back into white, so let’s get to it!
Procedure
1. Using the adhesive (hot glue or super-
glue), join the longest edges of three glass
slides. This should form a triangular
shape from the short end (Figure 1.2.2).
2. To make the base of our prism, use a
fourth slide and stick the triangular
structure to it. It is important that the
base is firmly glued along all its edges. Figure 1.2.2 Image of the four glass slides form-
Apply enough glue and allow to dry for ing a prism.
10 to 20 minutes. Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica (CSIC)/IOSA.
3. Next, fill the prism structure with water.
IMPORTANT: Keep an eye out for leaks! If any water is leaking, the best thing to do
is empty the prism, let it air dry and go over all the edges again with glue. If the water
doesn’t leak out from anywhere, your home-made prism is ready! Now try it out.

1.2 Experiment: Breaking Light: Newton’s Prism
Figure 1.2.3 Obtaining the color spectrum with a prism and a source of white light (left), and the colors joined
back together to form white light using a converging lens (right).
Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/CulturaCientífica (CSIC)/IOSA.
4. Use a source of white light, preferably in the form of a beam. This can be done by mak-
ing a screen from a black card with a small slit in the center to let the light through.
If you move the screen away from the source of the light, the beam will pass more
evenly through the slit, although it will be less intense. At this point, it is best to do
this experiment in a darkened room.
5. Next, place the prism in the path of the beam and turn it until the light is refracted
into the colors of the rainbow (Figure 1.2.3, left).
6. Use another screen from a white card to see the rainbow. Try different distances until
you achieve a wide, uniform rainbow.
Once you have it, can we turn it back into white light? Let’s try using a converging lens by
placing it between the prism and the screen (Figure 1.2.3, right). Is it possible or not?
Explanation
The amount of light refracted is generally
expressed in terms of its angle of devia-
tion. This angle is the difference between
the angle of incidence of the light on the
prism and the emerging beam. In our case,
when the light passes from air to glass and
then into the water, its speed drops and, as
it leaves the prism, returns to its original Figure 1.2.4 Diagram of the breakdown of light in a prism.
speed. This is mainly due to the difference Source: Internally created.
in refractive index of the material making
up the prism and the medium around it (in this case, air).
Depending on the wavelength travelling through the material, there will be a character-
istic refractive index associated to that wavelength, meaning that colors with shorter wave-
lengths (blue) have a greater refractive index and, therefore, “bend” the angle of incidence
more than colors with a longer wavelength (such as yellow, orange and red). A converging
lens is one where parallel rays hitting one of its sides will converge towards a single point.
When we focus the rays of color emerging from a prism to a single point, the opposite
effect to that of the prism is achieved: the colors are joined together again in one, produc-
ing a ray of white light.

1.2 Experiment: Breaking Light: Newton’s Prism
Tips
If you build your prism using superglue, the edges will have a more precise finish, allow-
ing you to see the spectrum obtained from white light more clearly.

• Why don’t we see the breakdown of colors when we look through a window, which is
made of glass?
• What about the wavelengths that our eyes cannot detect? Does the same thing happen
to ultraviolet and infrared radiation?
Related experiments
Experiment 2.1 Build your own spectroscope
Experiment 2.5 Beyond the visible: IR radiation
Experiment 5.6 Artificial sunset: the scattering of light in our atmosphere

Objective 1: Check the effect of ultraviolet light using beads sensi-
How Does tive to this kind of light.
Objective 2: Assess the efficacy of our sunscreen.
Sunscreen Work?
MATERIAL
• Ultraviolet–sensitive
• Sunscreen with different
Absorption, reflection beads
20 min (+) ultraviolet, sunscreen factors [8, 30, 50 and 100
• Clear plastic bags
SPF–(Solar Protection Factor)]
• Ultraviolet lamp or
• Oil with different sun protection
sunlight.
factors
T
he solar spectrum does not have a spe-
cific color and is called “white light”;
however, it is made up of a combina-
tion of different colors: seven visible colors
(red, orange, yellow, green blue, indigo and
violet) and two ranges of colors invisible
to the human eye, infrared and ultraviolet.
Exposure to ultraviolet light (UV) can have
a harmful effect on our skin. One of form of
protection is sunscreen, which, depending
on its composition, can absorb or reflect the
harmful radiation. Figure 1.3.1 Types of ultraviolet radiation and their
In this experiment, we use UV-sensitive penetration into the skin.
beads to check the efficacy of different sun- Source: Internally created.
screens and understand how they work.
Procedure
1. Start this experiment in a room where
there is no direct exposure to sunlight
and divide the UV-sensitive beads into
different bags.
2. Separate some of the beads to use as
an example and then compare them
with the ones under the use of different
sunscreens.
3. Label the other bags with the different
SPFs you are using, e.g., Bag 1 = SPF Figure 1.3.2 Lighting the beads with an ultraviolet
30, Bag 2 = SPF 50, Bag 3 = 90 SPF. lamp, without sunscreen (not placed inside a bag).
4. Now apply a layer of sunscreen to each Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/CulturaCientífica (CSIC)/IOSA.
of the labelled bags. Make sure that the
edges of the bag are also covered, as
radiation could get in through any exposed areas, and the desired effect would not be
achieved.
5. Wait a few minutes for the solvents in the sunscreen to evaporate.
6. Use the camera on your phone to take a picture of the labelled bags and the blank
beads (as they have not yet been exposed to sunlight or the UV lamp).

1.3 Experiment: How Does Sunscreen Work?
7. It’s time to run the test! You need to
expose all the bags to sunlight (or to the
ultraviolet light from the lamp), then wait
a few seconds to see which beads change
color and how, as shown in Figure 1.3.2.
8. At this point, compare the color of the
exposed beads with the ones inside the
bags covered with sunscreen.
9. That’s it! The beads that have changed
less in color are the ones with the most
effective sunscreen (SPF 90), as shown in
Figure 1.3.3. Figure 1.3.3 On the left, beads in plastic bags
with different sunscreens as labelled. On the right, the
control beads with an intense color.
Explanation Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica (CSIC)/IOSA.
The maximum solar protection is obtained with
an SPF of 50+ and gradually lowers right down to bronzing lotions of under SPF 10. In the
case of our experiment, the “control” beads without sunscreen protection will change color
by almost 100%, while the others will change less the higher the protection factor is of the
sunscreen applied to the plastic bag.
There are two ways in which sunscreen protects our skin from the UV radiation that reaches
it: reflection or absorption. Mineral protectors reflect ultraviolet radiation, due to the titanium
and zinc particles that remain on the surface or the skin; these are therefore suitable for sensitive
skins affected by dermatitis, rashes or allergies. These sunscreens do not have a minimum time
before they become effective, as the skin does not need to absorb them. Organic sunscreens,
meanwhile, made from oils and carbon-based molecules act by absorbing ultraviolet solar radi-
ation. They capture the incident energy and re-emit as thermal radiation, which is harmless for
the skin. In this case, organic sunscreens need around 30 minutes to become effective, so they
need to be applied some time before sun exposure. Depending on the radiation absorbed, there
are filters for UV-B, UV-A and broad-spectrum filters; the latter are the best.
Tips
• If you have two types of sunscreen (min-
eral and organic) with the same SPF, you
can do a further experiment to see if one
works better than the other (Figure 1.3.4).
• To increase the effect of the experiment,
you can remove the violet, blue and pink
beads, as they will change color with the
visible part of the solar spectrum.
• Dilute a cream with a certain SPF (50, for Figure 1.3.4 Two different types of sunscreen,
oil-based and mineral.
example) by half. Check to see if it has the
same protective effect as a cream with SPF 25. Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica (CSIC)/IOSA.

• Could we look straight at the sun if we were wearing UV-filter sunglasses?
• Is it true that wearing sunscreen stops the skin from synthesising vitamin D, which is
essential for our bodies?

Objective 1: See the wave-like nature of light by creating and
Is Light Really a observing the phenomenon of interference.
Objective 2: Relate the phenomenon of interference to the thick-
Wave? ness of the thin film and the wavelength of the light.
MATERIAL
Interference, thin film,
20 min (+) iridescence • Glass microscope slides (x2) • Transparent circular lid (e.g.,
• Flashlight from a tub of candy or chips)
• Colored transparent paper • Double-sided adhesive tape
(red cellophane, for example) • Liquid soap
• Plastic straw
L
ight is a fundamental element in our daily life;
however, it is difficult to explain the wave−par-
ticle duality that defines it and even more dif-
ficult to see it. So, how can we really see how light
behaves like a wave?
In this experiment, we will discover the wave-
like nature of light by observing the phenomenon of
interference and the different patterns it creates.
Procedure
Interferences with two pieces of glass Figure 1.4.1 Procedure for observing
interferences with two glass slides and white light.
1. Place the two slides on a dark surface, one on Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica
top of the other, taking care not to leave finger- (CSIC)/IOSA.
prints on the surface of the glass (Figure 1.4.1).
2. Place the colored cellophane over the flashlight.
Switch on the flashlight and position it half a meter over the glass slides. Switch off all
other lights.
3. Press down on one end of the top slide.
4. Repeat the experiment without the cellophane, i.e., using white light (Figure 1.4.1).
Interferences with soap bubbles

1. Stand the flashlight upright and use a small
piece of double-sided adhesive tape to stick the
transparent circular lid over it (Figure 1.4.2).
2. Make up a mixture of soapy water and put some
onto the circular lid using a spoon.
3. Use a straw to blow bubbles. Blow gently over
the soapy mixture.
4. Next, switch on the flashlight and switch off
all other lights. You will see colors forming and
moving.
Explanation Figure 1.4.2 Procedure for observing

The stripes we see when using a single color (with interferences in soap bubbles.
the cellophane in front of the flashlight) are caused Photograph: in house.

1.4 Experiment: Is Light Really a Wave?
by constructive and destructive interferences
between two waves travelling in different direc-
tions. These two waves are formed when the
light from the flashlight is reflected off two dif-
ferent surfaces. Reflections occurs on each of
the surfaces between the glass slides, which are
slightly separated when pressing the top slide at
one end (Figure 1.4.3). Figure 1.4.3 View of the forming of reflective
Given that the top slide rises more where waves, each on a different surface, creating the con-
we are not pressing it, the path followed by the structive and destructive interferences.
wave reflected on the second slide is different, Source: Internally created.
depending on the position, which creates alter-
native construction and destructive interferences as it interacts with the other wave.
When using white light, we still see stripes, but they are different colors. This is because
the constructive interferences for the different colors are produced for different thick-
nesses. This effect is also seen on the bubbles, as the thickness of the soapy layer is not
even and also varies over time, making the colors “move”.
In the soap bubble, the difference in the path followed by the second reflected wave
compared to the first, assuming the incidence is normal, is
Path difference = 2 × bubble thickness × refractive index of the soap bubble
The constructive interferences occur when the maximum and minimum of the two waves
coincide. This means that there is no gap, despite them following different optical paths.
This happens when the difference in optical path is equal to the wavelength (λ) or a
multiple thereof:
Constructive interference → path difference = multiple of λ
So, when we see constructive interference of a color, we can find the relation to the thick-
ness of the bubble:
Bubble thickness = multiple of λ / (2 × refractive index of the soap bubble)
For example, if we consider bubbles are primarily made of water (index n = 1.3) and we
can see green colors (~λ = 520 nm) on the surface, the thickness of the soap in this case
could be 200, 400, 600 nm, etc. However, if the surface of the bubble looks red (~λ = 650
nm), the thickness of the soap could be 250, 500, 750 nm, etc. This explains why we see
different colors in different positions on the bubble where the thickness varies.
Tips
Try using different light sources (halogen lamp or fluorescent lamp). We will see different
colors, as the emission spectrum for each bulb is different, even though together they both
emit white light.

• Why do we see light and dark stripes when using a single-color light?
• Why do we see different colors on different parts of the bubble?
• Why do we see different colors in a patch of oil on the road?
Related experiments
Experiment 5.3 Where do those colors come from?

Objective 1: Create a system for measuring the thickness of a
How Thick is hair.
Objective 2: Use diffraction to measure the thickness of very thin
My Hair? objects.
Diffraction,
MATERIAL
30 min (+) interference • Card • Ruler
• Scissors • Measuring tape
• Laser pointer • Adhesive tape
• A long hair
O
ne of the most interesting behaviors of waves is
that they can cause constructive or destructive
interference. There are countless uses for this
property. For example, sound-cancelling earphones
use destructive interference on unwanted sound
waves to isolate the user.
Another example is the use of electromagnetic wave
interference to help us to measure very small distances
with high precision. This is the characteristic we are
going to use during this experiment to measure the
thickness of a hair. The image shows an opaque object
Figure 1.5.1 Frame for holding the hair.
under a laser beam. The light diffracts on the edges of
the object, creating two isolated sources that interfere at Source: Internally created.
a certain distance. This pattern of interference depends
on the size of the object, and this is what we will use
during this experiment to measure the thickness of hair.
Procedure
1. Make the frame by cutting a large “H” from
a piece of card using the suggested template
(Figure 1.5.1). The frame should measure
approximately 20 x 10 cm. Fold the frame in
half to make a “C” shape measuring 10 x 10 cm.
Lay it down on its side.
2. Using adhesive tape, stick the ends of the hair to
the prongs of the “C” shape, keeping it as verti-
cal and tight as possible.
3. Switch off the light and shine the laser over the
hair (remember not to look directly at the beam).
4. In order to gain a better measurement of the hair,
it is advisable to do the experiment some dis- Figure 1.5.2 Setup of the experiment
tance from the wall where the laser will be pro- with the laser incident on the hair positioned over
jected. If you look at the spot on the wall, you the card frame (top) and the interference pattern
will see a dotted line, the diffraction pattern. formed (bottom).
5. Use the measuring tape to measure the distance Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica
between the frame holding the hair and the wall (CSIC)/IOSA.

1.5 Experiment: How Thick is My Hair?
where the laser is being projected. Try to set it at a dis-
tance of around 2 meters to obtain the diffraction pat-
tern (Figure 1.5.2).
6. Use the ruler to measure the gap between the spots of light
projected onto the wall. You need to measure the distance
from the central patch of light and the next closest one (to
the right or the left). Bear in mind that the intensity of the
light spots may vary. If you can’t see them, you may need
to move a bit closer to the wall.
7. To calculate the thickness of the hair, use the formula
thickness = (laser wavelength × distance from hair to
screen/wall) / (distance between spots of light).
Figure 1.5.3 Intensity simu-
lation of the diffraction caused by an
Explanation object in the path of a laser beam.
The phenomenon of diffraction occurs when a wave encoun- Source: Juan Luis García Pomar.
ters an obstacle, whether it is a slit or an object of a certain size,
and it passes through that obstacle or goes around it, creating new wavefronts that interfere
with each other, forming a pattern of maximums and minimums of light if projected onto a
screen (Figure 1.5.3). In this case, hair acts as an obstacle that the laser light travels around,
forming two different sources of light that clash, creating the pattern of interference. As you
will have noticed, this pattern consists of a central patch of light and a number of lateral ones.
The spots closest to the center patch are called the first order of diffraction (in both directions).
The second, third and fourth spots of lights are known as the second, third and fourth
order, respectively, and so on. In theory, diffraction patterns contain an infinite number of
orders, but in practice we can only see a few.
The distance between the different orders is related to the thickness of the obstacle, as
per the formula
a = n λL/dn
where a is the thickness of the hair, n is the order number we have used to measure the
distance (dn) from the central patch of light to the nth spot, λ is the wavelength of the laser
used, and L is the distance between the hair and the screen where the light is projected.
Tips
• Try the experiment with naturally curly and straight hair to see if the thickness mea-
surement changes depending on the angle of incidence. Straight hair is normally more
homogeneous, while curly hair has a more oval-shaped section, which means the
thickness will be different at different angles.
• You can also try using other material (e.g., dental floss).

Can we see interference patterns when using other light sources such as sunlight or a
lightbulb?
Related experiments
Experiment 2.4 Extraordinary light: laser

Objective 1: Observe the double slit interference process using
To Be or Not to Be light from a bulb and a laser light.
Objective 2: Observe the same phenomenon using sunlight.
a Particle!
MATERIAL
Refractive index, • Laser
40 min (+) invisibility, • 2 fine aluminum sheets
interference • Awl
• Metal, PVC or cardboard tube
• Large cardboard box (e.g., shoe box)
I
n 1678, Christian Huygens put forward the theory
that light was a wave phenomenon transmitted
through a medium called ether. This theory was
largely ignored until the first half of the 19th cen-
tury, when Thomas Young resurrected it to explain
the phenomenon of interference.
This research, together with the development of
quantum physics in the 20th century, led to the dis-
covery of the dual nature of light: wave and particle.
Procedure
Experiment with aluminum sheets
Figure 1.6.1 One single reality can be
1. Take the aluminum sheet and make two slits observed from two different viewpoints.
in it, less than 1 mm thick and less than 1 mm Source: Jean-Christophz Benoist, Wikimedia Commons.
apart; if not, the pattern will form too close to
the slits (Figure 1.6.2).
2. Take a shoe box and cut a hole in the lid a
little smaller than the aluminum sheet
(Figure 6.2). Similarly, cut a hole in the side
of about 5 × 5 cm.
3. Place the aluminum over the lid of the box,
lining it up with the hole.
4. Position the source of light (laser or lightbulb)
at less than 5 cm from the aluminum across the
slits so that both are illuminated by the beam.
5. Observe the strip pattern created though the
side hole (Figure 1.6.3). Figure 1.6.2 Two slits made in the
aluminum sheet. The light is coming from a source of
white light.
Experiment with cardboard box Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica
1. Punch two holes in the top of the box. The (CSIC)/IOSA.
holes should be a few mm in diameter and
positioned about 10 cm apart.
2. Line up one of the holes with the double slit aluminum sheet used in Procedure 1.
3. Turn the face of the box towards the sun. Look through the other hole in the box to
observe the pattern formed by sunlight as it passes through the slits.

1.6 Experiment: To Be or Not to Be a Particle!
Experiment with a tube

1. Take the aluminum sheet and make two holes
of at least 1 mm. The two slits need to be close
(around 100 times the wavelength of the light
used), otherwise the interference pattern will
only form very close to the slits.
2. Take a metal, PVC or cardboard tube with a diam-
eter of 6−10 cm and height of 15−20 cm, and place
the aluminum sheet over one of the two openings
like a lid. Cover the rest of the opening so that no Figure 1.6.3 Interference of two fronts
light can get through that end, except through the of light created by two slits.
two holes (Figure 1.6.4).
Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica
3. Look through the open end of the tube, turn it (CSIC)/IOSA.
towards a source of light (beacon, bulb, etc.), and
observe the pattern. What can you see?
Explanation
As the light from the two slits meets a screen, a series of stripes are created where you
can see peaks and valleys in a regular pattern. This pattern originates from the wave-like
nature of light. The waves reaching the slit are in phase. Based on the Huygens principle,
each of these slits becomes a temporary source of waves that emit from them in the same
phase, but the rays from each slit do not follow the same path until they reach the screen.
A connection can be made between the distance between the slits s, the wavelength λ,
the distance of the slits from the screen D, and the width of the bands of interference (the
distance between successive stripes) x:
λ x
=
s D
Tips
You will need two rubber balls and some wire to make two “maracas”. Find a swimming
pool, fountain or bathtub, i.e., somewhere with calm water. Gently tap the surface of the
water with the balls at two points close to each other. Observe the undulations formed on
the surface of the water and how the waves caused by each ball interfere with each other.

• What differences can you see in the pattern cre-
ated when you use natural light (sunlight) or laser
light?
• What size should the slits be for the waves gen-
erated to be spherical temporary sources and for
the effects of diffraction to be reduced through a
single slit?
• What happens if one of the slits is covered?
Figure 1.6.4 Zoomed-in view of holes
over the aluminum sheet.
Related experiments Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Cientí-
Experiment 2.3 Detecting light with semiconductors fica (CSIC)/IOSA.

Objective 1: Observe the behavior of polarizers.
Change of Wave! Objective 2: To observe birefringence associated to photoelastic
effect.
Polarization and
Birefringence MATERIAL
• 2 large polarizers
• Plastic objects (fork, case)
• Glasses
• Transparent adhesive tape
50 min (+) Polarization, Birefringence
T
here are many substances (calcite,
sugar) in which the speed of light
depends both on the direction of travel
of the light and on its state of polarization;
it is said that such materials present aniso-
tropic properties. In these materials, an
electromagnetic wave breaks down into two
waves, each affected by a different refrac-
tive index (ordinary no and extraordinary
ne). Among other effects, the division of the
light, depending on polarization, into two
beams can form a dual image. The polariza-
tion of the output light can also vary com-
pared to the input light, which is why they Figure 1.7.1 Ordinary and extraordinary component
are called optical dephasers. of light while passing through an anisotropic material. Dual
image effect.
Photograph: APN MJM, Wikimedia Commons.
Procedure
Observation of light polarization using polarizing filters
1. Take two polarizing filters, one in each
hand. Hold one in front of the other
between your eyes and a source of light
(e.g., a fluorescent ceiling light).
2. Keeping one of them still, turn the
other through 90°. There will be a posi-
tion where the intensity of the light
you can see will be minimal; we’ll call
this the total extinction position.
Observation of birefringence
1. Place the filters in total extinction posi-
tion and hold an object between them
(e.g. plastic fork). Figure 1.7.2 The two polarizing filters; one placed at
2. Hold one of the filters in the same 90° to the other blocks the light from behind.
position and rotate the other. You will Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica (CSIC)/IOSA.

1.7 Experiment: Change of Wave! Polarization and Birefringence
Figure 1.7.3 Glasses between two polarizing filters in parallel (you may see colored interferences
due to tensions inside the material of the lenses) (left) and with the filters crossed at 90°, blocking the light
from behind (as the light passes through the plastic folder with tape across it, we can see colors associated to
different tensions inside the tape) (right).
see how the intensity of the light passing through both filters varies as you rotate
(Figure 1.7.2).
3. Pay special attention to the object you placed between the filters and note down your
observations, as what is happening is a birefringence effect due to possible tensions
inside the material (Figure 1.7.3).
Explanation
In the first experiment, depending on the relative position between the filters, a greater or
lesser amount of light will pass through. If you place both filters in the same direction, the
maximum amount of light will pass through, as the first filter transforms natural light into
linear polarized light and the second allows it all through as it is in the same position. If
you turn the second polarizer 90°, the light will be completely blocked.
By placing glasses or another clear plastic item between the filters, you can see how
some materials become birefringent as they have been subjected to tension or force during
manufacturing. This is known as photoelasticity (Figure 1.7.3). This means that the polar-
ization of the light is changed as it passes through the glasses. As the tension or force is
not applied evenly, the birefringence caused by the photoelastic effect will also be uneven.
Tips
• Try the same experiment using different people’s glasses and different kinds of frames
(or frameless glasses). You will see greater or lesser tension depending on the manu-
facturer or the type of frame/lens.

• What is the difference between natural light and polarized light?
• Why do glasses placed between polarizing filters show different colors rather than just
one?

Objective 1: Discover the charge of different objects and how they
Photons Give You attract or repel depending on that electric charge.
Wings!!! The Objective 2: See how exposure of an object to light can remove its
charge on releasing electrons.
Photoelectric Effect
MATERIAL
• Balloons • Cotton cloth
• String or thread • Wooden stand (pencil)
30 min (+) Radiation, photon energy • Aluminum foil • Source of ultraviolet light
• PVC tube
T
he photoelectric effect consists of
the emission of electrons by a mate-
rial when electromagnetic radiation
meets it (generally visible light or ultra-
violet light). Photons have a characteristic
energy, determined by the frequency of the
light wave. If an atom absorbs energy from
a photon, has more energy than needed to
expel an electron from the material, and Figure 1.8.1 Diagram of the photoelectric effect.
is also following a trajectory towards the Source: Internally created.
surface, then the electron may be expelled
from the material. If the photon energy is too low, the electron cannot escape from the sur-
face of the material.
The photoelectric effect was discovered and described by Heinrich Hertz in 1887, who
saw the arc between two electrodes connected to high-voltage currents covered greater
distances when illuminated with ultraviolet light than when left in darkness. The theory
was explained by Albert Einstein in 1905; he received the Nobel Prize for Physics for this
theory in 1921.
Procedure
Experiment with balloons
1. Blow up two balloons and tie each one to a different string.
2. Rub one of the balloons on your hair. Next, hold this balloon close to the other one;
you will see that they are attracted (Figure 1.8.2, left).
3. Now rub both balloons on your hair and bring them together again. This time, you will
see how the balloons repel (Figure 1.8.2, right).
Experiment with aluminum foil

1. With the aluminum foil, make a “curtain” of strips connected at the top. Fix this cur-
tain to a wooden support.
2. Rub the PVC tube with the cotton cloth. Bring it close to the aluminum curtain. You
will see that the strips move, repelling each other as they are charged, as shown in the
image (Figure 1.8.3).

1.8 Experiment: Photons Give You Wings!!! The Photoelectric Effect
Figure 1.8.2 Balloons hanging from a string, one not rubbed (left) and both rubbed and therefore electrically charged
with the same charge (right).
3. Touch the metal frame to discharge the aluminum curtain with your body.
4. Charge the curtain in the same way as in Step 2.
5. Now shine an ultraviolet light on the curtain. Does it also discharge?
Explanation
Matter is made of atoms, in turn consist-
ing of protons (positive charge), electrons
(negative charge) and neutrons (no charge).
Atoms normally contain more protons than
electrons, and so the positive and negative
charges cancel each other out. The balloons
are fundamentally in this state. When you
rub a balloon against your hair, your hair
gives up electrons to the balloon, which
becomes negatively charged: it has more
electrons than protons. This is how the
attraction effect occurs: when one balloon
is negatively charged and the other one is
neutral; repulsion occurs when both bal- Figure 1.8.3 Charged curtain made from aluminum
loons are negatively charged. foil using a charged PVC tube.
In the case of the aluminum strips, Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica (CSIC)/IOSA.
which are negatively charged by the PVC
object, i.e., they have more electrons than
protons, we see how they repel each other.
Under ultraviolet light, the energy of the photons is absorbed by the electrons of the
aluminum strip so that they take on the necessary energy in order to escape the material,
i.e. the photoelectric effect takes place. This process discharged the aluminum strips.
They then have the same number of electrons as protons, and the strips therefore do not
repel each other.

1.8 Experiment: Photons Give You Wings!!! The Photoelectric Effect
Tips
• If you want to make it more fun, rub the balloon against your shirt, or another cotton
garment. Hold the balloon to the strips and see how they are attracted to it. In the same
way, if you hold the negatively charged balloon near to your hair, you will see how it
stands on end.
• If you shine an ultraviolet light on the balloon, it will be discharged and no longer
have the same effect on the strips or your hair.

• How can a material be negatively charged?
• Is an electron always released when a photon strikes a material?
• Is it easier to release an electron with ultraviolet light than with infrared?
Related experiments
Experiment 6.6 Obtaining electricity from the sun: build a photovoltaic cell

Chapter 2
Light sources and

detectors
N
ow that we know what light is and its properties, in this chapter we will focus on
understanding how we have learned to generate and detect it, as all artificial light
sources of light require the conversion of some kind of energy into electromagnetic
radiation. The main thread of this chapter is understanding how this conversion takes
place, identifying the part of the electromagnetic spectrum where the different types of
light sources have the best properties and discovering which are the most efficient of them.
At the end of the chapter, we will focus on the optical systems that can detect light and
their recent application to artificial vision.
What is a source of light? What kind of light

sources are there?
The simplest definition of a source of light is “any object that emits light”. There are natu-
ral sources of light (sun, stars, some plants or animals via fluorescence, or via lumines-
cence in the case of the firefly) and artificial ones (e.g., a lightbulb, as in Figure 2.1). In this
section, we will look exclusively at artificial sources of light, ranging from incandescent
(emission of light due to temperature) to luminescent (e.g., electro-luminescence, the emis-
sion of light in response to an electrical current).
What are the different ways of generating

visible electromagnetic radiation (light)?
Before getting into more detail, it is important to understand the different processes we
have for generating radiation (light, in the case of visible radiation).
In broad terms, we can differentiate between two ways of emitting light: applying heat
to a substance (thermal emission or incandescence), such as a lightbulb, or using other
means that do not involve heating the substance (luminescence), such as in fluorescent
lighting or in nature; fireflies are a good example of this. Another type of luminescence is
atomic emission, which is a form of radiation in which it is not necessary to increase the
temperature of the material.
Thermal emission: incandescence

All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero (0 K) emit energy in the form of electromagnetic
radiation (Figure 2.2). If we study their corresponding emission spectrum, we can see that it is
37

continuous and that the wavelength at which they
emit their maximum radiation percentage depends,
among other things, on the temperature of that
body. The thermal emission spectrum is due to the
oscillation of the electrical charges of the molecules
in the bodies and depends on their temperature. To
describe the thermal emission spectrum of a body
based on temperature and regardless of the mate-
rial in question, we use a theory based on an ideal
body known as a black body. This theory explains
that when a black body is at low temperature, such
as room temperature, it will emit a low-energy
wavelength (infrared), while at high temperatures
(several thousand degrees) we can observe visible
light (Figure 2.3).
Atomic emission and luminescence

Figure 2.1 Incandescent lightbulb, example of
As we saw in Chapter 1, in the early 20th cen-
an artificial light source. tury, Max Planck and other scientists laid down
Photograph: in house. the bases for quantum theory, which, as its name
suggests, revolves around the idea of the energetic
quantification of light. Shortly afterwards, Niels Bohr (1885−1962) proposed a model of
atomic structure in quantum theory, briefly explained below (Figure 2.4).
The elements on the periodic table are made up of very small particles: atoms. An
atom is in turn made up of a cloud of electrons turning around a nucleus of protons and
neutrons, in what are known as orbitals, at different distances away from that nucleus.
In the Bohr model, the orbitals have strongly defined energy (quantized), also known as
energy levels. This means that electrons in different orbitals also have different specific
energies; the ones furthest from the nucleus have the greatest specific energy. Electrons
can “jump” from one level to another, but in order to do so they need to shed just the
right amount of energy to drop down to an orbit closer to the core, or take on energy
if they are moving further away. Electrons can take on or shed the necessary energy
by absorbing or releasing a photon with the appropriate energy: difference of energy
Figure 2.2 Different ways of generating EM radiation.

Source: Adapted from the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA).

Figure 2.3 Image taken using a thermographic camera in infrared (the most common range is 7-14 microns) during an
IOSA education activity.
Photograph: IOSA-Álava ingenieros.
Did you know…?

In the case of the human body, which has an approximate temperature of 36.5ºC, most of the
radiation is emitted in the infrared (IR), invisible to the human eye. However, we can use heat vision
devices (sensitive to infrared) to detect the presence of people and animals in the dark.
We can also predict the temperature of stars based on their thermal emission spectrum. Stars with a
maximum emission around the color red are much cooler than those that looker bluer in our vision.
between orbits = photon energy = h · u, where h is the Planck constant (6.6 × 10−34 joules/
sec), and u is the frequency of the photon.
Each atom interacting with light releases or absorbs electromagnetic radiation when
there is a transition between energy levels. When an atom absorbs energy equal to the
difference between two of its energy levels, its electrons move to higher-energy orbitals,
which is why we say it is in an excited state. While returning to its ground state, the atom
must release energy. In this case, the energy is released in the form of a photon whose
energy sums to the difference between the two orbitals.
The emission spectrum of a material is the set of wavelengths emitted when excited (ther-
mally, electrically or luminously). For example, when exciting hydrogen in a gaseous state
while analyzing the light emitted by separating it into each of its different components, we
can see stripes of very specific colors: red (656 nm), green-blue (486 nm) and two lines of
violet (434 nm and 410 nm). So, the emission spectrum is different depending on the mate-
rial in question and is therefore a kind of “ID card”.
Chapter 2 Light sources and detectors 39

Spectroscopy (Figure 2.5) uses this inter-
action between electromagnetic radiation
and the atoms to study the structure of mate-
rials based on their emission spectrum or
absorption spectrum (Figure 2.6). A spec-
troscope is a piece of equipment that, in its
most basic form, separates the wavelengths
present in a spectrum using a prism or dif-
fraction grating and analyzes them using a
sensor (see Experiment 2.1).
Atomic emission is a type of light-
generation mechanism known as lumi-
Figure 2.4 Bohr atom model. nescence in which, unlike the thermal
Source: Adapted from Brightorange, Wikimedia Commons. emission seen in the previous section, light
is not produced as a result of an increased
temperature but as the result of the atomic
and molecular structure and the transition
between the different electronic levels.
Other forms of luminescence

There are different types of luminescence,
depending on the source of energy causing
the excitation. The main ones are: (1) photo-
luminescence, which is the result of photon
absorption where the triggering energy is
electromagnetic (e.g., ultraviolet light). There
are two kinds of photoluminescence: fluo-
rescence, where the emitted photons have
less energy than those absorbed, caused by
ultraviolet rays (e.g., safety marks on bank
notes, which become visible under ultravio-
let light), and phosphorescence, which is a
slightly delayed fluorescence after the initial
absorption of radiation where light emission
continues for a time after the original light
Figure 2.5 A very basic spectroscope made from source has been removed, as happens in the
a slit in a piece of card and a prism (top). Even a simple
case of phosphorescent paint; (2) chemilumi-
instrument like this shows a clear difference between the
nescence, where light is emitted as the result
visible spectrum of an incandescent lightbulb (middle) and an
of energy released in a chemical reaction
energy-saving lightbulb using an arc discharge (bottom).
(e.g., a firefly); and (3) electroluminescence,
Photograph: Timwether, Wikimedia Commons.
where light emission occurs when passing an
electrical current through the material.
What kind of artificial light sources are there?

As you probably already know, there are different types of artificial light sources, whose
characteristics depend on what mechanism they rely on to emit radiation (Figure 2.7).
Some of the most common sources of artificial light are:
• Incandescent lamp. Incandescent lamps work by thermal emission or incandes-

cence. They consist of a conductive tungsten filament inside a glass casing - in which

Figure 2.6 Continuous spectrum (top); emission spectrum (middle); absorption spectrum (bottom).
Source: Stkl, Wikimedia Commons.
Did you know…?

Thanks to spectroscopy, we can know the composition of stars and planet atmospheres light years
away, even though we can never take a sample.
By studying the light spectrum that reaches us from so far away, we can identify the “spectroscopic
fingerprint”.
vacuum has been made or filled with an inert gas to prolong its life (Figure 2.8). As
electric current travels through the filament, this heats up and emits visible and invis-
ible light, but mainly infrared, which we cannot see but feel in the form of heat when
close to the lamp. These light sources have a continuous emission spectrum, which is
equivalent to a black body at 2,800 K (orange tones); see Experiment 2.2.
• Halogen lamps. These work in the same way as incandescent lamps, but they reach
higher temperatures (3,000−3,100 K). This is possible because the bulb contains a pres-
surized halogen gas (e.g., iodine or bromine). This higher temperature generates a whiter
form of light (less yellow).
• Arc discharge lamps. The classic example of this type of lamp is fluorescent strip light-
ing. A fluorescent tube, which is filled with a gas, sits between two electrodes. When
these electrodes produce a discharge, the electrons in the gas atoms contained in the
tube (generally mercury vapor) become excited and emit UV light. The fluorescent mate-
rial lining the inside of the tube absorbs the ultraviolet and emits visible light.
Depending on the type of gas and its pressure, the material will emit different wave-
lengths from the visible spectrum, and therefore the tone (color temperature) will vary
accordingly.
• LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes): These are semiconductor diodes that emit radiation via
electroluminescence, where the electric current is transformed into radiation without
significantly increasing the temperature of the material (Figure 2.9). A semiconductor
is an electronic component with two terminals that allow electricity to flow only in one
direction through it. Depending on the characteristics of the material used in the LED,
the diode will emit this energy in the form of IR, UV or visible radiation. The emission
spectrum of LEDs is related to energy differences between the levels of its main compo-
nent material and its electronic structure. Electromagnetic emission therefore consists
of a range of wavelengths concentrated into a part of the spectrum (see Experiment 2.3).

Figure 2.7 Artistic use of an artificial light source (laser).
Photograph: Karsten Knöfler, Wikimedia Commons.
Did you know…?

The first lightbulbs used a carbonized
bamboo filament,and a vacuum pump
was used to remove the air. This made it
necessary to use very thick glass. In later
versions, the carbonized filament was
replaced with tungsten and vacuum with
displacing oxygen by inserting an inert gas
Figure 2.8 Different examples of Edison’s lightbulb design. into the bulb.
Photograph: Daderot, Wikimedia Commons.
In order to obtain white light, it is necessary to combine red, green and blue LEDs (red,
blue and yellow) or use LEDs that emit UV with a cover lined with fluorescent material,
as we saw in the case of fluorescence strips.
• Lasers are light sources with such special characteristics (described in Figure 2.10) that
they stand out among them (see Experiment 2.4). First, they have such a narrow emis-
sion spectrum that they are considered to emit practically one single wavelength and are
therefore called monochromatic (emitting a single color). Furthermore, the laser beams
are highly directional and concentrated, a property known as collimated. Finally, they are
highly coherent, which facilitates the observation of wave phenomena such as interfer-
ence or diffraction, as seen in Chapter 1.

A laser's working principle relies on a mech-
anism known as stimulated emission, con-
sisting of the “multiplication” of identical
photons, resulting in a unique final over-
all emission (Figure 2.11). Three things are
needed in order to make this process stable:
an active medium (gas, liquid or solid to be
excited), an energy pumping mechanism
(light or electric) and an optical cavity. The
process is as follows: the active medium
is excited by the pumping system and can
excite a lot of electrons at upper levels. These
“upleveled” electrons will at some point fall
back down to their original orbital levels Figure 2.9 Red, green and blue LEDs.
while releasing the energy difference in the Photograph: PiccoloNamek, Wikimedia Commons.
form of photons. This phenomenon is sim-
ply called emission. However, the released
photons can collide with other excited elec- Did you know…?
trons and cause it to release another photon
with the same properties (energy, frequency/ Some studies have concluded that blue
wavelength, phase and direction of travel). LEDs have an antibacterial effect: as a
This is the phenomenon of stimulated emis- result, they are used in some refrigerators to
sion. These two photons can even collide help keep fresh food pathogen-free.
with two more atoms, stimulating the emis- High-quality LEDs can easily operate for
sion of two more identical photons. While over 50,000 hours.
this is happening, the optical cavity bounces
the photons from one end to another, making
them pass several times through the active
medium and stimulate the emission of more
new photons each time.
This is the origin of the word laser, an
acronym for light amplification by stimu-
lated emission of radiation.
The very first laser was developed in
1960 by the scientist Theodore Maiman
(Figure 2.12), and since then it has become
a fundamental tool in cutting-edge science,
medicine and telecommunications.
Figure 2.10 Characteristic coherent and monochro-

What defines a matic laser emission compared to other light sources.
source of light? Source: Adapted from the exhibition “A universe of light”, CSIC, 2015.
The science that studies the properties of

electromagnetic radiation is called radiometry. Photometry is a branch of radiometry con-
cerned only with the visible range of the spectrum, bearing in mind the response of the
human eye, as it does not have the same sensitivity to all the wavelengths that make up the
visible spectrum. Under what are known as photopic conditions (bright daylight), the eye
is more sensitive to the central wavelength of the visible spectrum (green 555 nm) than to
those at either end (blue 400 nm and red 700 nm), as we will see in Chapter 4.
We have seen how sources of light transform energy to emit light at one or more
wavelengths along the electromagnetic spectrum. In this way, the spectral distribution

Figure 2.11 Operation of a laser (upper). Red laser passing through two LEGO pieces (lower).
Source: Internally created. Photograph: Martin Kenny Seguir, Flickr.
Figure 2.12 Image of the first ruby laser system developed by T. Maiman in 1960.
Photograph: Guy Immega, Wikimedia Commons.
Did you know…?

The Star Wars movies contain a number of scientific inaccuracies. One example is the epic space
battles using laser weapons.
A laser beam is actually invisible: we can see the projected spot of light but not its path, unless the
beam is dispersed by smoke or other particles in the air... which does not appear to be the case in
most of the Star Wars scenes!

represents the distribution of light emitted within a defined range of wavelengths, which
determines the “color” produced by that light source.
All sources of light convert some kind of energy into radiating energy, i.e., electromag-
netic radiation. The amount of electromagnetic energy emitted per second is known as
radiant power or radiant flux, and it is measured in watts (W). You may have seen this
written on the outside of lightbulb packaging: the more watts of power a bulb has, the
more energy per second it will emit. The photometric unit equivalent to the radiant power
that determines the power for visible radiation, bearing in mind the different sensitivity of
the eye to each wavelength, is the luminous power or luminous flux, measured in lumens
(lm). So, in 1 watt of radiation of a 555-nm wavelength (to which our eyes are the most
sensitive), there are 680 lumens; however, 1 watt of 650-nm radiation is perceived by our
eyes with 10% sensitivity and therefore has 680 × 0.1 = 68 lumens of intensity.
Luminous efficacy is the magnitude that indicates the fraction of luminous flux, i.e., the
fraction of visible light making up the total emission of a light source. It is measured in
lumens per watt (lm/W), meaning that it is possible to calculate the luminous efficacy of a
lightbulb by dividing the number of lumens by the watts emitted. So, an LED with a typi-
cal luminous efficacy of 100 lm/W will emit more light than an incandescent source with a
luminous efficacy of 20 lm/W, despite having the same wattage. As we have already seen,
this difference is due to the fact that incandescent lightbulbs emit a high percentage of infra-
red radiation, which is not visible.
Another interesting magnitude is the amount of radiation that reaches a specific surface or,
more strictly speaking, the flux received by a surface per unit of area. This is known as irradi-
ance, and it is measured in W/m2. If we only look at the (visible) luminous flux incident on a
surface, we talk about illuminance (lm/m2).
There are two features of a light source that help us study their impact on how a scene
or an object is perceived: color temperature and the spectral distribution of the source itself.
The color temperature gives us an idea of
the balance between the visible wavelengths
emitted. This value is expressed as the tem-
perature (in kelvin) that a black body needs
to be at for its emission spectrum to have a
similar appearance, i.e., for its maximum
to be at the same wavelength. In this way, a
warm lightbulb will have a lower color tem-
perature, of around 2,000 K, while a source
of cold light (fluorescent) will have a higher
temperature, at around 5,000 K.
The color rendering index (CRI) pro-
vides information about the reliability
with which a light source renders the Figure 2.13 View of the emission of an infrared LED
color of an object. It is higher for sources on a remote control, captured using a digital camera.
of light with a continuous emission spec- Photograph: RockMancuso, Wikimedia Commons.
trum similar to that of the black body, as
in the case of incandescent lamps (CRI =
100), and lower for light sources emitting
Did you know…?
at very low wavelengths.
TV remote controls use IR LEDs as a means
of communication.
Beyond the visible We cannot see it, but to some sensors
The development of light sources in the (such as those used by video cameras and
ultraviolet and infrared range has gener- in digital photography) it is visible.
ated new technologies used in a wide range

of fields of application such as medicine,
artificial vision, telecommunications and
security (see Experiment 2.5), especially
LEDs and laser technologies. For these
light sources and spectrum ranges there
is an international standard indicating the
power exposure time to each wavelength.
Prolonged exposure or power above rec-
ommended levels can cause irreversible
damage to the human body.
Figure 2.14 Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922).

Photograph: Horace Mann School photographs, Collection
How do we detect light?
What is a sensor?
A sensor is a device designed to capture light
Did you know…? and transform it into an electrical signal that
we can quantify. The human eye works in the
Alexander Graham Bell is universally same way, like a sensor. Our biological sensor
known for supposedly having invented (the retina) detects the external light stimulus
the telephone (some believe that the true from the objects around us, and its specialized
inventor was the Italian Antonio Meucci). cells (photoreceptors) convert that light into
However, Bell considered one of his electrical signals via a process called photo-
other inventions to be much better: the transduction. These signals are then sent to
photophone, the first wireless means of the brain. Just like the eye, all cameras have an
communication, which he developed with optical sensor, which has developed from the
Charles Sumner Tainter. The device used classic 35-mm film into complex microchips
sunlight, a system of mirrors and a selenium with highly sensitive components. The most
cell to transmit a voice message using the common sensors are based on the photoelec-
photoacoustic effect. tric effect, but there are other sensors that use
the photoacoustic, photovoltaic, photoelectro-
chemical or photoconductivity effect.
In this section, we will focus on photoelectric sensors, photodiodes and matrix detec-
tors, which can be used for capturing images and are found in photographic cameras and
smartphones.
First, a photodiode is an optoelectronic device that conducts an amount of electric
current in relation to the amount of light shining on it. Photodiodes are made from semi-
conductive materials consisting of a combination of material p and material n (like in the
LEDs in Experiment 2.3) and based on the internal photoelectric effect of these materials.
The semi-conductive materials most commonly used in the production of photodiodes
are: silicon (190−1,100 nm, from ultraviolet to infrared), germanium (800−1,900 nm, a
wide range in infrared) and indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) (800−2,600 nm, a wider
infrared range than germanium). Photodiodes are frequently used in rapid data recording
(such as CD and DVD players), in optical measurement equipment, in light barriers (e.g.,
elevator doors) and in some cameras.
Matrix detectors are a set of sensors fitted onto a single plane, each of which can give
a different response. There are currently two types of technology used for manufacturing
this kind of sensor, CCD (charge-coupled device) or CMOS (complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor).
These sensors consist of semiconductors and have a certain number of metal-oxide
capacitors coupled in a matrix shape and separated by a very small space. The function
of these capacitors is to accumulate an electrical charge in each of the cells of the matrix.

These cells are known as pixels; each pixel
is a light sensor at a certain frequency:
mainly those for red, green and blue, which
make up the basis for the RGB system.
Other common and important character-
istics of both these sensor technologies are
(1) sensor resolution, which depends on
both the number of photoelectric cells and
their size. The larger the pixel is, the greater
the density of the sensor and the sharper the
resulting image. The higher the number of
pixels is, the larger the effective size of the
image. (2) The light irradiance required to
detect an electrical signal, which is a defin-
ing parameter in efficiency. Finally, (3) the Figure 2.15 Many technologies use artificial vision
to recognize objects, detect incidents, reconstruct scenes or
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), defined as the
restore images, among others.
proportion between the power of the sig-
Photograph: Kalhh, Pixabay.
nal transmitted and the power of the back-
ground noise affecting it.
Artificial vision
The purpose of artificial vision is to replicate the sense of human vision to record what is
happening in the outside world, process information numerically and extract key visual
elements. These machines cannot replace the human brain, yet they have a series of advan-
tages over human vision, as they are better at determining physical dimensions and per-
forming low-processing routine tasks.
The basic systems used for artificial vision are a light source, a sensor and a proces-
sor. Once the signal has been captured, it is processed and transformed into high-level
information. This information can be used for visual representation or as a data source for
machine programming. The light sources used can range from any kind of lamp or LED to
a laser, although due to characteristics and cost, the most common light source used is an
infrared LED. The sensors used are mainly photodiodes for simple tasks (e.g., a rain sensor
on a car windscreen) and a CMOS for complex tasks such as detecting objects using night
vision.
There are many examples of the use of artificial vision (Figure 2.15) in a range of fields,
such as rain sensors in the motor industry. They consist of an infrared LED and a photo-
diode that detects how much of the light emitted is reflected by the glass. The infrared
light is emitted through the body of the sensor at an exact angle, and it is reflected inside
the glass of the windscreen and returns to the photodiode. If the microcontroller detects
changes in this signal, the sensor activates the wipers and adjusts their speed.
Bibliography
Fundación española para la Ciencia y la Tecnología (2015): “Unidad Didáctica. Ciencia con luz propia.
Guffey, J. S. and Wilborn, J. (2006): “In vitro bactericidal effects of 405-nm and 470-nm blue l light”,
Photomed Laser Surg, 24 (6), pp. 684-688.
Sarkar, M. (2012): “Vision sensors in automobiles”, Optics and Photonics News, 23, 7-8, pp. 25-29.

Objective 1: Create a homemade spectroscope and understand
Build Your Own how it works.
Spectroscope Objective 2: Investigate the electromagnetic spectrum of different
light sources.
MATERIAL
Electromagnetic spectrum, • A cardboard box • Different light sources:
30 min (+) colors, diffraction
(e.g., cereal box) incandescent bulb, energy-saving
• An old CD or DVD bulb, halogen lamp, colored
• Craft knife or scissors flashlights, LED, etc.
• Protractor • Ruler (optional)
• Dark adhesive tape • Pen or pencil (optional)
Y
ou already know that white light is the sum of all colors, but are all light sources
the same? It may look like it by just looking at an incandescent bulb or fluorescent
strip, but with the help of our homemade spectroscope you will see how this isn’t
actually the case. The secret is in the spectrum: in the colors that make it up and make its
“fingerprint”.
Procedure
1. Seal up the box, taping over all flaps and
holes using adhesive tape so that no light
can get in through any slits or gaps.
2. Make the opening for the CD: cut two
5−6-cm slits in the sides of the box at an
angle of around 60° off vertical, as shown
in Figure 2.1.2. If you want, you can use
a protractor and ruler to do this, marking
the necessary slits using a pen or pencil. Figure 2.1.1 Fragment of a CD (our homemade
3. You will be placing the CD into the diago- diffraction grating) breaking down light.
nal slits; you will probably need to make Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica (CSIC)/
them a bit wider using scissors or a knife IOSA.
to make the disc fit.
4. Insert the CD into the slits with the reflec-
tive side upwards (towards the shorter
end of the box). Secure the disc in place
using adhesive tape if necessary.
5. Next, cut a small window in the short
side of the box so that you can see the CD.
6. On the opposite side of the box (long
side), cut a slit a few mm long and as
straight as possible at the same height as
the CD to let light into the spectroscope.
7. Make sure you can see the CD properly
from the window in the short side of the Figure 2.1.2 Assembling the spectroscope.
box. Make it a bit larger if necessary. You Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica (CSIC)/
IOSA
will make your observations from this
point.

2.1 Experiment: Build Your Own Spectroscope
8. Your spectroscope is now ready. Point
the smaller slit towards the different
light sources you want to study and look
through the window at the spectrum dif-
fracted onto the CD. Adjust the angle as
necessary to see it better.
Explanation
Our spectroscope allows us to see the electro-
magnetic spectrum of visible light.
The CD or DVD acts as a diffraction grating,
as it has 650 or 1250 lines per mm engraved
on its surface. As the light meets the surface, it
is diverted, with each wavelength (each color)
at a slightly different angle. By looking at the
spectrum, we can see the differences between
light sources, even though to the naked eye
they look the same (Figure 2.1.3). Figure 2.1.3 simple spectroscope and the spec-
If you have ever observed sunlight reflected trum of a light source observed through it.
onto a white wall (or an incandescent lightbulb) Photograph: in house.
and compared it with an energy-saving bulb,
you may have seen how the spectrum of sunlight is continuous: all the colors can be seen in a
constant stream. However, in the case of the energy-saving bulb, you can only see lines: there
are dark areas between the colors. Their spectra are different because they have a different
chemical composition. By observing emission spectra and the absorption of different elements
and molecules, we can identify the composition of an unknown or out-of-reach materials.
TIPS
• If you prefer, you can make your spectroscope using a cardboard tube, closing off the
ends to stop any light from getting in. Cut a slit in one end to let light in. Cut diagonal
slits close to the other end for the CD and a small observation window.
• You can easily remove the reflective part of the CD by sticking strong adhesive tape
(e.g., gaffer tape) and then peeling it off gently. What is left behind is just the trans-
parent part of the disc, which is the true diffraction grating that you can then use in
transmission rather than reflection. Look through the “transparent CD” at a lightbulb
or fluorescent strip. The light still breaks down!

• Can you see spectral differences between different light sources? Why is that?
• What phenomenon allows us to see the spectrum through our homemade spectroscope?
Related experiments
Experiment 1.2 Breaking light: Newton’s prism

Objective 1: Understand how an incandescent bulb works.
Reinventing Objective 2: Re-create a lightbulb similar to the first ones sold
Edison: Build by Edison.
A Lightbulb MATERIAL
• Glass jar with lid (airtight) • 2 screws, 4 washers and
• 1.4-mm graphite pencil leads 8 nuts (4 for “security”).
and aluminum foil Diameter ≥ 4 mm
Light sources, continuous • 2 4R25-type 6V batteries or a • Plastic adhesive / hot
>1 hour spectrum, incandescence 12V, 8Ah lead-acid battery glue gun
• Switch, wire and crocodile clips • Safety gloves
• 2 pliers • Manual drill and metal
• Metal paper clips (not coated) drill bits
• Bathroom sealant • 1 cork
• Small candle or small piece of a
large candle
H
ave you ever looked at an old incan-
descent lightbulb and thought it
didn’t seem too complicated? The
truth is you are right! In this experiment,
we’ll show you how to make your own
lightbulb with a graphite filament. The
principle is simple: passing electricity
through a material to heat it up and make it
emit visible light.
Procedure
1. Find an airtight glass jar. Check that it
is airtight by heating it (in a warm oven
or with steam) without the lid. Next, Figure 2.2.1 Materials.
place the lid, taking care not to burn Photograph: in house.
yourself, and then leave it to cool. If
once the jar is cold the lid has been sucked downwards and does not go “plop” when
you press it, the jar is airtight. If not, you need to find another one.
2. Start by marking and drilling the holes in the lid for the pieces of cork, as shown in
the image (Figure 2.2.2). Try to ensure that they are far enough apart and not too large.
3. Next, cut the cork in half and drill a hole in the center of each half to feed the screws
through. It is important to drill a hole slightly smaller in diameter than the screws so
that they are firmly held in place. Now you can insert them into the holes in the lid of
the jar and seal them with hot glue or bathroom sealant.
4. Strip, braid and wind a piece of wire around the head of each screw. If you or anyone
you know can solder, you can solder the wire onto the screw for a stronger connection
(as shown in the images). If not, just leave them wound around the head. Now you can
screw them into the cork pieces in the lid of the jar.
5. Next, take the pencil lead, being careful not to snap it or damage it. You must use
gloves for this stage to protect the lead and prevent it from becoming greasy. Now

2.2 Experiment: Reinventing Edison: Build A Lightbulb
attach the lead to the screws. This
can be done using the metal parts
from inside two connector strip and
another piece of wire or a paper clip.
If you do not have any of these, use
stripped, braided wire (again, use
gloves to keep the wire clean).
6. Carefully pass the pencil lead through
the flame of a lighter to burn off any
particles that may remain on its
surface. Stick a small piece of candle
to the bottom of the jar, light it, then
carefully close the whole assembly.
7. Once the candle has gone out, leave
the jar to cool. Your “lightbulb” is
Figure 2.2.2 Assembling the lightbulb.
now ready to use.
8. Connect the heads of the screws on
the lid to the switch and battery using
crocodile clips.
Explanation
The graphite filament acts as a resistor as
the electricity flows through it and starts
to heat up. As the temperature of the fila-
ment starts to rise, the spectrum emitted
also starts changing from infrared towards
higher frequencies of visible light.
Tips
You can fit a dimmer switch to change
how the bulb behaves.

• What advantage do you think a tung-
sten filament can provide compared
to the one Edison used or the one we
used?
• Is this an efficient way to produce vis-
ible light? Figure 2.2.3 Testing the final assembly
• If you look through a spectroscope, Photograph: in house.
what do you think the spectrum you
see would be like?
Related experiments
Experiment 2.3 Detecting light with semiconductors

Objective 1: Understand the concepts of electroluminescence and
Detecting photoconductivity.
Light with Objective 2: Use the presence of both phenomena in LEDs for
them to act as both light sources and light sensors.
Semiconductors
MATERIAL • Connection board
• Arduino Uno (breadboard)
• Sensors: 3 × 5 mm infrared, red or • Connector wires
LED, photodetectors, yellow LEDs • USB cable
45 min (+) electroluminescence
• Indicators: 3 visible-light LEDs • Computer running
• 3 x 300−350-Ohm resistors Arduino IDE software
A
n LED operates based on a com-
bination of electrons and empty
spaces; where there is no electron,
we have a positive charge. The electromag-
netic energy released during this process is
converted into a photon capable of emit-
ting light on three wavelengths (red, green
and blue; blue received the Nobel Prize for
Physics in 2014, finally creating the sought-
after white light in combination with the
other two).
However, LEDs can be used for more
than just a source of light, as they also have
the wonderful property of transmitting
electricity—consuming very little energy
in both processes. Let’s explore these two Figure 2.3.1 p-n junction diagram in a diode.
properties. Source: Internally created.
Procedure
Before we begin, and to help with the experiment, it is important to make some technical
observations. We will be using a total of six LEDs. Three of them will act as sensors, and
the other three as indicators. The Arduino and its program will help us to pair up “sensor”
LEDs and “indicator” LEDs.
1. First, connect the negative rail on the breadboard to the GND pin on the Arduino
(Figure 2.3.2).
2. Connect the short pin (cathode) to each of the LED indicators of the negative rail on the
breadboard and a connector wire to the other end of each one. Fit a resistor between
one of these connections. In this case, it doesn’t matter which one.
3. Connect the wires from the previous step to pins 9, 10, 11 on the Arduino Uno board.
4. Next, connect the sensor LEDs directly to pins 2 to 7 of the Arduino: Connect the
cathodes (short) to the Arduino’s pin number 3, 4 and 7 and anodes (long) to number
2, 5 and 6 (2.3.3).
5. Now the Arduino can be programmed using the script provided at the end of these
instructions.

2.3 Experiment: Detecting Light with Semiconductors
6. The assembly is now complete. You can check how if you pass your finger over the
sensor LEDs, they detect a shadow in that position and the corresponding indicator
LED lights up. It is important that the room where you complete the experiment is
continuously well lit in order for the device to operate properly (Figure 2.3.4).
Figure 2.3.2 LED function diagram (left) and circuit diagram (right).
Source: Adapted from SPARKFUN (left). Internally created using Fritzing (right).
Figure 2.3.3 Actual assembly connected to a Figure 2.3.4 Assembly in operation.

computer for programming. Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica (CSIC)/IOSA.
Explanation
LEDs change their electrical properties depending on the amount and type of light they
receive, part of a phenomenon known as photoconductivity. We are making use of this
feature to use them as sensors.

By programming the Arduino, we have instructed the “sensor” LEDs to make their cor-
responding “indicator” LEDs light up (applying a difference in power between the pins)
when they detect a change in light levels (the Arduino detects a change in the difference of
power between the pins).
Tips
• Try shining light directly over the LEDs using a lamp. This improves the sensor func-
tion as it creates a greater contrast between light levels.
• If the device stops working correctly due to sudden changes in the surrounding light
levels, press the reset button on the Arduino.

• Why do you think we specify the color of the LEDs we use as sensors? Do you think it
may have some bearing on their operation or sensitivity as sensors? If so, what do you
think it is and what do you think is the reason for this?
• Do you think it is essential to use a microcontroller like the one we used to observe
this property of LEDs? Why do you think we have used it?
Related experiments
Experiment 2.2 Reinventing Edison: build a lightbulb
Figure 2.3.5 Painting with LED light.


Code

Objective 1: Understand the properties of laser light.
An Extraordinary Objective 2: Understand the difference between laser light and
Light: The Laser other light sources.
MATERIAL
• A white LED flashlight • A sheet of matte black or
Laser, light source, • Red or green laser pointer white paper
10 min (+) diffraction • An LED flashlight, the same • Graph paper
color as the laser
• A cheap diffraction grating
A
laser is a truly extraordinary light source.
In this experiment, we will delve into
what makes it unique compared to other
sources.
The beam generated by a laser is monochro-
matic (just one color, or just one wavelength),
collimated (it consists of parallel “rays”) and
coherent (its light waves have a constant phase
relation).
In this experiment, we will see these three
main characteristics of lasers.
Figure 2.4.1 Laser emission at 480-nm
wavelength (blue).
Procedure Photograph: in house.
1. Monochromatic: Hold the diffraction grating
up close to your eye and look through at the
sheet of paper. Shine the different lights onto
the paper (white flashlight, red/green and
laser). Observe the different patterns created
(Figure 2.4.2).
2. Collimated: Stick the graph paper to a wall.
Shine the different light sources onto it
from several different distances (e.g., 10 cm,
50 cm and 1 m), ensuring that the beam is
perpendicular to the wall. Notice how the
light spots on the wall change as you get Figure 2.4.2 Procedure for seeing diffraction
further away: you can mark them on the patterns.
paper, if you like, or see how they move by Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica
holding the flashlights at the same time as (CSIC)/IOSA.
you move farther away.
3. Coherent: Hold the laser and the colored flashlight close to a piece of paper, with a
small angle between them. Turn the flashlight on and observe the light.
Explanation
Monochromatic: A diffraction grating consists of a large number of lines too small to be
seen by the naked eye and that can diffract light, i.e., separate its components depending

2.4 Experiment: An Extraordinary Light: The Laser
on their different wavelengths. The patterns you can see as the light passes through a dif-
fraction grating have a patch in the middle similar to the original light source, and two
wings towards the sides where the different wavelengths (colors) can be seen.
In the case of white light, you can see the different colors of the rainbow in larger bands.
The spectrum from the flashlight is continuous along the visible electromagnetic spectrum.
Using the colored flashlight, we can still see the ribbed wings with the different wavelengths,
although they are all in the red area (or green, depending on the flashlight used).
When using the laser, the wings are no longer there, and only spots can be seen; this
indicates that the spectrum emitted is very narrow, corresponding to a single wavelength
(or very few). We have seen how, unlike other sources of light, a laser is monochromatic
(from the Greek “mono” (one) and “chroma” (color)), although it is possible to make lasers
that emit more wavelengths (Figure 2.4.3).
Figure 2.4.3 Diffraction of white light (left), a green laser pointer (middle) and red LED (right).
Collimated: You will have noticed that as you move further away from the wall, the
areas lit by the flashlights get much wider than the one for the laser. Light from a flashlight
diverges from its source, while collimated laser light does not diverge or converge: its rays
travel in parallel, in a single direction. Laser light is produced in a cavity lined by two
mirrors, so that only the light travelling in a well-defined direction will leave it, creating a
collimated beam.
Coherent: Looking closely at the light projected, you will have noticed that the spots
caused by the laser pointer and the LED are different, despite being the same color. Laser
light is characterised by its shiny, well-defined spot. The projection from the LED is
brighter in the center and less so around the edge. You already know that light travels in
wave form. These waves are said to be coherent when they have the same frequency and
a constant phase. Think of a wave with peaks (maximum levels) and troughs (minimum
levels): if two or more waves overlap perfectly so that all the peaks and troughs are in the
same position as they travel, then they are coherent waves. This also increases their power,
whereas if the peaks and troughs are not in synch they can cancel each other out. Lasers
emit coherent radiation. This is why it doesn’t seem to emit “brighter, more defined light”.
LEDs are not coherent, and therefore the edges of the projection on the paper are duller.
Tips
Would you like to create a starry sky? Place two or more diffraction gratings over each
other with the lines in different directions (this will also work using a very fine woven silk
handkerchief) and point a laser beam through it towards the ceiling.

2.4 Experiment: An Extraordinary Light: The Laser
What are the main characteristics of the light generated by a laser that distinguish it from
other light sources?
Related experiments
Experiment 1.5 What is the thickness of my hair?

Objective 1: Repeat the experiment Herschel used to discover
Beyond the Visible: infrared radiation.
IR Radiation Objective 2: Understand the relationship between temperature

and radiation.
MATERIAL
Infrared light, • Glass prism • Carboard box (or
30 min (+) Herschel’s experiment • 3 alcohol thermometers (for something similar to use
measuring air temperature) under the prism)
• Permanent black ink or marker, • Adhesive tape
or black insulating tape. • Scissors
I
n the year 1800, William Herschel realized, while observing the spectrum of sunlight
through different filters, that depending on their color, the amount of heat transmit-
ted was different. It was while he was trying to understand this phenomenon that, by
chance, he discovered infrared radiation, a type of radiation on the electromagnetic spec-
trum located “beyond red”, which cannot be seen with the naked eye.
Herschel managed to detect it because it is associated with thermal radiation: part of the
radiation is emitted in the form of heat, which can be measured using a thermometer, as
we will do in this experiment.
Procedure
1. This experiment should be completed outside or
close to a window on a sunny day without clouds
or mist, as this might reduce the chances of seeing
the phenomenon.
2. Color or paint the thermometer bulbs or cover
them with black tape so that they absorb more
heat. Stick them together with adhesive tape, with
all the temperature gauges lined up.
3. You will need to create a support for the prism
on the side of the box nearest the sun. Cut out a
piece from the top edge, slightly shorter than the
largest axis of the prism and quite deep to allow
the prism to spin. You can create a different kind
of frame for the prism if you prefer.
4. Place the prism on its support frame. Adjust its
position to obtain the widest possible spectrum (you
already know how a prism works): you can direct
the spectrum into the shadows inside the box, but
it is easier to get a wider spectrum if you project
it a bit further, e.g., onto the floor or a table. Make Figure 2.5.1 Sir William Herschel
sure that the prism is not moving. and Caroline Herschel. William is polishing a
5. Place the thermometers in the shade to measure telescopic instrument, probably a mirror, while
the ambient temperature. Caroline Herschel adds lubricant.
6. Next position the thermometers where the Source: Color lithograph by A. Diethe, c 1896.
R. Burgess, Portraits of Doctors & Scientists in the
spectrum spreads out, so that the first bulb
Wellcome Institute, London, 1973, no. 1379.10.
lines up with blue, the middle one with yellow

2.5 Experiment: Beyond the Visible: IR Radiation
and the third is a little
beyond the visible red area
(depending on the size of the
thermometers this may be
difficult, but the important
thing is to make sure that one
is a bit beyond the red light)
as shown in Figure 2.5.2.
7. Wait for around five minutes,
then note the temperature on
each thermometer.
Figure 2.5.2 Prism placed on top of the box, receiving direct sunlight.
The thermometers are positioned on the ground so that each one receives light
Explanation from different colors (left), and the thermometers are positioned in line with the
Although you may see slight dif- visible spectrum (right).
ferences due to experiment con- Photograph: Eliezer Sánchez González/Cultura Científica (CSIC)/IOSA.
ditions, you will see that the
temperatures on the thermometers tend to increase from blue towards red and beyond.
The thermometer positioned a little beyond the red light will show the highest tempera-
ture reading. Although the naked eye cannot perceive anything, by reading the thermom-
eter we can deduce that at this point there is also some kind of radiation with its own
energy; it is reflected and refracted through the prism in the same way as visible light. This
is the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The thermometers (or rather the glass they are made from) absorb more energy, and
therefore get warmer, in the red and infrared part of the spectrum (with longer wavelengths)
than in the blue part (shorter wavelengths). When light passes through the prism, it is not
refracted linearly. As a result, the infrared part is more concentrated as it leaves the prism
and registers a higher temperature. Today, we know that the spectrum of sunlight has its
maximum energy peak at a different point, matching yellow light, not in the infrared part.
However, this “mistake” does not make Herschel’s discovery any less significant.
Tips
If you have more precise thermometers, you can try using four instead of three. This means
you can take a more accurate temperature reading of the absorption of the different color
light. You could also try using adhesive thermometers (usually designed for fish tanks).

• Try to repeat the experiment at different times of the day or by slightly changing the
position of the thermometers with respect to the spectrum. Do you notice any differ-
ence? What conclusions can be drawn?
• What is the relationship between temperature and color (or, rather, electromagnetic
spectrum, since we cannot see it completely)?
Related experiments

Chapter 3
Optical instruments
I
n this chapter, we will find out how rays of light behave when they pass through the
different elements that make up an optical system: lenses, mirrors and prisms. In other
words, we will look at the deviation of the rays of light as they pass through different
items. This examination helps us to predict the characteristics of an image formed by the
combination of certain optical elements, e.g., in the case of a microscope, where the image
is inverted and larger than the real size object we are looking at.
This means that we will not be looking at phenomena related to the behavior of light
as a wave, although they may actually be present (interference, diffraction, etc.). Nor are
we going to take into consideration the intensity of light; we will concentrate on describ-
ing these properties based solely on the path followed by the rays of light. We will do this
using what is known as geometrical optics, with calculations, or graphs, to work out the
path of light through certain optical elements or a combination of these (optical systems).
Using geometrical optics, we will discover the key characteristics of basic optical ele-
ments and systems, as well as more complex systems made from a combination of differ-
ent simple ones, such as cameras, telescopes and microscopes.
Basic concepts
It is very important to know what type of image an optical element will form of an object,
as it helps us understand how the world will look through that instrument.
An object either emits light (light source) or reflects light from a separate light source
in the form of rays. These rays travel in a straight line through a homogeneous and isotro-
pic medium, which is most common, until they reach a medium with a different index of
refraction. As we saw in Chapter 1, the surface between the two media with differing indi-
ces of refraction will refract or reflect the rays of light that have not been absorbed; they
will change direction according to the law of refraction (Snell’s law) or the law of reflec-
tion (angle of reflection = angle of incidence), respectively.
When we study the image formed of an object by an optical element, it is not enough to
examine a single ray of light. We need to study at least two rays as the image will form at
the point where two rays leaving the same point on the original object cross over, having
passed through all the elements making up the optical system in question. In reality, not
only two rays leave each point on the object but also what is known as a stroke of light,
i.e., many rays of light from the same point on the object that fill up the optical element as
they pass through it and then reflect or refract to form the corresponding image. Studying
the propagation of these strokes of light, made up of rays, allows us to predict that the
61

image of an object created by an optical system or element will be like: position, nature
(real or virtual), relative size (magnified or reduced) and orientation (real or inverted).
The characteristic of light rays that provides us with information about the position of the
object they have come from or the image they are forming is the vergence. If the rays spread
out or separate as they travel, we say that they diverge (like the rays leaving the points of
the object in Figure 3.1, left), coming from a common starting point and with a negative
vergence. If, however, the rays in a single stroke of light draw closer to each other as they
travel, angled towards a single point, we say they converge, and the vergence is said to be
positive. In principle, only optical elements with a curved dioptric can change the vergence
of the light passing through it or reflected off it. Vergence is measured in diopters, which is
the inverse of the unit for distance, the meter (D = 1/m). So, if we know the vergence of light
as it enters or leaves an optical element or system, it is easy to determine the position of the
object from which the light comes or the image that the light is creating. If the rays of light
remain parallel to each other as they travel, i.e., they do not get closer or farther apart, we say
that they are collimated, and they come from (or are travelling to) an infinitely distant point.
The easiest way to understand how images are formed is to work with a very familiar
element, such as a convergent lens like the one in Figure 3.1, where we see a cross-section
of this kind of lens. If we place an object such as a pencil in front of the lens at the right
distance, the strokes of light leaving the points on the object refract as they pass through
the lens, converging as they leave it, and form an image at the point where rays from the
same stroke of light meet (or converge). We can find this position by moving a screen (or
sheet of paper) away from the lens until the image comes into view.
In most cases, the object is real: it is placed in front of the lens (on the left if we are
looking at the cross-section), and it emits divergent rays of light towards the optical ele-
ment. However, an optical element or system does not need to have a “physical” object in
front of it to form an image. All it needs is to receive divergent rays of light that appear
to come from an object to form an image of that “real” object. An example of a real object
for the optical system we use to see—our eyes—that is not physically present, is a holo-
gram. A hologram is a photographic image that, when lit up properly, reflects or emits light
that looks like it comes from a three-dimensional object, which is not actually there. In
Experiment 3.1, we explain how to build a reflective hologram.
We say the image is real when we can observe it formed on a screen. In these cases, the
image is always on the other side of the lens in question (on the right when looking at the
cross-section), at the point where the strokes of light from the object converge after passing
through the lens. However, this is not always the case. If we have a divergent system, or
the object is too close to a converging lens, then the rays diverge as they leave the lens. If
we extend the light backwards, we can find a point where they cross (Figure 3.1, right), but
Figure 3.1 Path of light through a convergent optical element that forms the image of an object. The image and object
planes are perpendicular to the optical axis and parallel to the surface of the lens (left). Magnified virtual image of an object using
a convergent lens. In this case, the observer is on the left of the image (right).
Source: Camilo Florian Baron.

this point, where the light appears to be coming from, is in front of the lens. It is impos-
sible to use a screen to see this image as it is in front of the lens and therefore would block
out the light coming from the original object. In this case, we say that the image is virtual.
An example of a virtual image is the augmented image we see through a magnifying
glass; although the image is virtual, our eyes (an optical system) can make the divergent
light exiting the magnifying glass converge on our retina, forming a real image, which is
the one we can see (see Chapter 4).
The space in front of the relevant optical element, where the real object is positioned, is
called the object space, while the space behind the lens, where the real images are located,
is call the image space.
What elements reflect light? Mirrors

As we have seen, when light meets a medium with a different index of refraction, part of
that light is reflected, part is refracted, and part is absorbed. Mirrors are just optical ele-
ments that reflect a high proportion of the light they receive. In general, the mirrors we
use every day are made using a highly reflective metallic surface behind a protective glass
sheet.
All mirrors work using the law of reflection that we have already seen: when a ray of
light meets the surface of the mirror, it is reflected in the opposite direction at the same
angle to the norm (perpendicular) as the one where it met the surface. Depending on the
shape of the mirror’s surface (flat, curved, etc.), the norm will be different for each of the
points of impact, and therefore the effect of the mirror on the rays of light, particularly its
vergence, will also be different (Figure 3.2).
The left figure shows the path of the light as it meets a flat mirror from different points
on the object. To establish the direction of the reflected light, just trace the normal at each
point of incidence, then trace the light reflected at the same angle as it hits the surface. As
we have already mentioned, to find the image we need to see the point where the reflected
rays of the light converge.
A flat mirror does not change the vergence of the light, and as the rays from a real
object placed in front of the mirror are divergent as they meet the surface, they also diverge
when reflected. This means that the image we see is virtual, and in order to see where
the reflected light seems to be coming from we have to extend them backwards. For this
reason, when we look into a flat mirror it looks like the image is “behind” or “inside” the
glass.
Figure 3.2 When we look into a mirror, what we see is always a virtual image. In the picture on the left, with a flat mirror,
it looks like the pencil is on the other side of the mirror at the same distance. In the middle and on the right, we can see how the
image of the same object is formed using a concave and convex mirror, respectively.
Chapter 3 Optical instruments 63

Also, the image created by a flat mirror
has the same size and orientation as the
object, and it is located at the same dis-
tance from the mirror as the virtual image
reflected by the mirror. The image is par-
tially inverted: left becomes right, but there
is no vertical inversion. In Experiment 3.2,
we will build our own periscope, an opti-
cal instrument that makes is possible to see
things when there is something in the way
of our line of vision, using two flat mirrors.
Figure 3.3 Patent for a submarine periscope Curved or spherical mirrors also obey the
submitted by Sarah Mather in 1845. law of reflection, but unlike flat mirrors, the
Source: MujeresConCiencia, https://mujeresconciencia.com/.
normals at each point of their surface are not
parallel to each other. In the case of spheri-
cal curved surfaces, the normals perpendic-
Did you know...? ular to the surface pass through the center
of curvature. This is why spherical mirrors
Sarah Mather was the inventor of the change the vergence of light and as a result
underwater periscope, which she patented the reflected image is not the same size as
in 1845. The periscope was a key part of the object but larger or smaller, depending
the history of underwater navigation, as it on the type of curve, concave or convex, and
coulfd be used to observe the surface of the the position of the object (Figure 3.2).
water from a submarine. Before describing the effect of these kinds
of mirrors on light, we need to define some
The first record of a periscope in use dates
of the elements involved.
back to 1864, when the Chief US Army
As with any sphere, the center of cur-
Engineer Thomas Doughty used an iron pipe
vature (C) of a spherical mirror is the equi-
and some mirrors on board an expedition to
distant point of all spherical surface points.
the Red River.
Any line running from a point on the surface
to the center of curvature is called the radius
of curvature (R) and is perpendicular to the surface at that point.
The optical axis of a mirror (or any optical element) is the horizontal line passing
through its center of curvature. The point where the optical axis crosses the surface of the
mirror is the apex.
In concave mirrors, the inner area of the sphere forming the surface is the reflective
part, and its center of curvature is therefore in front of the mirror (on the left of the sec-
tion as shown in Figure 3.2, center). Concave mirrors are convergent, i.e., the incident
light on the mirror will converge more after reflection on its surface. In the case of inci-
dent rays parallel to its optical axis (zero vergence), the reflected light converges on a
point on the optical axis in front of the mirror, halfway between the mirror surface and
its center of curvature. This is the focal point or mirror focus, represented on our dia-
grams by the letter F. Applying the principle of reversibility of light, all incident rays on
the surface coming from the focal point will be reflected parallel to the optical axis. The
distance from the apex of the mirror to the focal point is called focal length, represented
by the letter f.
The focal length of a mirror is half the length of its radius of curvature (f = R/2).
The capacity of a mirror to change the vergence of incident light after it is reflected
is what we call its power, denoted by the letter F. Like vergence, it is measured in
diopters, and it is calculated as the inverse of the focal length of the mirror, in meters
(F = 1/f). The shorter this focal length (and therefore the radius of the mirror), the greater
its power, i.e., a convergent mirror (positive power) will converge light more, whereas

a divergent mirror (negative power) will diverge them more. Concave mirrors are con-
vergent mirrors. When the object is farther away than its focal point, they form a real,
inverted image that may be larger, smaller or the same size as the object, depending on
its position. When the object is closer to the mirror than its focal point, the resulting
image is virtual, non- inverted and augmented. The magnifying mirrors we often find in
bathrooms for shaving or make-up are concave mirrors. Concave mirrors are also used to
project light, such as in car headlights.
Convex mirrors, where the reflective surface is on the outer side of the sphere making
up the surface, are divergent mirrors. In other words, they change the vergence of incident
rays, making them diverge more as they are reflected (Figure 3.2, right). In this case, the
center of curvature of the mirror is behind the reflective surface, like its focal point, half-
way between the apex of the mirror and its center of curvature (f = R/2). When rays paral-
lel to the optical axis meet a concave mirror, they are reflected as divergent. If we were to
extend the rays beyond the surface of the mirror, they appear to come from the focal point,
which in this case is virtual, as it is “behind” the mirror. Due to the principle of revers-
ibility of light, and just as we saw in the case of concave mirrors, incident rays meeting
the mirror in the direction of the focal point will be reflected parallel to the optical axis.
The power of a divergent mirror is considered negative, and the higher the absolute value
is, the shorter its focal length (F = 1/f). Convex mirrors form a virtual image that is smaller
than the real object reflected.
Elements that refract light: flat optics, prisms and lenses

As we saw in Chapter 1, when light travels towards a medium with a different refractive
index, it changes direction. This phenomenon is known as refraction, and it is described
mathematically under Snell’s law that, if we know the angle of incidence and the refractive
indices of both media, we can determine the direction of the refracted rays.
The interface between two materials of a different reflective index is called a dioptric
interface. Depending on whether the interface is flat or curved, they are called plane or
curved interfaces, respectively. Just as we saw with flat mirrors, a flat interface does not
change the vergence of light rays. This means that the divergent rays meeting a flat inter-
face from a real object in its object space will also be divergent, and they will form a vir-
tual image. If we extend the rays backwards to find the point where the image appears to
form, it is on the same side of the interface as the object. A simple, common example of
this is a window. The light passing through it practically doesn’t divert from its course,
but if we look through it at a flat angle, the real object and the image we see are in dif-
ferent positions. This effect can be understood as the refraction in a plane-parallel sheet
(Figure 3.4, left).
The effect of a flat interface on rays of light from an object is to change direction towards
the normal if the object is surrounded by the lower refraction medium, or away from the
normal if it is the other way around. If the object is surrounded by a medium with a greater
refractive index, the virtual image formed by the interface will be closer than the object
itself. This can be seen by tracing the rays from the object to the surface; as they refract
towards the medium with the lower index—where we are looking—they will move away
from the normal. If we extend these rays backwards, they will cross over between the sur-
face and the object. This is why swimming pools look shallower than they really are: the
bottom of the pool is under water (n = 1.33), which has a greater refraction index than air
(n = 1), from where we are observing the refracted light. The truth is we are not looking
at the bottom of the pool but a virtual image of it created by the flat interface (water–air),
which is closer to the surface of the water than the bottom of the pool.

However, in cases where
the object is surrounded by
the medium with the lower
refraction index and we are
looking at it from the medium
of greater refraction, the vir-
tual image will form behind
the object. The rays, which in
this case refract towards the
medium of higher refraction
index that we are observing
from, bend towards the nor-
Figure 3.4 Refraction of a ray of light in a flat lens (flat-parallel trans- mal, and by extending them
parent sheet) (left) and refraction of a ray of white light through a combination backwards they cross at a
of different flat dioptrics positioned at angles to each other—a prism (right). point behind the object. The
position of the virtual image
depends on the proportion
between the refraction indices of the two media and the distance from the object.
If we combine two flat interfaces to form an angle, separating the medium (e.g., glass)
between the surfaces from another (generally air), we have an optical prism. The effect
of a prism on the light passing through it is lateral displacement, and a change in direc-
tion. This is proportional to the angle between the interfaces (apical angle) and the ratio
between the refraction index of the prism and the medium surrounding it. Assuming that
the medium is air and the refractive index of the prism is greater than 1, the rays will
be diverted in the opposite direction to the apical angle, where the base of the prism is
located. If we observe the path of two rays of light from the same object passing through
the prism, we can find the position of the resulting image, which is virtual, located in
the object space and displaced laterally towards the apex of the prism (joint between the
two flat interfaces). If when observing an object we place a prism in front of our eye, it
looks like the object jumps towards the apex of the prism, as what we are then seeing is
the image formed by the prism.
Prisms (Figure 3.4, right) can also be used for their reflective properties, when total
internal reflection takes place on one or more of its surfaces. This is the case of the prisms
used in Kepler-type telescopes to keep the final image upright.
Just as there are curved mirrors, there are curved interfaces made up of a curved separa-
tion between two media of different refraction indices.
In the case of spherical interfaces, the curved surface forms a sphere. As we saw in the
case of mirrors, this curvature allows optical elements to change the vergence of incident
rays, in this case via refraction. This property is what we call refractive power (F), and it
depends on the difference between the refraction indices separating the surface and its
radius of curvature:
F = (n'− n)/R
The greater the difference between the refraction indices, or the smaller the radius of
curvature of the surface, the greater the refractive power, i.e., a convergent interface (posi-
tive power) will converge rays more strongly, while a divergent one (negative power) will
diverge them more.
A spherical interface is convergent (positive power) if the convex side of the sphere is
in contact with the lower refraction index and divergent (negative power) if it is the con-
cave side of the sphere.

Spherical interfaces have two focal points:
• The focal point (or focus) of an image is the point on the optical axis where the rays
meeting the interface parallel to its optical axis converge (or appear to come from)
after refraction
• The focal point (or focus) of an object is the point on the axis where the rays that pass
(or point in that direction) as they meet the lens will emerge in parallel, after refraction.
In the case of a convergent lens, the focal points are real (Figure 3.5, left). This means that
the object focal point is in the object space and the image focal point is in the image space.
However, in the case of a divergent lens, the focal points are virtual: parallel incident rays
diverge after refraction, and to find a focal point we need to extend them backwards into the
image space (Figure 3.5, right). In the case of the object focal point, in order to obtain paral-
lel refracted rays we need them to be convergent as they meet the lens, and when we extend
them beyond the surface of the lens they must converge in the image space.
The distances from the apex of the interface (intersection with its optical axis) to the
object focal point and the image focal point are the object focal length (f) and the image
focal length (f'), respectively. These distances can be calculated using the refractive power
of the interface (F) and the refractive indices for the object space, in front of the interface
(n) and the image space, situated behind the interface (n') thus:
f = −n/F and f' = n'/F
respectively. The object and image focal distances are therefore not the same, as the refrac-
tive indices are different: F = −n/f = n'/f' . The shorter the focal length is, the greater the
power of the lens.
As for the image formed by a convergent interface, when the object is placed farther
away from the interface than the object focus, the image formed is real, inverted and larger,
the same or smaller than the object, depending on its position. If the object is closer to the
mirror than its focal point, the resulting image is virtual, non-inverted and augmented.
Convex mirrors form a virtual image that is smaller than the real object the reflect.
A lens is an optical element formed by two interfaces, generally curved, which separate
the material from which the lens is made from the exterior. The effect of a lens on the ver-
gence of light, i.e., its refractive power depends on the refractive index of its two interfaces,
Figure 3.5 Refraction of a beam of light through a converging spherical lens (left) and a diverging spherical lens (right).

and in the case of thick lenses, their depth. Depending on the sum of the refractive powers
of the interfaces making up the lens, we have convergent lenses (positive refractive power)
or divergent lenses (negative refractive power).
Convergent lenses (Figure 3.6, left) are thicker in the middle than at the edges; they can
form real images that can be seen on a screen, and when looking through them, objects
look bigger. Divergent lenses (Figure 3.6, right), however, are thicker at the edge than in the
middle; they generally form virtual images, and things look smaller when looking through
them.
There are also different combinations of concave and convex dioptric interfaces that
result in convergent or divergent lenses. This is what is known as the “shape” of the lens,
and each one has a different name. As we saw with curved dioptric interfaces, a conver-
gent lens will converge rays of light parallel to the optical axis inciding on the surface in
the direction of the image focus, located behind the lens. In the case of divergent lenses,
inciding rays parallel to the axis are refracted as divergent, and they seem to come from the
image focus, located in front of the lens in this object space, as it is virtual.
When working with lenses, we usually forget about the focal points of each of the inter-
faces, and define an object focus and an image focus for the lens, which covers the effect
of both surfaces. These focal points are both located outside the lens, meaning that if the
lens is in air, we can calculate its power using the position of the image focal point, i.e.,
the image focal length, F = 1/f '.
In most cases, for simplicity, we can assume that the thickness of the lenses is so
small that the front and back surfaces are practically alongside each other. In this case,
we say that they are thin lenses and both surfaces are drawn as a single line where light
refracts.
In Experiment 3.3, we will build several optical elements, and we will see how they
affect light. In Experiment 3.4, we will use small spherical lenses to look at tiny objects.
What is ray tracing?

Ray tracing is a graphic technique that allows us to work out the characteristics of the
image of an object by tracing the path of the rays as they pass through or are reflected
off the elements they encounter until the final image is formed (Figure 3.8). Ray tracing
Figure 3.6 Rays of light passing through a converging lens (left) and a diverging lens (right).

requires a scale drawing, although the
vertical and horizontal scales do not
need to be the same. A ray tracing needs
to include:
• The optical axis, which is a straight

horizontal line that matches the sym-
metrical axis of the optical system and
passes through the centers of curva-
ture of the elements making up that
system. The optical axis is perpen-
dicular to all surfaces, and the light
inciding in the direction of the optical
axis does not change course.
• The object is normally represented Figure 3.7 Arthropods like this fly Calliphora vomitoria
by a vertical line perpendicular to have compound eyes, i.e., their visual system is made up of
the optical axis, with an arrowhead to many micro-lenses.
show whether the image is inverted Photograph: J. J. Harrison. Wikimedia Commons.
or not in comparison with the object.
The size of the object is generally mea-
sured from the optical axis to the point Did you know...?
furthest from the axis and is denoted
using the letter y. Converging lenses are used to correct
• The optical element(s) is represented hypermetropia, and divergent lenses for
with a vertical line perpendicular to myopia. If when we look at someone’s eyes
the optical axis. The point where the through their glasses and they seem bigger,
line crosses the optical axis is the apex the lenses are convergent and so we know
of the surface/lens. We also need to that person is long-sighted. If their eyes look
include the focal points of the optical smaller, the lenses are divergent, and they
element and its center of curvature. are short-sighted.
Instead of having a single lens in their eyes,
Each of these elements must be positioned
like humans, many insects have a system of
at the appropriate distance as per the rel-
micro-lenses. This gives them a larger field of
evant scale (vertical or horizontal, if they
vision. Humans have managed to reproduce
are not the same). Once we have our scale
this system and apply it in compound
drawing with the necessary elements, we
cameras as we will see in Chapter 4.
move on to the ray tracing itself.
The idea is to trace certain rays of
light, called principal rays. These princi-
pal rays form part of the same stroke of light, which departs the point on the object that
is furthest from the optical axis, and although there are three principal rays, it is only
necessary to trace two to find, at the point where they cross over after passing through
the optical system, the corresponding point on the image, which is furthest from the
optical axis. The principal rays are:
• A ray inciding on the optical surface parallel to the optical axis, which travels towards
(divergent) or through (convergent) the image focal point.
• A ray that, when it meets an optical element, crosses (convergent) or travels towards
(divergent) the object focal point, parallel to the optical axis.
• The nodal ray is one that passes through the system without changing course. In the
case of a curved mirror or lens, this is the ray that travels towards or crosses the center
of curvature (normal ray). In the case of a lens, this is the ray that travels towards the

so-called optical center of the lens, which in
a thin lens is the intersection of its surface
with the optical axis.
Characteristics and types

of optical systems
It is sometimes difficult to obtain the
desired type of image, in high quality and
under certain conditions, using a single
optical element. In these cases, it is pos-
sible to use a combination of optical ele-
ments; this is known as an optical system.
Figure 3.8 Tracing of three rays as they pass through An optical system can consist of any set of
a converging lens forming the image of an object positioned at reflective surfaces (mirrors) or refractive
a distance d0 and a distance d1 after the lens. surfaces (e.g., lenses) in any order and if
Source: Camilo Florian Baron. it has both types it is called a catadioptric
system. In Experiment 3.5, we will build
catoptric and dioptric optical systems,
which we can use to make things “disappear”. The ray tracing method we saw earlier
also applies to optical systems. All we have to do is remember that rays do not stop trav-
elling when the first image is formed; they continue in a straight line until they meet the
next optical element. This means that the image formed by an element in the system is,
in turn, the object for the next element to receive the rays.
Sometimes the convergent rays from an optical element meet the next one before
they form a real image. As a result, the rays inciding on the second optical element,
instead of divergent—as we saw for a real object—will be convergent. If we extend
these rays beyond the surface of the optical element, we can see how they cross in the
image space to form a virtual object.
When working with an optical system, we talk about power, lengths and focal points
for the whole system. We only consider these characteristics for each individual element
in specific applications, such as an item to item ray tracing. There are other characteristics
that define an optical element and its application, some of which we have already seen in
reference to optical elements.
One example is lateral magnification, which is the quotient between the size of the
image produced by an optical system (yi) and that of the corresponding object (y):
yi
m=
y
i.e., indicating if the image is larger (m > 1), the same size (m = 1) or smaller than the
corresponding object (m < 1 in absolute figures). The magnification sign also indicates the
orientation of the image in comparison to the object: m > 0 if they are the same, and m < 0,
i.e., if it is inverted (m < 0) or straight (m > 1).
The field of view of an optical system is the extension of the object that appears
in the image produced by the system. The optical system acts as a window through
which we see the object, and depending on the characteristics of that window (size,
distance, position), we will see more or less of the object. In general, the more magni-
fication an optical system has, the smaller its visual field. It can be measured in mm
on the object or in degrees (the subtended angle of the object and the optical system)
(Figure 3.9).

Figure 3.9 Field of vision with a camera fitted with different lenses. The longer the lens is, the smaller the field of vision.
Source: Adapted from quecamarareflex.com
A lensless camera: how does a camera obscura work?

Once of the simplest ways of understanding how an image is formed is using a camera
obscura (Figure 3.10). A camera obscura is an optical system...with no optical elements! It
consists solely of a very small hole, millimeters in diameter, and a translucent screen for
observing the image that is formed.
How is an image formed just by light passing through a small hole? You can under-
stand how this image is formed if you consider that light travels from each point on the
Figure 3.10 Diagram showing the rays of light passing through the aperture of the camera obscura. The image forms
inside the camera, and the result is an inverted image (left). Image of the camera obscura in the Duke’s Palace in Béjar (Spain) (right).
Source: Adapted from www.scratchpixel.com (left).
Photograph: Manuel Garrote Prieto, department of Tourism at the Local Council of Béjar (right).

object in all directions. Only one stroke of light from each point on the object passes
through the hole and continues travelling in a straight line towards the screen, where it
forms a “patch” of light representing the image “point” corresponding to the point on the
image where the rays originated. The smaller the hole is, the smaller the patch of light.
(in reality, there is a limit to the size of the orifice, beyond which the image “point” starts
to increase in size again due to diffraction, as we saw in Chapter 1), which limits the size
of the stroke of light passing through it. The narrower the beam of light is, the finer the
“points” formed on the screen, and therefore the easier it will be to see the details of
the image, which will be sharper. As the light crosses the optical axis on its path from
the object to the screen, we obtain an inverted image.
From small transparent object to full-screen image:

projection systems
An optical projection system is generally a convergent optical system, whose function is
to form the image of an object on a plane acting as a screen, meaning that the image must
be real. This requires the object to be farther away from the object focal point. Depending
on this distance, the projected image will be larger, smaller or the same size as the object
(lateral magnification), and it will be inverted.
An example of a projection system is a film or slide projector, where the image pro-
jected is larger than the object. In this type of system, it is important that the transparent
object (slide) is sufficiently and consistently lit for the image to be of high quality. The
main optical element of an illumination system is the condensing lens, which concen-
trates the light emitted by the source into a certain position, depending on the system in
question. There are two different types of illumination system: critical illumination and
Kohler illumination, shown in Figure 3.11.
A picture of the
outside world: how
does a photographic
camera work?
Once of the best-known optical
systems is the photographic cam-
era (Figure 3.12). The purpose of
cameras is to form an image of an
object over a light sensor through
an optical system. This optical
system is made up of a set of con-
vergent lenses, known collectively
as the objective, and a diaphragm
located either in the lens or the
body of the camera.
Until a few years ago, the “sen-
Figure 3.11 Diagram of different types of illumination. Köhler sor” used was photographic film
illumination uses two different kinds of diaphragms: one field diaphragm (35 mm), made from a photosensi-
and one aperture diaphragm, positioned in different places along the path tive material on which the image
of the light from light source to object. Critical illumination also uses two was recorded when it came into
apertures but fewer optical elements. contact with light. This process
Source: Camilo Florian Baron. required subsequent chemical

“developing” in order to see the final pho-
tograph. Nowadays, however, cameras have
swapped film for an electronic sensor (gen-
erally a CCD, see Chapter 2).
The element that controls when and
how much light reaches the sensor or the
film is the shutter, which remains closed
until the shot is taken. The longer the
shutter is open (technically called expo-
sure time), the more light is registered by
the sensor. There are two type of shutter:
(1) central, located between the different
lenses, made from small plates that open
and close, and (2) focal plane, so-called Figure 3.12 Cross-section (cut) of a reflex camera
as they are located very close to the pho- (SLR).
tographic sensor. The diaphragm is the
Source: Libreshot.
part of the camera that controls how much
light enters through a variable diameter
(Figure 3.13). Did you know...?
A key feature of cameras is their abil-
ity to focus on objects at different dis- Reflex cameras got their name from the
tances. This is possible thanks to the archaic word reflexion. This is because a
internal mechanism of the camera, which mirror is used so that you can see the exact
adjusts the relative distances between the image that will be recorded on the film
lenses. We can assume that each lens is through the viewfinder.
convergent with a specific aperture and
focal length. The f number denotes the
ratio between the lens focal point (f) and the aperture of the diaphragm (D), and it is gen-
erally indicated using f/4 (or 1:4), or in some cases F4, where 4 represents the f number.
The smaller the f number is, the greater the amount of light passing through the lens.
Furthermore, two lenses with different focal points but the same number f will allow
the same amount of light through. Objective specifications indicate a minimum f num-
ber, which corresponds to the maximum aperture possible for that lens. If the number
is very close to 1, the lens is considered to be highly luminous. The standard objective
Figure 3.13 Inside of a photographic camera, showing the path of light. The sensor that receives the light from the
object of interest is marked with a red box.

is one with focal points
between 45 and 60 mm, as
this approximately covers
the central angle of vision
of the human eye, which
is between 40° and 65°. It
is normally known for hav-
ing large aperture (typically
f/1.4 or f/1.8). These are
very bright lenses, and they
can therefore also be used
Figure 3.14 Drawing of the field of vision of a fish. It clearly shows that under poorly lit and indoor
there are several areas where there is binocular vision. conditions. In Experiment
Source: Camilo Florian Baron. 3.6, we will build our own
photographic camera using
a shoebox)
Did you know...?
Fish have a large field of vision in each eye (around 180º). Their Let’s look at the
eyes are positioned on either side of their heads, and although
they don’t see very well in each individual eye, the combination
stars: Observing
forms a single image at the front of the head (around 30º). This distant objects
means they can see more details than simple movements, using a telescope
distinguishing shapes and identifying their prey. The fish-eye
The telescope is an opti-
lens in photography matches only the vision in one eye, i.e.,
with a wide field of vision. cal instrument used to
make distant objects look
larger than with the naked
eye and therefore in more
detail. All telescopes consist of at least two lenses: an objective and an eyepiece. The
objective is the optical element of the telescope that directly receives the rays of light from
the object we are observing; its purpose is to form a real image of the object, called the
intermediate image, in front of the eyepiece. The objective is therefore a mirror or conver-
gent lens, depending on whether the telescope is a reflector or a refractor, respectively. It
is very important that the objective can capture a large amount of light from the object so
that, when magnified, the image is bright enough for the small details to be seen. For this
reason, objectives are the largest optical elements in the telescope. The function of the
eyepiece, the lens closest to the user’s eye, is to form a highly magnified image from the
intermediate one created by the objective. The image formed by the eyepiece is the final
one we see.
The rays of light entering a telescope, as they come from so far away that it can be con-
sidered an infinite distance, are parallel to each other. In order to see the image formed by
a telescope without having to make the effort to focus, as happens with close-up objects,
we need the rays to reach the eye parallel. When parallel rays are inciding on an optical
system and coming out the other side in parallel, we say that it is an afocal system, i.e., it
has no focal points, and does not either converge or diverge light (it has no power). In the
case of a telescope, the distance between the objective and the eyepiece (length of the tele-
scope) is equal to the sum of the focus of both lenses, so that the image focus of the objec-
tive matches that of the eyepiece. In this way, the objective makes the rays from the object
at the image focal point, where the intermediate image is formed. This image then becomes
the object for the eyepiece, located in its object focal point, meaning that the rays travel in
parallel, forming an image at an infinite distance.

The visual or angular magnification (M) (the magnification that a telescope produces
compared to direct observation or, for example, the moon) is the quotient of the focus of
the objective and the eyepiece as a negative value:
f1ob
M=
f1oc
So, in order to obtain high magni-

fication, the focus of the objective
needs to be much larger than that
of the eyepiece (and therefore its
power must be much smaller).
There are two main types of tele-
scopes: refractors and reflectors. In
refractor telescopes, there are just
two kinds, depending on whether
the eyepiece is a convergent or a
divergent lens. Both kinds of refrac-
tive telescopes have similar objec-
tive lenses.
In the 17th century, Galileo
invented the telescope named after
him. In the Galileo telescope, the
objective is a convergent lens or
system of lenses, like in the Kepler-
like telescope, but the eyepiece is
divergent (Figure 3.15, top). As the
object focus of a divergent lens is
located behind the lens, Galileo-
type telescopes are shorter than
Kepler ones. Also, the final image
formed by the divergent eyepiece
in this kind of telescope is turned
in the same direction as the object,
and therefore they do not need an
inversion system like in Kepler
telescopes. A disadvantage of this
Figure 3.15 Diagram of a Galileo telescope (top) using one
type of telescope is that its field
convergent lens and another divergent one; a Kepler (center) using two
of vision is narrower than that of
converging lenses. The separation between the lens is equal to the sum
a Kepler telescope with similar
of their focal lengths; a Newton (bottom), where the light from a distant
power. object are reflected in a spherical mirror and then travel towards the
The Kepler telescope, invented objective (converging lens or mirror) via a flat mirror.
by Johannes Kepler in the 17th
century, is formed by two converg-
ing lenses, i.e., the eyepiece is
converging in a refractive tele- Did you know...?
scope (Figure 3.15, middle). The
final image formed by this kind The largest telescope on Earth will have a 40-meter
of telescope is inverted, which is curved mirror (larger than a basketball court). Work
not too important for astronomy on this telescope, called the ELT (Extremely Large
purposes. When this kind of tele- Telescope), started in Chile in 2017.
scope is used for other purposes,

an inversion system is fitted
between the objective and the
eyepiece so that the final image
is oriented in the same way as
the object. The inversion system
may be made up of lenses, as in
the case of a land telescope, or
reflective prisms, as in the case
of binoculars - these are two
identical telescopes placed par-
allel to each other, each with a
Figure 3.16 Drawing of a microscope belonging to Van Leeuwenhoek pair of inverting prisms at the
(1756). thicker end, where we hold
Photograph: Henry Baker, Wikimedia Commons. them.
There are different types of
reflector telescopes, depending
Did you know...? on the shape of the mirror or
Back in 1660, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (1632−1723) combination of curved mirrors
made significant contributions to microbiology using a that make up the telescope objec-
simple microscope that he designed and built himself, tive. In 1668, Newton was the
capable of up to 200× magnification. By using a single first person to design a reflective
lens to achieve such magnification, it needed such a small telescope, and a kind of reflec-
radius of curvature that its diameter was just 1 to 2 mm. tive mirror was named after
him. The use of the mirror as the
objective for the telescope meant
improved quality in the image,
as mirrors, unlike lenses, do not cause chromatic dispersion (Figure 3.15, below). This is
one of the reasons why reflective mirrors are the most commonly used nowadays.
In Experiment 3.7, we will build these three types of telescopes: Galileo, Kepler and
Newton.
How can we see the tiniest things? Looking

very close up with a microscope
Unlike the telescope, a microscope allows us to look at tiny details up closely. The micro-
scope simply consists of a single converging lens with a high refractive power: the magnify-
ing glass. For a converging lens to act as a magnifying glass, i.e., producing an augmented,
non-inverted image of an object, the object must be placed between the lens and its focal
point F. In these conditions, the image is virtual, and the light leaving the lens are parallel
or divergent. The greater the refractive power of the lens is, the greater is magnification. As
we have seen, the greater the refractive power is, the shorter the focal length of the lens
and the smaller the radius of curvature of its surfaces. As the radius of curvature reduces,
the diameter of the lens is also smaller, and its optical quality worsens.
For this reason, for applications requiring considerable magnification, such as for
observing microscopic organisms (1 μm is 1000 times smaller than 1 mm), a combination
of lenses allow large magnification and control of the optical quality of the whole system
without affecting the diameter of the lenses used. That is why we need an optical system
including at least two lenses (Figure 3.17), each one partly contributing to the final mag-
nification achieved. This is known as a microscope or compound microscope. Compound
microscopes consist of two optical systems: the viewing system and the lighting system.

The viewing system consists
of a diaphragm, the objective
and the eyepiece. Both lenses
are converging, and, as in the
case of the telescope, the objec-
tive is closest to the object and
the eyepiece closer to the eye.
However, the set-up of a micro-
scope is different than that of a
telescope. In a microscope, the
object is very close to the objec-
tive lens, the strokes of light are
therefore highly divergent, and
they converge behind the objec-
tive image focus. This interme-
diate image is real, augmented
and inverted, formed by the
microscope objective, and acts
as the object for the eyepiece,
which acts as a magnifying Figure 3.17 Diagram of a basic microscope, formed by two lenses,
glass. The intermediate image for viewing an object (top). Image of a modern conventional microscope
is closer to the eyepiece than its (bottom left). Images of a bee’s eye under an optical microscope (right).
image focal point, so the image Sources: Camilo Florian Baron (top); Tomia, Wikimedia Commons (left); Woodturner,
generated by this lens is virtual, Wikimedia Commons (right).
augmented and oriented in the
same direction as the intermediate image. In other words, the final image generated by the
microscope is inverted.
The objective and the eyepiece are, in general, two convergent lenses (or combinations
of lenses) separated so that their total focal power is very small. In Experiment 3.8, we will
build a classic microscope, and in Experiment 3.9, we will build a more special micro-
scope: a laser microscope.
Bibliography
Casas, J. (1985): Óptica, Zaragoza, J. Casas, Librería Pons.
Donnelly, J. and Massa, N. (2007): Light: Introduction to Optics and Photonics. Boston, New England
Board of Higher Education.
Hecht, E. (2019): Optics, Pearson; 5th edition.
Tippler, P. A. and Mosca, G. (2007): Physics for Scientists and Engineers, WH Freeman; 6th edition.

Objective 1: Create a pseudo-holographic pyramid.
Catch Me if You Can! MATERIALS
• Mobile or tablet
• Graph paper
• Scissors
Virtual image. • Felt-tipped pens
20 min (+) Reflection
• Overhead projector sheet
• Sticky tape or clear glue
A
1948 science-fiction work, where a
magnified face appeared in a scene
in front of a transparent plate pre-
senting great realism and three dimen-
sions, inspired physicist Yuri Denisyuk to
research deeper into the optical procedure
that caused this phenomenon. In this way,
what we know today as reflection holo-
grams, widely used in photography and
with major variations in technique, were
perfected. The pseudo-holographic pyra-
Figure 3.1.1 Materials.
mid is an innovative system used by com-
panies to display products, logos, objects or Source: in house.
3D animations, amongst other things.
Procedure
1. Take the pen, ruler and graph paper.
Start by making the template of one of
the faces of the pyramid as indicated
in Figure 3.1.2.
2. Place the template on the overhead
projector sheet. Draw it four times, and
cut out all four sides.
3. Paste the sides with sticky tape or
transparent glue forming a pyramid.
4. Search YouTube for “videos to project
holograms.” Figure 3.1.2 Diagram for creating the pyramids.
5. Place the pyramid in the center of Source: In-house.
the mobile phone screen and play
the video. You have created a virtual
image. Try to catch it!
Explanation
What takes place in this experiment is that an image is reflected on a reflective surface
with an angle equal to that of incidence. As the reflective surface is in turn translucent, it
causes the sensation that the image comes from the other side of the surface, that is, from

3.1 Experiment: Catch Me if You Can!
the center of the pyramid. By having four
images, it is possible to rotate the system, or
go around it, and continue seeing the image
as if it were in three dimensions floating in
the center of the pyramid.
In order to see a complete three-
dimensional image, it is necessary that the
four images (Figure 3.1.4) that are projected
are symmetrical with respect to the center,
exactly where the tip of the pyramid should
be. If not, it would not give us the feeling
of always seeing the same image, and there
would be small shifts from one image with Figure 3.1.3 Photo of the pseudo-holographic pyramid.
respect to another.
Photography: Juan Aballe / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.
Tricks
You can create your own videos to cre-
ate the images you want. You can use a
PowerPoint and add the GIF you like the
most four times. Think about which direc-
tion each one has to go. Save it as a video,
and there you have it!
Let’s see what you have learned

• How do you think the image must
appear on the tablet or mobile phone
for you to see it properly? Figure 3.1.4 Photo of the pseudo-holographic pyramid.
• What would happen if there was only Photography: Juan Aballe / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.
one image on the tablet or mobile
phone?
Related experiments
Experiment 3.2 There is nothing beyond my reach!
Experiment 3.5 Nothing here, nothing there: invisibility with mirrors and lenses

Objective 1: Mount a simple periscope.
There is Nothing Objective 2: Understand its principle of operation, based on the
Beyond My Reach! reflection of two mirrors arranged at an angle of 45º.
MATERIALS
Mirrors, reflection • A large, empty rectangular • Two flat mirrors of
45 min (+) container (e.g., milk or juice) similar size
• A box of cookies (alternative) (preferably rectangular)
• Corrugated cardboard • Frame and conveyor belt
(alternative) • Adhesive tape and glue
• Kitchen paper cardboard tubes • Aluminum foil (optional)
(alternative)
T
he periscope is an optical instrument
that is used to observe the outside
world from areas inaccessible to our
vision in a direct way, extending the field
of vision. This is the case of the first peri-
scopes in submarines or in World War I,
with military purposes on the ground to
monitor the enemy from the trenches. Also,
it is the basis of certain medical instru-
ments that serve to observe internal organs.
The one you build may be used to get closer
to the edge of a wall and look at the other side
of it, where you cannot reach because of your
Figure 3.2.1 A periscope inside an American navy
height and without stretching.
submarine.
Photography: US Navy, Wikimedia Commons.
Procedure
1. Take the empty milk carton (or any of
the alternatives) and cut a rectangle near
one end, as wide as the width of the
cardboard allows. This will be one of the
viewers through which you can look.
2. On the opposite side, make a similar
hole so that if one is at the front and
top, the other is at the back and bot-
tom, as in Figure 3.2.2.
3. With a few pieces of adhesive tape,
glue one of the mirrors inside the box
in front of one of the openings, but
place it at a 45° inclination. Similarly, Figure 3.2.2 Mirror placement diagram (left).
place the other mirror in the other Diagram of how the periscope should look (right).
opening, also at 45°. For this step, you Source: Camilo Florian Baron.
can cut a piece of cardboard on which
to support the mirror, this will have as a section an angle of 90° and two of 45°. One
of the sides will have the sizing of the mirror, and the other two a somewhat smaller

3.2 Experiment: There is Nothing Beyond My Reach!
Figure 3.2.3 Periscope operation.

Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.
height. This way you can make sure the angles are correct and the mirror is well
aligned (Figure 3.2.2).
4. You already have your periscope. Now all you have to do is try it. Hold the periscope
with the upper opening just above the edge of a wall or wall and look through the
lower opening.
You can see over the edge! If you want it to resemble a professional periscope, wrap it
with aluminum foil (Figure 3.2.3).
Explanation
The operation of mirrors can be explained by following the law of light reflection. In a
common flat mirror, a beam of parallel rays of light that strikes the surface is reflected
in such a way that each reflected beam remains in the same plane as its corresponding
incident beam, so the beam of reflected rays continues to be of parallel rays, even if they
change direction.
The second law of reflection indicates that the reflected ray will have the same angle
as the incident ray. This phenomenon is observed when we look in front of the mirror, in
which case the incident rays project our image on it. The reflected rays return this same
image but inverted (the image is right, symmetric and virtual).
In the mirror of the upper end of the periscope that we have built, the rays coming from
objects located outside our area of vision will be reflected. When this is affected at 45º and,
following the second law of reflection of light, the objects will be reflected at 45º as well,
so that the incident rays and the reflected rays will form a right angle to each other. This is
what allows the rays reflected in the upper mirror to accompany the path of the tube and
be directed vertically downwards, although projecting the inverted image. These reflected
rays, in turn, will affect the mirror located at the lower end, repeating this phenomenon
that will reverse the image, so the final rays perceived by the eye of the observer will cor-
respond exactly to the original image.
Tricks
• You can build the periscope in two halves that fit inside one another, so you can
“extend” or “shrink” it according to your needs. In this case, you should use two sepa-
rate boxes in its construction.

3.2 Experiment: There is Nothing Beyond My Reach!
• Choose mirrors of appropriate dimensions to the box or tube you are going to use so
that you can face them at 45° more easily. Before inserting the mirrors in the tube you
have chosen, help yourself by making a sketch on the tube, marking the place where
they will be located.

• Why is it important for mirrors to internally form a 45º angle with the sides of the box?
• Why is the use of lenses not essential in this experiment? Are you able to relate it in
some way with your daily life?
• Is there an image formation in this experiment? Yes? No? Where?
• The reflection of light in a mirror is possible thanks to a property of light that we have
already learned about. This is also the one that allows imaging in a dark chamber
(through a hole). Do you know the one we are talking about?
Related experiments
Experiment 3.1 Catch me if you can!
Experiment 3.7 Become a top-notch astronomer at home!

Objective 1: Build optical lenses with jelly and silicone.
Make Your Own Objective 2: Understand image formation and measure the focal
Lenses and See length of our lenses.
What Happens
MATERIALS
For lenses and jelly prisms • 3 laser pointers
• Transparent jelly (flavorless) • Meter
Lenses, prisms, • Flat tray with walls at least
3 h (+) micro-lenses, imaging, For silicone micro-lenses
focal length 2 cm high • Hot melt silicone bar
• Glass or cup • Tweezers
• Craft knife • Craft knife
• Pot • Heat source (candle or lighter)
• Kitchen
B
uilding a homemade lens is not a
simple task. Pay attention to the size
of the lens, its angles and the shape
of its sides. To make our lenses and prisms
we will use jelly and silicone. The jelly is
transparent and solidifies at room tempera-
ture, it is also easy to cut. Silicone is also
transparent and easy to handle.
In this experiment we will learn the dif-
ference between convergent and divergent
lenses. To do this we will use lasers, whose
beam will be deflected and refracted,
depending on the type of lens it passes
through. After seeing how the beams are Figure 3.3.1 View through a thick convergent lens.
refracted with each lens, we will apply this Photography: in house.
knowledge to the formation of the image,
putting it behind the convergent and divergent lens. We will also calculate the focal length
in order to see the image clearly.
Procedure
Manufacture of lenses and jelly prisms
1. The first step is the construction of the lenses. You have to prepare the jelly as
instructed by the manufacturer, put it inside the tray and make sure it covers at least 1
cm of the tray.
2. Once the jelly is solid, use a glass or cup to cut the silicone on curved surfaces and a
knife to create the straight surfaces (Figure 3.3.2). See the shapes in Figure 3.3.3.
3. Remove the lenses from the tray, being careful not to break them, and leave the rest of
the jelly on the tray.
4. In order to see if the lenses you have made deflect light, the light must pass from the
laser pointers. You must join the three pointers with adhesive tape so that the rays are
parallel and then pass them through the jelly lenses to see how they deviate.

3.3 Experiment: Make Your Own Lenses and See What Happens
Figure 3.3.2 Trimming and separation of solid jelly according to the lens molds: convergent lens (left), divergent lens
(center) and flat convex lens (right).
5. Use the convergent jelly lens and pass

the rays of the pointers through it. Write
down the distance between the lens and
the point at which the three beams pass
through. Can the same be done with the
divergent lens (Figure 3.3.4)?
Making of a silicone micro-lens

1. Use the silicone bar and a craft knife.
The idea is to have a thread of the sili-
cone bar as thin as possible. The thin-
ner and shorter it is, the smaller the
final micro-lens will be.
2. Once you have prepared the silicone
thread, with the help of the tweezers, Figure 3.3.3 Desired shape of the different types of
you should slowly bring it closer to lenses and prisms.
the heat source you have used (for Source: In-house.
example, the candle).
3. As you get closer, the silicone will melt. Be careful not to go too fast, as the silicone
may be consumed by the flame.
4. As soon as you detect that the silicone wire contracts and forms a small spherical
drop, you must move it away so that it solidifies while retaining this shape.
5. You have built small lenses that allow you to observe things that your eyes alone
cannot.
Explanation
When light passes through any transparent medium, depending on its index of refraction
and the level of polishing of its surface, the light will be diverted to a greater or lesser
extent. In the specific case of lenses, the convergent ones will divert the light to a specific
point known as the focal length, measured from the side of the lens where the light comes
out. A very simple way to measure the focal length of a lens is to pass parallel rays through
it that strike the lens at different points. Once these pass through the lens, they will con-
verge at a point that can be measured with a tape measure. You can do the same with the
other types of convergent lenses.

Figure 3.3.4 Beam tracing with the lenses produced for the experiment (from left to right): flat convex lens, convergent
lens, composite system, and divergent lens.
Figure 3.3.5 Templates of different optical systems on which you can place the lenses you have manufactured. Print
them to a larger size so you can see well what happens with the rays when crossing different surfaces.
Source: Laser ray box kit. Laser Ray Scale PDF.

In the case of divergent lenses, the

effect is the opposite. Instead of diverting
the rays to a specific point, these lenses
separate them. To be able to measure the
focal length of this type of lens, the sur-
face where the light strikes must be well
polished in order to view the low light
that is reflected. If you succeed, you can
see that the reflected rays behave as if they
had passed through a convergent lens, all
joining at a point that corresponds to the
focal length of the lens. If the surface of
your lens is smooth enough, you can also
measure the focus of your divergent lens.
If you put the silicone micro-lenses or the Figure 3.3.6 Laser light through a combination of con-
convergent jelly lens on the screen of a vergent and divergent lens.
mobile phone, you will see that the image Photography: Sara el Aissati.
looks magnified, although to form a clear
image there must be bubbles inside and a very smooth surface.
Tricks
• Until now, the jelly lenses you have made are transparent. You can try using different
colored jelly and see what happens when it has the same color as the light of the laser
pointers.
• You can place the silicone lenses on the templates (A - F figures) to see how different
optical instruments work.
• You can play with the size of the silicone micro-lenses you have made and check if
the size of the object you are viewing alters. Since these lenses are very small, you can
use your mobile phone screen to magnify the light-emitting pixels.

• What would happen if the lens surface were not completely smooth?
• What happens to the focal length if you squeeze the lens and increase its curvature?
• What would happen if we used sparkling water to make the ice magnifier? Do you
think it would improve?
• Why do you think we need a small lens to see the light emitting pixels of our mobile
phone screen?
Related experiments:

Objective 1: View and draw the pixel distribution of your mobile
Micro-Lenses: Beyond phone screen.
a Magnifying Glass Objective 2: Use dried and hydrated hydrogel beads to produce a
higher resolution than with liquid drops.
MATERIALS
Refraction, convergent • Water
30 min (+) lenses, thick lenses, • Water sprayer
magnification • Mobile phone or tablet
• Hydrogel beads
• Micro-lenses manufactured in Experiment 3.3 (optional)
H
ave you ever seen the screen of your
computer or mobile phone with water
droplets on its surface? If so and you
have looked carefully, you will surely have
seen blue, red and green dots. In reality, the
small drops of water are acting as a lens that
allows us to solve/view the light emitting
pixels of our screens. To give you an idea,
a high-resolution mobile screen is made up
of 1,920 pixels high and 1,800 wide. That
makes, if the screen is 5.5 inches (diagonal),
the pixel size is less than 10 microns on the
side (a hair is 100 microns).
Figure 3.4.1 Hydrogel pearl without hydration.
In this experiment, you will manufac-
Photography: in house.
ture liquid water lenses to view the pixels
of your mobile phone screen. Furthermore,
we will also use dried hydrogel beads and
see how their optical behavior is affected
by hydrating them. Finally, we will show
how hydrated hydrogel balls can be used as
convergent lenses.
Procedure
Water droplet experiment
Before you start, bear in mind that water
can damage the electronic device you are
going to use. Therefore, you must use small Figure 3.4.2 Hydrogel beads without hydration on a
amounts of water; you can use a sprayer, for screen.
example, and try to avoid wetting the head- Photography: in house.
set. If the drops are too large, quickly move
the mobile phone horizontally while blowing on the screen.
Spray a little water on the unlocked screen and with luminous wallpaper. Notice that in
the places where the small droplets are, the colors green, blue and red appear. If the drop-
let is small enough, you will distinguish that these colors are grouped into small squares,
each occupying a third part with a rectangular shape.

3.4 Experiment: Micro-Lenses: Beyond a Magnifying Glass
Experiment with hydrogel beads

1. Dry the screen and place a dried
hydrogel pearl on it. It is essential
that the mobile phone is on a very flat
surface. Try now to observe the pix-
els in the same way as in the previous
step, but without spraying water, can
you see the colors? You can also try
this step with the micro-lens that you
made in Experiment 3.3!
2. Put the hydrogel pearl in water. You
must leave it submerged at least 2 hours
so that it hydrates properly. Its size will
increase considerably. When hydrated,
place it on a text (book, magazine, etc.),
and you will see an interesting effect
on the letters underneath. But be care-
ful, remember that as it is hydrated,
it is very wet, and you will lose some
water.
3. During a sunny day you can place one
of these hydrated spheres in the sun
and make a magnifying glass. You can
see how the light is concentrated in a
single point surrounded by a shaded
area. Are you able to estimate the
Figure 3.4.3 Formation of an inverted image of a
focal length of this lens?
distant object with a hydrated hydrogel pearl.
4. Hold the hydrated sphere with your
fingers and look through it. Look at
it from a distance of 30 or 40 cm and
try to observe objects that are a few
meters away. You can see the results
in Figure 3.4.3.
Explanation
Water droplets, like small spheres, have
two fundamental properties to be consid-
ered as lenses: a material with a refractive
index greater than air and a surface with
curvature. Since the curvature of the sur-
face is convex, both of the droplets and of
the spheres, they behave like convergent Figure 3.4.4 The object is at a distance from the
lenses. The difference between them is that lens less than its focal length, so the image that is observed is
the droplet can be considered as a flat con- straight and enlarged.
vex lens and the sphere as a biconvex lens. Source: Camilo Florian Baron.
When the object is located at a distance
from the sphere smaller than the focal length, it is magnified and not inverted (Figure 3.4.4).

3.4 Experiment: Micro-Lenses: Beyond a Magnifying Glass
On the other hand, when a distant object
is observed (at a greater distance than the
focal length), it will be observed as inverted
(Figure 3.4.5). As the curvature of the
micro-lenses is quite large, its focal length
is rather short. That is why we see a con-
siderable expansion of the object studied,
which makes them very efficient when it is
necessary to view small objects.
As we saw in the theoretical part, the Figure 3.4.5 The object is at a distance from the lens
focal length of a thick lens depends on greater than its focal length, so the image that is observed is
the radius of curvature of its sides. This inverted and smaller.
relationship indicates that the smaller the Source: Camilo Florian Baron.
radius of curvature is, the smaller its focal
length. When using spheres where there are two curved surfaces with the same radius
of curvature, the focal length is smaller still, producing a much greater magnification, as
demonstrated by being able to observe the pixels of the screen when placing a small spher-
ical lens.
In both cases, when the curvature is very large and the parallel rays that come from afar
affect different points of the surface, it is observed that not all rays are focused on the same
point. This effect is known as spherical aberration. Spherical aberration is responsible for
seeing the deformed objects. For example, the image of pixels, whose shape is rectangular,
is rather a trapezoidal image.
Tricks
• You can use a spray bottle to spray the drops of water on the mobile phone screen,
such as those used for perfumes. In this way, the water droplets will be more even and
much smaller than if you do it with your hand.
• You can look for other spherical objects that can help you magnify objects. For exam-
ple, you can use a crystal marble.

• Why does a spherical or hemispherical lens behave like a convergent lens?
• Why are objects magnified that are very close to the micro-lens support point?
• Why does such a large magnification occur when the spheres (or hemispheres) become
smaller and smaller?
• Why with the hydrated hydrogel ball do we see the image without inverting when the
object is near and inverted when the object is far away?
Related experiments
Experiment 3.3 Make your own lenses and see what happens

Objective 1: Create a camouflage device with mirrors or lenses.
Nothing Here, Nothing Objective 2: Understand how light propagates in this system and
There: Invisibility with how imaging occurs.

Objective 3: Understand how prestidigitators play with these
Mirrors and Lenses concepts to create optical illusions.
MATERIALS
Setup I: mirrors Setup II: lenses
Mirrors, reflection, lenses, • 4 flat mirrors • 4 convergent lenses (200-mm focal)
30 min (+) divergence, convergence
• Mounts • 4 divergent lenses (focal 75−100 mm)
• Conveyor • Mounts
• Ruler
I
nvisibility is one of the most recurring
fantasies in science fiction works. Having
a cape that allows you to go unnoticed
to the rest of the world is a dream that has
appealed to not only writers and film direc-
tors but also many renowned scientists. At
present, a certain type of invisibility is pos-
sible, although it is limited to objects on
a very small scale made of a new class of
materials that are not found in nature and
that present unusual electromagnetic prop-
erties. These are known as meta-materials,
which allow deflecting or attenuating the
incident light rays on an object, making
them imperceptible. Despite this, on a larger Figure 3.5.1 Materials.
scale, it is possible to achieve an invisibility Photography: in house.
effect used by illusionists and prestidigi-
tators by way of mirrors or lenses. In this
experiment, we will show you their tricks.
Procedure
Invisibility with mirrors
1. Place the four mirrors as indicated in
Figure 3.5.2. Reflective sides should
be on the inside, facing each other.
2. Make sure they form a 90º angle. To
do this, you can use a conveyor or a
square. Figure 3.5.2 Assembly diagram of invisibility with mirrors.
3. Position an object of appropriate size Source: Camilo Florian Baron.
in the invisibility area indicated in the
figure. To prove that it works, scroll it
up and down, and enjoy the effect of appearance and disappearance.

3.5 Experiment: Nothing Here, Nothing There: Invisibility with
Mirrors and Lenses
4. To see if the trick works, first place

yourself in front of mirror 1. Then try
to change position and see what hap-
pens (Figure 3.5.4).
Invisibility with lenses

1. In this case, your ability will be tested
as the alignment of the lenses is criti-
cal. Take two convergent lenses and
two divergent lenses and place them in Figure 3.5.3 Assembly diagram with invisibility with
line following the order of Figure 3.5.3: lenses.
first a convergent, then two divergent, Source: Camilo Florian Baron.
to end with a convergent.
2. Remember that divergent lenses are
those that are positioned in the central
part of the device.
3. Make sure with a ruler that the dis-
tance between convergent and diver-
gent lenses is identical both at the
beginning and at the end.
4. Replicate the previous side assem-
bly, taking into account that you must
keep the lenses with the same dis-
tances as indicated in the figure.
5. Place the object you want to make
disappear in the invisibility area
(Figure 3.5.3).
6. To increase or decrease the invisibility Figure 3.5.4 Assembly and proof of invisibility
with mirrors.
zone, you will have to zoom in or out
of the divergent lenses without losing
symmetry.
Now you have it—enjoy your invisibility device!
Figure 3.5.5 Assembly and proof of invisibility with lenses.


3.5 Experiment: Nothing Here, Nothing There: Invisibility with
Mirrors and Lenses
Explanation
The secret of this experiment is to deflect the light around the object that we want to dis-
appear. In the first case, the first mirror (mirror 1 in the figure) reflects the light away from
the invisible area towards the second pair of mirrors (mirrors 2 and 3) to return it at the
end to the mirror behind the hidden area (mirror 4). In the second case, the convergent
lenses concentrate the light on the divergent lenses, avoiding the hidden object. Divergent
lenses are important in the proposed design because they prevent the background of the
image from being inverted.
Tricks
• The larger the mirrors or lenses are, the larger the objects you can hide.
• Perpendicular mirrors can be separated (so long as you keep the angle 90º) to cover
elongated objects.
• If you don’t want them to discover your secret, hide the second pair of mirrors (2 and 3)
behind a wall (for example, at the end of a corridor) or place the mirrors in a box, leav-
ing the observer a single point from which to observe the phenomenon.

• Are hidden objects invisible to an observer from any point?
• How would we see an object located in the area marked out between the mirrors?
Related experiments

Objective 1: Understand how imaging in the retina of our eye
From a Shoebox works, since it is based on the same principle as in a
to a Camera camera.
Objective 2: Understand how a camera works.
MATERIALS
Photography, lenses, • A lens with a focal length of 12 to • Glue for cardboard and a
1 h (+) imaging 17 cm (equivalent to between paint brush
6 and 8 diopters) • Translucent paper or a
• A shoebox thin sheet
• Pieces of cardboard or cardboard • Photographic film
• A pair of scissors, craft knife, ruler • Photo development liquid
and stapler
T
he camera is possibly one of the
most popular optical instruments
of our time. The first forefather of
the cameras is the dark cameras, already
described by some Greek philosophers,
such as Aristotle. These cameras simply
consisted of a chamber with a small hole
in one of the walls, projecting the image
on the opposite wall of the chamber. From
this classic instrument, the introduction of
lenses and a diaphragm (a hole with vari-
able diameter) made it possible to create
a modern camera. To record the images, Figure 3.6.1 Set-up of the camera equipment to be
analog cameras require physical support: mounted.
photographic films created from photosen- Source: In-house.
sitive materials where the image is immor-
talized. In this experiment, you will see how to build your analog camera.
Procedure
Simple camera
1. Cut the shoe box without cutting the lid. To do this, draw two lines parallel to the nar-
rowest walls of the box. The first will be at a distance equal to the focal length of the
lens from one end, and the second will be two centimeters longer from the opposite
end. Cut along these lines to obtain sections 1 and 2, respectively.
2. Take section 2 and slightly reduce its height to fit the fixed part.
3. Make a hole, a little smaller than the lens, in the wall of section 1.
4. Place the lens on a piece of cardboard and fix it with glue or staples on the hole.
5. Now glue or staple section 1 to the shoe box’s lid.
6. Take section 2 and cut out a small window at the back. In this window you must place
the translucent paper.
7. Place the object you want to photograph and illuminate it. Point the camera and focus
on the subject by moving section 2. Observe how the image is formed on translucent
paper (Figure 3.6.2).

3.6 Experiment: From a Shoebox to a Camera
Figure 3.6.2 Backlit object and camera taken image. Photo camera operation.
Adding new items to your camera

1. Make a small hole of about 2 cm in a cardboard to create a diaphragm. Place it in front
of the objective lens.
2. Use an additional lens to create a macro lens or a fish-eye.
3. To build a fish-eye, take another lens and place it on the end of a tube
4. Use felt and insulating tape to give it greater consistency. Finally, paste it or hold it on
the lens of your camera.
Immortalizing the image in a photograph

1. Once the images taken are clear, try to take a homemade photo. Cover the lens of your
camera and work with the maximum possible darkness. Place the photo paper on the
transparent plastic and close the camera.
2. Turn on the light and then, with the lens covered, point and focus the object to be
photographed.
3. Uncover the camera and let the light penetrate the camera for 20 seconds.
4. Cover the camera again and, again in the dark, remove the photo paper and apply the
developer liquids to produce the image on the paper.
Explanation
In the camera we have built, we can identify the basic parts of an analog camera. Basically,
a traditional camera consists of at least a first objective lens; then a diaphragm, which is
responsible for regulating the amount of light that will reach the film; a shutter, which will
define the moment in which we want to capture and, finally (depending on our objective
lens), a second lens that will send the image to the film at a suitable size.
The shutter speed is what defines the exposure time of the film to the incoming light.
The diaphragm is fixed, or we can build it additionally, as we have previously suggested.
The cover that we put on the lens acts as a shutter, regulating the exposure time by the
camera’s aperture time.
If we want to take pictures in low-light conditions (where we need an open diaphragm and
more exposure time), the simplest solution is to use a roll of film that is more sensitive to light.
Tricks
An alternative to build a diaphragm is to use your hand or a bottle cap to increase or
reduce the amount of light that reaches our camera.

3.6 Experiment: From a Shoebox to a Camera
• Why is the image projected on the transparent screen upside down?
• If we remove the lens from the system, will the image of the object be shown on the
screen? Why?
Related experiments

Objective 1: Build a Galileo- and Kepler-type refracting telescope.
Become a Top-Notch Identify their main differences.
Astronomer at Home! Objective 2: Know the advantages and disadvantages of each tele-
scope according to its characteristics (type of lens,
aperture, focal length, focal ratio, magnification, etc.).
Objective 3: Characterize the telescope that has been built from
Lenses, mirrors, the concepts that have been learned in the previous
2 h (+) refraction, reflection objectives.
MATERIALS
For the Galileo telescope For the Kepler telescope (in
• A small concave lens addition to the above):
• A large convex lens • Two convex lenses: one
• Recycling cardboard tubes small for the eyepiece and
• Glue one larger for the lens
• Filter strips
• Ruler
• Scissors and craft knife
T
he telescope is an optical instru-
ment that allows distant objects to be
observed in much more detail than
the naked eye. It is a fundamental tool in
astronomy: each development or improve-
ment of this instrument has allowed for
advances in our understanding of the uni-
verse. There are two types of telescopes,
refractors and reflectors, depending on
whether they are constituted only by
lenses, which refract light, or also incor-
porate mirrors, which reflect it. Within
the refracting mirrors, we can find those of Figure 3.7.1 Materials.
Galileo and those of Kepler, with different
characteristics due to their different lens
combinations.
In this experiment, a telescope of each type will be built. In this way we will better
understand the differences between the two, and we can begin to observe the beauty that a
starry sky hides.
Figure 3.7.2 Galileo telescope (left), and Kepler telescope (right).

Source: In-house.

3.7 Experiment: Become a Top-Notch Astronomer at Home!
Figure 3.7.3 Final result when assembling the components.

Procedure
1. The first thing you need to know is the
diameter and focal length of your lenses.
If you cannot remember how to measure
the focal length of a lens, don’t worry!
Go back to Experiment 3.3 to look it up.
2. Paste both lenses on each end of a tube.
Remember that the diameter of the tubes
must be similar to that of the lenses. If the
lens is larger, you can glue it carefully as
not to dirty it, and if it is small, you can
fill the hole with felt, for example.
3. Place one tube inside the other, so
that the lenses are at opposite ends of
the two tubes. It is necessary that the Figure 3.7.4 Right image produced by the Galileo
smaller tube can slide smoothly in and telescope.
out of the larger tube. Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.
4. Glue the felt strips around the out-
side of the smaller tube to fill the gap
between the tubes. Put enough layers
so that it is more or less tight but can
slide to carry out the approach.
5. To calculate the length of your telescope,
remember: the sum of the focal points
of both lenses is equal to the distance
between them, this being so when the
telescope is focused infinitely, theo-
retically. The tube of greater diameter,
for aesthetics, is longer than the one of Figure 3.7.5 Inverted image produced by the Kepler
smaller diameter. The tube of smaller telescope.
diameter must be in the middle position Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.
according to the total length. Thus, we
will have enough travel to increase or reduce the distance when focusing (Figures 3.7.4
and 3.7.5).

Even harder: Newton’s telescope

1. A refracting telescope does not have
many parts, and you can build it if
you follow the diagram outlined in
Figure 3.7.6.
2. As a primary mirror, you will need a
concave one. For example, a make-up
mirror could have the right diameter
and focal length. The larger the diam-
eter is, the more light you will get.
3. For the secondary mirror, you will
need a flat mirror with dimensions Figure 3.7.6 Newton’s telescope.
smaller than the primary one. Ideally, Source: Camilo Florian Baron.
the reflective surface should be the
first, not the second, as in normal mirrors, since loss of light is avoided.
4. Cut two cardboard circles with the dimensions of the primary mirror. These two cir-
cles will be separated by screws and nuts that will create a stop. This will allow us to
move the mirror forward or backward to focus the telescope.
5. Paste the primary mirror onto this system.
6. You need to place the secondary mirror (the flat one) at an angle of 45º with respect
to the primary one, as it appears in the diagram. The centers of both mirrors must be
at the same height. Keep in mind that you are magnifying: a small mistake will be
noticed much more! Fix the optical elements as well as possible to avoid vibrations.
7. With a convergent lens, form an eyepiece to look through. Adjust the distance as you
see in the diagram so that the light comes out collimated from the telescope.
8. And then it is ready. You can also use a PVC tube to avoid external light and have
more protected telescope optics.
Explanation
In the Galileo telescope, parallel rays of light from a distant object are brought to a point
in the focal plane of the objective lens using a convergent lens. The eyepiece is a divergent
lens that intercepts these rays and makes them parallel once again.
The final image is a virtual image, right, located in the infinite and with the same shape
as the object. In contrast, both the eyepiece and the objective lens are convergent lenses in
the Kepler telescope. The objective lens provides a real and inverted image and, through the
eyepiece, the observer sees a virtual image of the same meaning, that is, inverted with respect
to the object. The Newtonian telescope uses mirrors instead of lenses. Light from the observed
object propagates along the tube until it reaches the primary mirror, located at the rear. The
mirror reflects the rays forward and, thanks to its concave shape, concentrates them in a very
small space. Next, a flat mirror directs the light towards a hole in the side of the tube, and with
the help of an eyepiece that is nothing more than a lens, the desired star can be observed.
The Galileo telescope is a very bright telescope, and the final image is right without
the need for an inverter system. However, it has a very small field of vision. The Kepler
telescope, when using a convex lens in the eyepiece instead of the concave of the Galileo
model, has the advantage of allowing a much wider field of vision and in greater detail,
but the image for the viewer is reversed. The Newtonian telescope, when using mirrors,
avoids the chromatic aberration of the lenses; however, the disadvantage of Newtonians

versus refractors is the shading of incoming light. Since refractors have no element in the
optical path that causes obstruction in the optical path, they are able to provide more light
and contrast to images with the same aperture as the reflectors.
By knowing the focal points of the lenses that have been used in the lens and eyepiece and
their diameters, you can calculate their aperture, their focal ratio, their magnifications and
classify the telescope. Identify all the characteristics you have learned in the previous aims:
The aperture is the effective diameter of the telescope’s main lens or mirror. The opening
will be who defines the collection capacity of our telescope. The greater the aperture, the more
capacity to capture light and, to a greater amount of light, we can see more dim objects.
Focal length is the point where the light concentrates, that is, the main lens or mirror of
the telescope.
When we mathematically relate aperture and focal length, it gives us a very useful value:
the focal relationship, which is defined as follows:
Focal Length
Focal Ratio =
Diameter
The focal relationship is also known as number f. The lower the focal ratio is, the brighter
the telescope. That is, less time would be needed to photograph weak objects.
The magnification of a telescope is defined by the following expression:
Telescope Focal Length
Magnification =
Eyepiece Focal Length
In order for our telescope to have good optical quality, it is advisable not to exceed twice
the magnification of our aperture. In other words, if our telescope is 50 mm in diameter,
we should not use more than 100 magnifications. If we add more, we will see the image as
highly distorted and blurred.
Tricks
• Try different combinations of lenses and tube materials. You can use the lenses of old
cameras, magnifiers or other optical items.
• Paint the inside of your telescopes slate black to avoid reflections of parasitic light.
Outside, you can be as creative as you want.
• Try not to touch the front of your lenses and optical mirrors with your hands (wear latex
gloves), and before incorporating them into your telescope, clean them with a cloth.
• When you go to make the observation, choose a day of clear sky and an area with little
artificial light pollution.

• What is the difference between a refracting telescope and a reflector?
• What is the main difference between the Galileo and Kepler telescopes?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of each?
Related experiments
Experiment 3.6 From a shoebox to a camera

Objective 1: Build a microscope following the proposed instruc-
Microscope: How to tions.
See the Tiniest Things Objective 2: Optimize the system to obtain measurements with
real scale, align the optical elements (smartphone,
lens, sample and lighting) and calculate the magnifi-
cation of the system.
Lenses, imaging, focal
60 min (+) length, lens combination MATERIALS
• Two convergent lenses of a • 2 wooden or plastic bases
disposable camera (usually • 4 LEGO pieces
with 25-mm and 45-mm • Lighting source (or
focal lengths) continuous flash of
• PVC tube ~ 3 cm in diameter or another mobile phone)
cardboard (to form a tube) • Adhesive tape
A
microscope is an optical instrument
that produces a magnified image of
small objects (or microscopic, that
is, of the size of microns) thanks to the
help of convex lenses. A magnifying glass
would be a simple microscope composed
of a single lens, but if we wish to view
tiny details, we need to combine different
optical elements.
Mainly, a basic microscope consists of
(1) a plate, or transparent sheet where we
place the sample we want to observe; (2)
a lighting and diaphragm system, which
illuminates the sample (lights below); (3)
an objective lens, which is the lens closest
to the sample (usually with great power)
and (4) an eyepiece, which is the lens
located near our eye. The combination
of the power of the objective and ocular
lenses determines the magnification of our Figure 3.8.1 Magnifying glass and simple microscope
microscope (for example, the 40× nota- (two lenses, two diaphragms and one lighting source).
tion indicates that we see the object a ver- Source: Camilo Florian Baron.
sion scaled 40 times larger). The observed
image is created in our retina, if we are the ones who observe, or in the camera sensor, in
case we want to register that image.
Today, we can build a microscope and take the images with the help of our smartphone.
Would you like one?
Procedure
Microscope construction
1. Identify the two lenses to construct the microscope: one with a short focal length (used as
lens 1, objective), and one with a longer lens (which we will use as an eyepiece, lens 2).

3.8 Experiment: Microscope: How to See the Tiniest Things
2. We will mount one of the lenses at
one end of the tube and, at the other
end, the other. The length of the tube
will depend on the focal length of the
lenses. We suggest using a length of
16 cm.
3. To create the platform to hold the lens
tube, you can use an additional piece
of tube (part 1). It is important that the
pieces can be moved in height to be Figure 3.8.2 Final view of the built microscope, which
able to modify the distances between shows how the object is illuminated with the flashlight of a
lenses and, for this, use the LEGO mobile phone and imaged through the system.
pieces as indicated in the figure. Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.
4. You must also make a first platform
that has a hole for the light to pass to your object (part 2).
5. Finally, the lighting system, which can be an LED or the flash in continuous mode
(flashlight) of a mobile phone (part 3).
6. Once you have it assembled, it is time to adjust the system. The first thing is to place
the object on the transparent plate and turn on the lighting.
7. Try looking through lens 2 and adjust the distance between the lens tube and your
object. The theoretical distance is 21.6 mm using a 25-mm focal lens as lens 1.
8. And voilà! You already have it… now you can use your mobile phone camera to take
pictures of your magnified object (Figure 3.8.2).
Quantification of the magnification capacity of our system: direct measurement

1. In this case, to facilitate the measurements, we are going to use as a sample the lead of
a propelling pencil, for example, 0.5. This means that it will be approximately 0.5 mm
thick (500 µm).
2. To know what the magnification level we have is, we simply have to make a quotient
between the real measure of the object and the measure of the object in a photo taken
with the mobile phone.
3. If you want to make a theoretical estimate based on the actual values of your system,
you will have to know what the length of the tube is and the focal lengths of the lenses
you are using. To do this, follow the procedure indicated in the explanation.
Explanation
Curiosity regarding small things has allowed us to develop and implement many improve-
ments to the different optical instruments that are within our reach today. In the specific
case of the microscope, its origins go back to the use of a simple magnifying glass that
allows us to magnify objects in the simplest possible way, even the most modern high-
resolution optical microscopes with which research is currently being performed.
The microscope you just built is the result of combining two convergent lenses to view
the world of small things without having to use a single, giant convergent lens. Basically, it
incorporates an objective lens (which is the one that is closest to the object to be studied)
and an ocular lens (which allows us to form the enlarged image).
Over the years, different elements have been incorporated to obtain sharper images,
with more magnifications and exceptional spatial resolutions. Two basic elements are the

3.8 Experiment: Microscope: How to See the Tiniest Things
incorporation of different diaphragms that allow controlling, for example, the amount of
light that will reach the sample and the visual field. With the development of complex
lenses that contain multiple lenses, it has been possible to use various filters that allow
us to obtain even more information about the object under analysis. Such are the efforts
geared towards these improvements that, in 2014, Eric Betzig, Stefan W. Hell and William
E. Moerner were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their developments in high-
resolution fluorescence microscopy techniques.
Tricks
• To optimize your system, you can also play with the distances between the light
source and the sample, in order to obtain a more even lighting system. In the case of
samples that are not translucent, you can illuminate the sample from the top, so that it
reflects on its surface and goes to the lens.
• If you want to further increase the resolution of your system, use a micro-lens.
Experiment 3.4 Micro-lenses: beyond a magnifying glass is suitable for this case.

• What is the importance of lighting in the image quality that we can obtain?
• Could we use a telescope as if it were a microscope?
• What size is a virus? With our microscope, can we view one?
• What do you think is the smallest object we could observe with a light-based
microscope?
• What do you think it would take to view an atom? Would it be possible with a similar
system?
Related experiments
Experiment 3.9 A micro-world in a droplet

Objective 1: Build a simple microscope based on a droplet of
A Micro-World in a water and a laser pointer.
Droplet Objective 2: Calculate the magnification of your microscope, try

to discover the different microorganisms for differ-
ent water samples (mountain river, city...) and see
their differences.
Refraction, lenses,
20 min (+) microscopes, MATERIALS
magnification • Green (or red) laser pointer • White screen (or a wall)
• Syringe or toothpick • Water (from the tap, a
• 2 toilet-paper cardboard rolls puddle, a river, the sea,
• Plastic flange saliva)
T
he microscopic world within a droplet
can be fascinating. Paramecia, amoebas
and different micro-organisms can be
observed in a simple way. We will be able to see
their movements, their shapes and sizes, since
a suspended drop, due to its shape and differ-
ent index of refraction with respect to the air,
can behave like a spherical lens. Thus, with the
help of a laser pointer we will manufacture a
simple microscope where we will see the shad-
ows of the micro-organisms inside the droplet,
getting up to 100 magnifications!
Procedure Photography: in house.
1. Fill the syringe with water that you have taken from the tap or a natural source and
place it between two supports, for example, the two rolls of toilet paper cardboard, so
that it is held between them. Press the plunger of the syringe so that a droplet hangs
without falling.
2. Hold the laser pointer with the plastic flange so that the power button is pressed. Then
carefully place the pointer so that it is at the same height as the water droplet and its light
is aimed towards the white wall. To reach the same height and so that the light strikes the
droplet, you can use a notebook or book. Try opening sheets until you get the right height.
Explanation
Here, the droplet behaves like a spherical lens. The beam of light penetrates the drop-
let through the air/water interfaces twice. Therefore, the tools produce two refractions,
as shown in Figure 3.9.3, producing a focus on the back of the droplet and subsequently
reaching the screen located at a distance (d). Note that the image of the projected shadow
of the object will be inverted.
The system works like an image projector. The linear increase produced by the system
is directly related to the distance (d) between the projection lens (in our case, the drop-
let) and the screen and inversely proportional to the focal length of the droplet (f), since
the object is very close to the focal plane of the lens:
A = d/f

3.9 Experiment: A Micro-World in a Droplet
Figure 3.9.2 Assembly of the complete experiment (left) and detail of the assembly in which the suspended droplet
(right) is observed.
For a spherical droplet, the focal length (f)

can be approximated to f = R / 2 · [n / (n
− 1)], where R is the radius of the droplet
(which you can approximate to the radius
of your syringe hole), and n is the refractive
index of water (n = 1.33).
Tricks
• If you do not have a syringe, you can
use a stick by wetting it and allowing
the droplet to hang without falling;
finally, place the toothpick carefully
on a support with adhesive tape so
that it is suspended. The smaller the Figure 3.9.3 Projection onto a white surface of a back-
droplet is, the more magnification lit droplet using a green laser (you can see the wing of a wasp
you will have in your microscope. located between the laser and droplet.
• Add water from the sea, river or pud-
dles to see the micro-organisms move, although this water must not be too cloudy.
• You can put a transparent sheet, such as an insect wing or onion skin, between the
laser and the droplet, and you will also see it enlarged, as if it were a projector.

Given that the refractive index of water is n = 1.33, and knowing the distance (d) of the
droplet to your screen, can you calculate the magnification of your microscope?
Related experiments
Experiment 3.8 Microscope: how to see the tiniest things

Chapter 4
The human eye: a biological

camera
T
he human eye is an optical instrument offering incredible performance: not only is it
capable of forming an image focused on its sensor (the retina) but it also has the abil-
ity to focus at different distances and work under a wide range of light levels boasting
optical quality that is optimized for its functions. This is why for years it was the weak
point of Darwin’s theory of evolution, as he himself acknowledged:
How is it possible that simply through the process of natural selection, such a perfect
biological optical instrument had been created?
Yet the ability to see does not belong solely to the eyes; rather, it is a complex process
(Figure 4.1) that occurs throughout differentiated phases where visual information is per-
ceived, recognized, transformed and processed, over three stages: optic, retinal and neuro-
nal. Our eyes form the image of the outside world, the brain interprets the image from each
eye “in real time” and vision is the incredible result of highly coordinated teamwork.
The eye, the biological optical training system of images

The first stage of the visual process is the optical stage, where the eye is the main protago-
nist when collecting light from objects in our environment. If a distant object is observed,
we can consider that the propagation of light is rectilinear and parallel to the position of
our eye and that it travels through the air, a homogeneous medium with an index of refrac-
tion with a value of 1. When light enters the eye, it changes from the air to an aqueous
medium (with an approximate refractive index of 1.334), in which its transmission speed
changes, producing the phenomenon of refraction. Furthermore, the eye is formed by dif-
ferent tissues that include transparent biological structures that function as converging
lenses (cornea and lens, the latter is a variable power lens), transparent fluids that pro-
vide nutrition and support (tear, aqueous humour and vitreous humour) and a diaphragm
capable of offering openings adapted to ambient light (iris), which change the trajectory of
beams of light by gathering them in the position of our retina in the same way as the lenses
of a camera project the image on the digital sensor, as shown in Figure 4.1.
Finally, our eyes are wholly protected by the sclera, eyelids and bones of our eye orbit.
This specialist design responds to the requirement to capture almost infinite information
from the outside world and focus it on our biological sensor, the retina. As can be seen,
this layout can resemble that of a camera (Figure 4.2), with its lens and eyepiece, sensor
and housing, but let’s see more of its components in detail.
The cornea provides the greatest part of the eye’s refractive power, since it contributes
approximately 2/3 of the eye’s total power. This major contribution is due to the shape of
the corneal surface (convergent meniscus type lens) and the difference in the refractive
105

Figure 4.1 The process of human vision: optical stage, retinal stage and neuronal stage and its analogy with a camera,
sensor and processor system.
Source: María Viñas and Camilo Florian Baron.
index between the air and the cornea (with water-like value); it is the first medium (together
with the tear film) with which the light is found at its entry into the eye. The lens is the
second lens that forms the optical system; it is a converging biconvex lens that contributes
the remaining third to the refractive power of the eye (about 20 diopters in the unattended
state; later, we will delve into greater detail on the accommodation, the eye’s autofocus).
Both the cornea and the lens act to transmit and focus light optimally on the retina, where
transparency in both tissues is a critical requirement. For this, the cornea has a highly
organized structure, while the crystalline lens has different interfaces and proteins (called
crystalline proteins) distributed regularly as in onion layers, meaning that simple optical
systems cannot be considered. This will be seen more closely in Experiment 4.1.
The iris is found between the cornea and
the lens and is a diaphragm that, thanks to
its dilator and sphincter muscles, modulates
the entry of light into the eye. The size of
the aperture delimited by the iris, which we
call the pupil, varies automatically depend-
ing on the intensity of light that reaches the
eye (acting as the variable diaphragm of a
photo camera).
These are the optical elements of the eye;
they are not artificial lenses or the mechani-
cal structure of a camera, but they are tis-
sues that need support, protection and
nutrition. Alongside this, we have three dif-
ferent types of transparent fluids through
which light propagates (tear film, aqueous
humour and vitreous humour) and support
tissues rich in collagen, fibers and blood
vessels that are out of the light’s path (the
sclera, the eyelids, the conjunctiva, the cili-
Figure 4.2 The eye as a biological photo camera. ary muscle and the choroid), vital for the
Photography: Tinypic. maintenance of the visual system.

Retina: the magic of light
Around 90% of the sensory information we
receive from our environment is visual, and its
input is produced through the retina, the structure
of the back of our eye. The retina is located in the
position where the light rays that have entered the
eye are focused and is the easily observable part
of the central nervous system, since it has neuron-
like cells. These specialized cells convert the light
signal into an electrical impulse, triggering the
second stage of the visual process: phototransduc-
tion. Fascinating, isn’t it? But what happens when
the light reaches the retina?
Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852−1934), founder
of modern neurobiology, was the first to accu-
rately show the nervous system, the existence of
neurons and the connection between them, and
the organization of cells in the different layers of
the retina (the structure represented in some of
his drawings, such as Figure 4.3).
Contrary to what we might imagine, the
light refracted by the cornea and the lens does Figure 4.3 The retina is the inner layer of the
not reach the photoreceptors directly but must eyeball, it has a complex structure composed of ten
firstly pass through the neurons to which the different layers of cells. It was described in detail by
photoreceptors are connected. The explanation Santiago Ramón y Cajal in 1900.
is that the retinal neurons are transparent, like Source: Retinal structure system belonging to the manuscript
almost everything in our eye, and the photore- Study of the olfactory, optical and auditory brain centres and
continuity relationships that have nerves of the same name
ceptors with their opsins consume a lot of energy
with them in the human species and vertebrates, Santiago
to start the visual process; thus, they need to be Ramón y Cajal, Cajal Institute, CSIC.
connected to their power supply: the pigmen-
tary epithelium, which is not transparent but
has a molecule that absorbs light and does not Did you know…?
let it go further. The pigmentary epithelium is
not responsible for initiating the visual process; Ramón y Cajal made a major
it only acts as a barrier to light. It is somewhat contribution to the knowledge of the
odd, but years of evolution have determined this histological structure of the retina by
process as one of the most fascinating and spe- means of the Golgi staining method
cialized aspects of the human body. and, thanks to his skill in drawing, he
In the human retina, there are two types of discovered the ins and outs of the
photoreceptors that, due to their shape, receive different types of cells that make up
the names of cones and rods. The rods are spe- the retina: photoreceptors, bipolar
cially adapted to night vision, as they are very cells, horizontal cells, amacrine cells
sensitive and can detect very low levels of light, and ganglion cells. Although the detail
on the order of around a few photons (or a few of his drawings is incredible, thanks
lights). As there is only one type of cone, we are to the advancement of microscopes
unable to distinguish colors in low-light condi- and the latest high-resolution imaging
tions, when only the rods are active. The rods are techniques, we have been able to obtain
responsible for daytime vision, when the light genuine photographs of the retina with
levels are higher, and therefore, they are not as very high quality and advance somewhat
sensitive as the cones. Being smaller, they can be further into his knowledge (Figure 4.4).
packaged with higher density (more “pixels” per
Chapter 4 The human eye: a biological photo camera 107

unit area), providing greater-detail resolu-
tion than the rods. There are three different
types of cones, sensitive to different areas
of the visible spectrum, as we will see later,
which allows us to distinguish colors in
daylight conditions.
Another of the most fascinating features
of the retina is how the photoreceptors are
distributed. We have said that cones help us
see in great detail. Well, there is an area of the
retina, slightly off-center towards the nasal
side, called the fovea, which consists only of
cones, meaning that it is the area of the retina
that receives the greatest amount of light. The
fovea is known as the point of greatest visual
acuity and is the point with which we gaze
Figure 4.4 Image of a confocal microscope of the when we want to see something specific. The
cones (in red) and rods (in green), photoreceptors of the retina. density of the cones decreases as we move
Photograph: Courtesy of Robert Fariss, National Eye Institute (NIH). away from the fovea, and more and more rods
begin to appear until an area arrives, on the
periphery, where the cones cease to have a presence and are replaced solely by rods.
If the ocular optical system resembles a camera, we can say that the retina is our digital
sensor. However, an important difference between a camera’s sensor and the eye’s retina is
that, while the camera’s sensor is limited to representing the point-to-point image (in each
pixel) so that it can then project on a screen, the retina also analyzes the image that arrives,
and instead of transmitting a point-to-point representation of the image to the brain, it
transmits prioritized information to the brain such as, for example, the edges of the objects
in the image and orientation of objects.
For this reason, the retina not only contains light sensitive cells (photoreceptors), which
transform into electrical activity the light energy, but are also connected to a network of
neurons that process said electrical signal that then leaves the eye through the neuronal
axons that form the optic nerve. The point of the retina where these neuronal axons meet
to form the optic nerve is called the optic disc (Figure 4.5). In this area of the retina, there
are no photoreceptors that perceive light, which is why it is called the blind spot. This is
located about 15º towards the temporal zone with respect to the fovea and, although in
that area we do not see, we do not realize why the brain “fills” that part of the image. In
Experiment 4.2, we will see this part.
Finally, the light signal travels through the visual pathways and is encoded according
to its different characteristics (detail, color, movement) until it reaches the visual cortex, in
the occipital lobe of the brain, responsible for processing the visual information.
But is the eye a good optical instrument?

As can be seen, the eye has many similarities with a camera, with its lenses that focus on
a receiving screen or the diaphragm that controls the amount of light. Although it must be
said that the eye has much more sophisticated mechanisms than those of a camera, it is
also true that the quality of the image that forms on the retina is not quite perfect. Let’s do
a test: look at a small and somewhat distant point of light, such as an LED that emits any
appliance in your home. We know we should see a point. Close one eye. Don’t you think
that the point seems to have legs and halos, as if it were a kind of flea instead of a point?
Now try looking with the other eye. That little flea is different! From this experience, we
can draw two conclusions: if the image that gives us the eye of a point is not another point,

Figure 4.5 Diagram of the retina’s blind spot.
Source: Henry Gray (1825−1861), Edward Anthony Spitzka (1876−1922), Anatomy, descriptive and applied (1913); Philadelphia, New York, Lea &
Febiger, Open Knowledge Commons.
Did you know…?

It was a seventeenth-century French doctor who, for the first time, while dissecting a human eye,
observed that the optical disc lacked photoreceptors, so he assumed that it must be a blind spot.
Sometimes, it is important to know if there is any part of the retina that is not functioning properly.
For this, a test called campimetry is used where, while the patient gazes at a fixed point, lights
are presented in different positions of the visual field to see which ones they see. The blind spot
is precisely a control system since, if a light is projected that should fall into the blind spot and the
patient sees it, it is not testing correctly.
it means that the eye has certain imperfections. Furthermore, these imperfections are dif-
ferent between the two eyes.
Indeed, the eye is not a perfect optical system. The differences between the images of
the real point of the LED and the one that you have seen with each of your eyes are called
aberrations, and they can be measured, quantified and their influence studied, although
today it is not possible to correct them with glasses. In addition, it must be kept in mind
that there are other phenomena such as diffraction or dispersion that greatly affect the
final quality of the image.
Helmholtz (1821−1894) was a famous 19th-century scientist, with studies in numerous
fields, who developed important knowledge in optics. His phrase was famous, saying, “It
is not an exaggeration to say that if an optician wanted to sell me an instrument that had
as many defects as those of the eye, it would be justified to reprimand his lack of care in
the most energetic way and return it.” However, Helmholtz knew very well that the defects
that the eye has are not as noticeable as in any other instrument. Why? As you have been

Figure 4.6 Red eyes when illuminated by a photographic flash due to blood vessels of the choroids.
Photography: PeterPan23, Wikimedia Commons.
Did you know…?

The “red eyes” that we often see in the photographs are due to the light that, reflected in the back
of the eye, comes out through the pupil. The pupil normally appears black because most of the
light that enters the eye is absorbed and does not come out again. However, when we use an
intense and very-short-duration flash, as is the case with the photographic flash, the choroid has
no time to contract, and we see the light that is reflected in the retina and leaves the eye again,
filling the dilated pupil. The reddish tone is due to the color of the blood vessels found in the retina.
told in this chapter, the visual process does not depend only on the eye or end at the ret-
ina. It is the brain that is responsible for interpreting all the information it receives through
the retina and is responsible for compensating some of these imperfections or adapting to
them, so that in everyday life we are not fully aware of them. The brain is adapted to the
visual quality of each one and, when that quality changes, as when we wear new glasses,
for example, it must re-adapt to the new quality of the images it receives.
The brain: the last stage of the vision process

In the previous two sections, we have seen two stages, the first, which corresponds to
the optical process of light transmission, and the second, which is known as the process
of transforming light stimulation upon nerve impulse. Phase three includes the transmis-
sion of nerve impulses to the visual cortex, in the occipital lobe, located in the posterior
cerebral fossa. And finally, the fourth phase is the interpretation of the information in the
cerebral cortex in real time, completing the visual process.
The brain is perhaps the most complex biological structure in evolutionary history.
However, visually speaking, it is surprisingly easy to fool, since it has its limitations. The brain
samples with great speed and resolution the information that is critical, which has more con-
tent, but limits the rest of the information to a filling process, which it does not consider so

Figure 4.7 Salvador Dalí’s painting “Naked Gala looking at the sea that President Lincoln appears at 18 meters”, in
which the double image and the blur (left) are dabbled with. Also shown is the optical illusion of an impossible cube. Our brain is
able to see a complete cube, even if some of the information is wrong (right).
Photography: Dalí, Flicker (left); Pixabay (right).
relevant. That is, our brain selects the information it wants to process and frees us from the
rest; this is an effective strategy in terms of neural resources. Imagine the energy resources we
would consume if we had to process all the information coming from each of our senses.
This active process of the reconstruction of our visual perception is very similar to our
reality, but not completely. And when there is a lack of correspondence between percep-
tion and reality, optical illusions come into play. The basis of optical illusions is psychol-
ogy, and they can be classified into several groups: on the one hand, we have those that
are due to physiological phenomena, which depend on the physical response of the eye
to a stimulus (for example, the bleaching of flash photoreceptors of a photo camera, or
the disappearance of an object whose image falls on the blind spot of the retina or the few
details that our objects that are on the periphery of the scene have) and on the other hand,
we have the optical illusions that are due to psychological phenomena, which are based
on the geometric perspective and are related to the association of ideas during learning.
Optical illusions are a combination of physiology and psychology that involve the entire
visual process (from the eye to the brain), and its final result is deception. Wizards learned
their use centuries ago. We will explore this in Experiments 4.3 and 4.7.
The accommodation: a natural autofocus system

Once the visual stages are completed, the unique concepts of the visual system will be
described. One of them is our astounding ability to focus distant and near objects auto-
matically and without losing detail; this wonderful property is down to the lens.
As we saw in Chapter 3, when we have a lens with fixed refractive power, the position of
the image produced by the lens depends on the position of the object. When the object is too
far away, the image will form in the focal plane image, so we can place our sensor (the retina,
in our case) at this point to obtain a focused image. If we approach the object, the vergence

of the light that reaches the camera’s target
Did you know…? from the object increases. This means that to
maintain the same image distance as in the
Many optical illusions have a significant previous case, for the image to form in the
impact on our daily lives, such as Helmholtz’s same position, the image vergence must be
theory of illusion. This theory is applied the same. This is only possible if we increase
both in the world of fashion as well as in the refractive power of the lens of our cam-
decoration, giving a broader perspective of era: L ′= L + F; if L ′ = 1/l ′ is constant and
space. The choice of stripes for the clothing L = 1/l increases when the distance / is
of prisoners is no accident, as it makes them reduced, then F must increase.
more visible and facilitates their identification In the case of a camera, this is achieved
in a crowd in case of escape. What is by focusing the lens. By focusing the lens
more, the stripes constitute a psychological via rotation, we actually change the relative
punishment, since in the Middle Ages these position of the lenses that form it, increas-
prints characterized prostitutes, jesters and ing the total power of the lens system. In the
other social outcasts. case of the eye, to focus closer objects on the
Benham’s disc, which we will see in retina we also need to increase its refractive
Experiment 4.7, was invented by Charles power, although the mechanism, which is
Benham, a journalist and inventor fond of called accommodation, is different from that
toys, and at first it was sold as a simple of cameras. In the case of the eye, the increase
toy. However, it is currently used by some in refractive power is achieved by increasing
specialists as a method to diagnose some eye the power of the lens, mainly by increasing
diseases, especially cases of optic neuritis. the curvature of its anterior face (we saw in
Chapter 3 that by increasing the curvature of a
curved refractive surface, its power increases)
(Figure 4.8). The accommodation process is continuous; the eye accommodates or does the
opposite every time we look at a new object. However, with age the lens becomes less elastic,
and we gradually lose the ability to accommodate (at 40, we can hardly read this book without
an optical aid, modern glasses or contact lenses; who knows if in the next few years we will
have a different type of autofocus lens).
Focusing errors in the eye: why do we need glasses?

During our eyes’ development, we need the focal point of the eye’s optical system to coin-
cide exactly with the position of the retina, requiring a high degree of coordination between
the cornea, the lens and the length of the eye. An eye that has the ability to sharply focus
the image on the retina is said to be emmetropic. However, sometimes the eye is not able to
sharply focus the image, presenting some kind of error and reducing the optical quality of
the eye. That means that the size of the eye is not adjusted to the power of the eye’s optical
system, triggering near-sightedness or farsightedness, or that the lenses themselves have
some kind of irregularity, resulting in some astigmatism.
If the eye is too long or has a convergent refractive power, the image of an object is
formed in front of the retina and we say that the eye is myopic. In this case, the light
beams are focused in front of the retina, but if we continue their propagation to the retina
we see how they continue to diverge and form a blurred spot in the position of the retina
(Figure 4.9). On the contrary, if the eye is too short or its refractive power is not enough to
make light beams converge on the retina, we say that the eye is long-sighted. In this case,
the rays reach the convergent retina but point to a spot behind the retina (Figure 4.9).
A myopic eye can be corrected by divergent lenses. These decrease the convergence
of the eye the amount necessary for the image to form on the retina. When we say that an
eye is myopic of −3.0 D, what is meant is that the power of the corrective lens needed
is −3.0 D, that is, divergent. On the contrary, a long-sighted eye does not have enough

Figure 4.8 Illustrating the accommodation process.
Photography: Pablo Pérez Merino.
refractive power to form the image on the retina, and we need to contribute more conver-
gent refractive power. Therefore, when we say that an eye has hypermetropy of +3.0 D,
we know that this is the lens that corrects its refractive error, focusing the image on the
retina. This will be seen in Experiment 4.4.
The near-sighted or hypermetropic have the focal point in front of or behind the retina
because the power of the eye or its length are not correct. However, if there is some kind
of irregularity or decentralisation in the cornea or lens, then a single focal point is not
formed, but different foci are presented for different orientations. This is known as astig-
matism, and its correction would be done with cylindrical or toric lenses (Figure 4.9).
Why do we have two eyes? Binocular,

three-dimensional (3D) vision and visual field
Binocular vision is the integration of the sensation produced by the light stimuli that reach
each eye in a unique perception (Figure 4.10).
Having two eyes is not synonymous with binocular vision. The chameleon, for example,
has two eyes that move independently and yet has no binocular vision. For this to take
place, both eyes are required to move in a coordinated manner, so that the final impres-
sion of the outer space is unique. The fundamental advantage of binocular vision over
monocular vision is the possibility of deep vision or stereoscopic vision. We will check
this phenomenon in Experiment 4.5.
Stereopsis is a phenomenon of perception that provides valid and accurate information
on the relative distance of an object from another. This concept is usually confused with

Figure 4.9 Diagram of the different refractive errors, when observing a scene and with its corresponding corrections.
Did you know…?

We are all born with hypermetropias, and as we grow, the size of the eye is synchronised with its
refractive power so that the image is focused on the retina, and we do not have refractive errors.
This process is called emmetropisation, and once again the eye surprises us by being able to
determine if it has to reduce or increase its growth rate. However, lifestyle changes seem to affect
this process, causing an epidemic of myopia that is beginning to be a problem in countries like
Singapore, where 90% of the population has myopia.
the term depth perception. However, these are totally different concepts, since there are
patients with monocular vision who can perceive relative distances between objects in
space and, nevertheless, do not have stereopsis. Binocular vision, together with retinal dis-
parity, that is, the difference between two images in the retina (because the two retinas do
not have the same vision stimuli given the location of the eyes) is the basis for the creation
of images in three dimensions (3D) on flat surfaces, used in different space exploration
projects (Figure 4.11).
The binocular field of vision contains the visual field of the two eyes, without moving
the head, and this extends through a region that exceeds 180º horizontally, but there are
regions that are invisible to each of the two eyes due to the nose.

Figure 4.10 Horizontal and vertical visual field.
Photography: OpenStax College, Wikimedia Commons.
How many images per

second can the human eye
really see? Movement
When moving an object in front of our eyes, a
succession of its images is formed in different
regions of the retina, giving the sensation of
movement. However, the sensation may also
be noted when it is produced by objects that
are at rest and that appear and disappear in a
timely manner. This sensation is called appar-
ent movement, as opposed to real movement.
We will see this in Experiment 4.6.
In order for the brain to distinguish
between two images that form in two differ-
ent regions of the retina, these images have
to be formed at well-defined time intervals. Figure 4.11 Two spacecraft launched by NASA within
Hence, the concept of the temporal resolu- the STEREO mission (Observatory of Sun and Earth Relations).
tion of the human eye, and the relationship Photograph: NASA.

with a basic concept in film or video games,
the FPS (frame or frames per second), that
is, the series of images we are able to spin
per second to observe a sequential series as
a continuous series. In other words, a sin-
gle moving image, which, after all, is what
humans can envisage.
Therefore, the exact exposure is 24
frames per second, that is, a film in which
24 frames per pass in front of the projec-
tor for each second of exposure to light.
The characters are observed as people in
Figure 4.12 The flutter frequency of this humming- real situations with real movements, when
bird coincides with the frames of the camera, so that it seems in fact we have deceived our eyes and our
to be suspended in the air. minds, an example of which can be seen in
Photograph: Photography: MaxPixel ,https://www.maxpixel.net/
Figure 4.12. However, if these same frames
Bird-In-Flight-Colorful-Humming-Bird-Wildlife-2507644. were exposed at a different speed, our
view would perceive those same situations
as not real. The proportion is as follows: the greater the number of frames exposed per
second is, the greater the sensation of slowness; and the smaller the number of frames
exposed per second is, the greater the sense of speed. For example, at 36 frames per sec-
ond, the human eye perceives a situation in what is now known as slow motion, while
the same image, or the same frames, if reproduced at a number less than 24, for example,
at 18 frames per second, results in us being able to perceive those same situations in
rapid motion, that is, both the characters and the activities they develop. The only detail
that has changed is that fewer exposures per second of the same previous frames pass in
front of the projector.
How has the organ of sight developed in other living beings?

The animal kingdom encompasses millions of species, and more than 95% of these share
one characteristic: the power of sight. However, there are no two species that see the world
in the same way. There is a great variety of eyes in the animal world; there are eyes with
different aspects, sizes and settings. This is because animals have different lifestyles that
have made them evolve to ensure their survival.
Animals’ eyes are an excellent example of convergent evolution. The eyes of the dif-
ferent animals throughout the current planet did not evolve from the same ancestral
eye. In fact, the eyes have evolved in different lineages, but, extraordinarily, evolution
has used the same basic genes for the creation of the eyes of creatures as different as
the fly, the squid or the human being. At the beginning of the Cambrian period, 544
million years ago, the animal kingdom experienced a transitional stage, as new species
appeared, including marine ancestors of dinosaurs, elephants and humans. These spe-
cies were larger and more mobile than their predecessors, developed combat weapons
and, most crucially, their eyes. The eyes of the trilobites are the first to appear in the
fossil record of compound eyes. Trilobites are animals with joint limbs, which currently
cover crustaceans, insects and spiders, among others. Observed closely, the compound
eye consists of two round structures on the head, in which small bodies can be seen cir-
cular in a series of rows, each of which contains several of these circles, which are actu-
ally lenses (Figure 4.13).
The next step in the evolution of the eye can be imagined in the following way: if we
have a sheet of cells sensitive to luminosity and fold that sheet in a “U” shape, we would

Figure 4.13 Eyes of animals with different complexities (from left to right): human, nautilus and trilobites. In the upper
part, the animal; in the middle, an experimental setup; and below, a ray tracing.
Sources: Sofiezborilova, Pixabay (top left); Skeeze, Pixabay (above centre); Adolfo-atm, Pixabay (top right); in house (centre); Clara Benedí (below)
Did you know…?

The film industry is testing the 48 FPS format, twice the traditional rate of 24 FPS. The first film that
was shot at 48 FPS was The Hobbit (Peter Jackson). At first it may seem that the movements are
excessively fast and artificial, but this is only because we are accustomed to 24 FPS. With 48 FPS,
each frame is exposed to light for less time because more images are taken per second, so the
sharpness of each frame is higher.
obtain a concave figure called an eye in a glass. If we continue folding gradually, the cup
closes on itself leaving only a hole at the top, which provides the eye with a mechanism
similar to that of a pinhole camera. The nautilus, a genus of cephalopod molluscs, has eyes
of this type (Figure 4.14), simple, that furnish it with blurred vision of the environment
and with scant details, but it allows them to determine certain simple forms.
The key to obtaining a clearer image that provides good vision is found in the lenses.
The better the lens is, the better the image obtained will be. Natural selection has
continued working generation after generation, imposing in each phase small improve-
ments on different characteristics, such as the curvature, the transparency of the lenses
and ocular medium, until finally a degree of evolution like that of the human eye was
reached.
However, we find in nature many examples of animals with more surprising eyes than
ours; for example, we can highlight the primate called the tarsier. Its huge eyes are fixed
on the skull and cannot rotate in its orbits, a disadvantage that this animal compensates
with a neck that rotates 360º. As its eyes are heavier and bigger than its brain, the tarsier

Did you know…?
The structure of the eye of the octopus is
very similar to that of the human eye, except
the structure of the retina, which is reversed
(the light-sensitive cells are closer to the lens
than the rest of the cells of the retina). This
indicates that this type of eye evolved very
similarly to ours, despite following a vastly
different evolutionary path.
Figure 4.14 The structure of the eye of the octopus

is very similar to that of the human eye.
Photograph: Edmondlafoto, Pixabay.
has very sharp sight and excellent night vision. Also interesting is the case of the goblin
fish, which incorporates in its vision system a mirror that allows it to see up and down at
the same time.
Bibliography
Atchison, D.A. and Smith, G. (2000): Optics of the Human Eye, Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann.
Diaz, R. (2013): Art, magic and illusion: optical illusions in art and other visual productions, Madrid,
CSIC.
Kahle, W. and Fortscher, M. (2015): Anatomy Atlas with Clinical Correlation, Thieme Medical Pub;
7th edition.
Macknik, S., Martinez-Conde, S. and Blakeslee, S. (2011): Sleights of Mind: What the neuroscience of
magic reveals about our brains, Profile Books.
Puell, M.C. (2006): Óptica Fisiológica: el sistema óptico del ojo y la visión binocular. Universidad
Complutense de Madrid, Madrid.
Schwartz, S.H. (2013): Geometrical and Visual Optics, New York, McGraw Hill Professional.
Stratton, G.M. (1986): “Some Preliminary Experiments on Vision without Inversion of the Retinal
Image,” Psychological Review, 3 (6), pp. 611-617.
Valenzuela , M. (2008): Anomalías en la visión del color. Publicatuslibros. https://docplayer.
es/19554919-Anomalias-en-la-vision-del-color.html.

Objective 1: Mount the eye of the nautilus.
How Does the Human Objective 2: Build and identify the parts of a human eye and
Eye Work? And that compare them with the parts of a camera.
of Other Animals? MATERIALS

• Plastic ball
• PVC or sturdy cardboard tube • Piece of onion paper the
• Convex lens (magnifying glass) same size as the circular
60 min (+) Anatomy of the eye. • Flashlight piece of plastic
• Circular piece of transparent • Craft knife, scissors, glue
plastic with a diameter somewhat and adhesive tape
larger than the PVC pipe
T
he sight process is complex and needs three basic elements: eye, brain and light.
Without light, we are unable to see. However, in many cases it is the optics of the eye
that determines the type of vision.
In this experiment, you can mount two different eye models, in which various opti-
cal elements are involved: a pinhole and a lens. Of course, the quality of the image that
reaches the retina is not the same.
Try for yourself!
Figure 4.1.1 Formation of a image in the eye and in a camera.

Source: In-house
Procedure
The nautilus
The nautilus has the simplest visual system you can imagine: a simple pinhole that regu-
lates the amount of light that enters, and no lens.
1. Make a small hole in some cardboard. You can draw the animal on the cardboard!
2. Illuminate a slide so that the image passes through the pinhole. Place a white card-
board behind the nautilus to see how the image is formed.
The human eye

1. Take the transparent circular plastic and stick it to one end of the PVC pipe.
2. Glue the piece of onion paper over the clear plastic. This is where the image will be
projected, that is, the retina.

4.1 Experiment: How Does the Human Eye Work? And that
of Other Animals?
Figure 4.1.2 Nautilus eye diagram (left) and assembly of the experiment (right).
Source: in house. Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.
Figure 4.1.3 How to use the model eye (left). Looking through the model eye (right).
3. Cut the plastic ball in half, with the help of the craft knife, remember not to cut yourself!
4. Make a hole in the centre of each of the halves. The PVC pipe will pass through one
of the holes and the lens (magnifying glass) will be placed in the other. This lens will
represent the cornea and lens ensemble.
5. Insert the PVC tube so that the plastic and onion paper are inside the ball.
6. Adjust the distance between the magnifying glass and the paper until a focused image
is obtained.
7. Join the two halves of the ball and fix them with sticky tape.
Explanation
Light enters the eye through the cornea (the magnifying glass in our experiment). The iris
controls the muscles that alter the size of the pupil in order to adjust the amount of light
entering the eye (in this case, the hole that simulates the pupil is of fixed size). After pass-
ing through the pupil, the light reaches the lens (the magnifying glass), which focuses the
light on the retina (the transparent circle covered with onion paper). The retina contains
thousands of cells that are sensitive to light and help transform this into a neural message
for the brain to interpret as an image. The eye is optically equivalent to the current camera:
it has a lens system, a variable aperture system (the pupil) and a retina that corresponds to
the photographic plate on which the images are projected.
The jumping spider (Salticidae) has one of the finest visual systems in the world of
invertebrates. In total, it has eight eyes, six lateral and two in the front of its head, so that
they provide a kind of peripheral vision. The main eyes are located in the front and allow
it to locate prey and hunt them. These eyes have two lenses like our cornea, which make

4.1 Experiment: How Does the Human Eye Work? And that
of Other Animals?
a first filtering of the light, but then they have two tubular structures that reach a second
lens. The two-lens system makes jumping spiders see the world through two small tele-
scopes that can move and adjust. Just as we accommodate by changing the shape of our
lens to change the focal length, the spider focuses with different layers of its retina. It has
a succession of photoreceptors arranged in a kind of staircase, which allows the spider to
clearly perceive objects at different distances depending on where you direct the stimulus,
that is, one layer receives the focused images and the other receives them blurred. The
more out of focus the image appears in this layer, the closer the eye is to the object. This
detail allows the spider to calculate the exact distance it has to jump to catch its prey. The
second, third and fourth layers are responsible for color vision, and the first layer works in
high sharpness and shape perception. Combining the four layers, the spider has 3D vision.
Tricks
You can paint the ball white so that it looks more like an eye, as well as the iris around the
magnifying glass.

• How must the image on the retina appear?
• The part of the retina we are observing, what would it be and why?
Related experiments

Objective 1: Observe post-images.
What Happens in Objective 2: Verify the existence of the blind spot in the retina
Your Retina? and calculate, taking into account the distances,
what angle the fovea and the blind spot form.
Objective 3: Check how the brain can form a single complete
image even if we only see different pieces separately.
Retina, photoreceptors,
30 min (+) retinal persistence, MATERIALS
light, image formation
• Flashlight • Utility knife
• Cardboard • Ballpoint pen
• Ruler • Long cardboard tube
• White sheet of paper (like kitchen paper)
• Sticky tape or masking tape • Black cardboard
T
he functioning of our body is based on numerous chemical reactions. For example,
in the process of transforming the light signal that reaches the retina into a nerve
impulse, a chemical reaction also occurs. With this experiment you can verify and
alter these processes.
The retina is the part of the eye that receives the image information being viewed, just
like the sensor in a camera. So that all this information can be sent to the brain, the optic
nerve is used, the “cable” that communicates between both organs. The junction zone
between the optic nerve and the retina lacks photoreceptors, light-sensitive cells, making
it a blind zone. You don’t believe it? Check it out for yourself!
Procedure
Experiment with the light of a flashlight
1. With the help of the craft knife, cut
a simple figure on the cardboard (a
square or a triangle).
2. Get into a dark room.
3. Place the flashlight behind the hole so
that the light passes through the cut-
out area, without protruding from the
sides of the cardboard. Keep the card-
board upright by placing books on both
sides, for example.
4. Keep the cardboard and flashlight an
arm’s length from you.
5. Look at the bright hole for 30 seconds.
6. Next, look at a blank wall and blink Figure 4.2.1 Assembly of the experiment. The flash-
a few times. What did you see? What light is placed behind the cardboard.
color is it? Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.
7. Now look at the palm of your hand and
again the wall. What’s the difference
between the two?

4.2 Experiment: What Happens in Your Retina?
Experiment with a cross and a circle
1. Draw a cross and a circle on paper sep-
arated from each other by about 12 or
15 cm.
2. Place the paper about 15 cm from your
eyes.
3. Cover your left eye and look at the
cross with the right.
4. Right now, the cross is focused on the
fovea and the circle in a peripheral
area of the retina.
5. Slowly take away the paper while look- Figure 4.2.2 Parts of the eye involved in the detection
ing at the cross. of the blind spot.
6. There will come a time when the circle Source: in house.
disappears. This is because it is being
projected onto your blind spot on the retina!
7. How far from your eye do you have to place the paper so that you stop seeing the
circle?
Experiment with a tube with a slit

1. Cut a piece of black cardboard to form
a lid on one end of the tube. Make it
bigger so you can stick it to the tube.
2. In the middle of the circle you just
made, cut a rectangle 2.5 cm long and
3 mm wide (millimeters! It has to be a
very thin slit).
3. Wink one eye and place the tube
through the open end on the other. You
cannot see much, but if you move the Figure 4.2.3 Assembly of the experiment.
tube (with your head and body still), Photography: in house.
even if you only see small pieces of the
image, in your head you see the complete image. Move the tube at different speeds
and see what happens!
Explanation
What is happening in the first part of this experiment is that, by observing a bright light
for a long time, the retinal sticks become saturated. The rods contain a protein called rho-
dopsin, which is sensitive to light stimulation. When it receives light, it breaks, and in the
dark it forms again. By stimulating the protein with such light intensity, the regeneration
process takes longer, which becomes a few seconds of “blindness.” The saturation that
produced in the experiment is localized, and that is why the shape (the triangle or the
square) of the figure we have made in the cardboard is maintained. The image you see is
called a post-image.
In the second experiment, as long as you keep your eyes fixed on the cross, it will be
projected on the fovea, the point of maximum visual acuity, and everything around (in

4.2 Experiment: What Happens in Your Retina?
this case, the circle) in the rest of the ret-
ina. If you move the paper but keep your
eyes fixed on the cross, it will continue to
be projected on the fovea, while the projec-
tion of the cross will move over the entire
retina, until it coincides with the blind
spot, where there are no photosensitive
cells, and therefore it can no longer be seen.
With a little trigonometry we can calculate
the separation between the fovea, the area
of greatest visual acuity, and the blind spot Figure 4.2.4 How to calculate the blind spot angle.
in the retina. The angle (α) in question is Photography: in house.
equal to that subtended by the circle with
respect to the cross:
α = arctan 12 or 15cm/d
In the third experiment, the distance (d) is an approximation, since it can be measured
from the vertex of the eye and not from the center of rotation, so keep in mind that this
value is always going to be somewhat greater. In this experiment, what is known as visual
persistence is tested. The eye and the brain both retain images for a small fraction of a sec-
ond. When you move the tube quickly, the brain retains the fractions of the images long
enough to form a complete picture of what you are seeing.
Tricks
• You can do even more with the post-images. Cover your eyes for 10 minutes. After
that time, uncover them, open your eyes and observe a well-lit scene for half a second.
Then close your eyes again. It will seem like even with your eyes closed, you can still
see the scene.
• You can complicate the post-image experiment a bit by playing with both eyes. Repeat
the same process, but this time observe the illuminated figure with only one of them,
keeping the other closed. Try looking again at the wall, first with one eye and then with
the other. You will see that this effect only occurs in the eye that has been exposed to
the great intensity of light.
• In the second experiment, to make it easier for you to measure the distance from your
eye to the paper, place positioning marks and place the paper on some support so that
the displacement is more uniform.

• In the post-image experiment, when the one-eye experiment is performed, why is the
effect not transferred to the other?
• Why don’t we usually realize the existence of blind spots?
• At what angle is the blind spot of the optical axis approximately?

Objective 1: Observe colors under different conditions and see
And You, What how our perception of them changes.
Color Do You See? MATERIALS

• Scissors
• Glue and sticky tape
• Grey translucent paper (or grey adhesive tape)
30 min (+) Color, contrast • Ruler
• Black and white cardboard
• Translucent colored paper: yellow, purple, two shades of blue
and two shades of orange
T
he perception of colors plays an important role in our life. In February 2015, the
photo of a dress began to circulate on social networks and caused a stir on the inter-
net. What was special about the dress? Apparently, it was a normal dress, but half of
the world’s population saw it as golden and white, and the other half saw it as black and
blue. You can search for the photo of the dress on the internet.
In this experiment, we will see how certain factors affect how we perceive colors and
how our brain can deceive us.
Procedure
Experiment with colored cards
1. Cut one of the orange cards and one of the blue cards in half. Do it so that you
take the blue of the darkest shade and the orange of the lightest shade. Glue two
of the halves of different color with
sticky tape and leave the part that is
not taped upside down. This will be
our new backdrop.
2. From the rest of the colors (except
grey, black, white and those you used
to make the background), cut out equal
squares of each color and a rectangular
strip (of the same colors).
3. Take two squares of the same color and
paste them at the same distance in the
background that you prepared in step 1.
Each square must be of a different
color. Repeat this step with all squares.
4. Ask a friend which color they think is
lighter or darker. Join the squares with
the rectangular strip of the same color
and show that, despite the background, Figure 4.3.1 Experiment with colored cards.
the color is the same! Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.

4.3 Experiment: And You, What Color Do You See?
White, black and grey cardboard
experiment
1. Cut out eight strips of black cardboard
measuring 1.50 cm wide and 20 cm
long.
2. Glue the strips on the white cardboard
forming horizontal strips, leaving a
1.50 cm gap between them.
3. Cut out eight strips 1.50 cm wide and
5 cm long from the translucent paper
or grey tape. If you use adhesive tape,
stick it on a piece of paper beforehand Figure 4.3.2 White, black and grey cardboard
so you can move it more easily. Place experiment assembly.
four grey strips on the right side of the Photography: in house.
cardboard you prepared in point 2.
Place them as four consecutive black
stripes.
4. Place another four grey strips on the opposite side and at a different height than the
previous ones (start higher or lower) on the white parts.
5. Do you think they are the same shade of grey? Move the grey strips and watch what
happens.
Explanation
Cones are responsible for processing color sight. We have three different types of cones
and each of them is sensitive to a different color. This makes us distinguish many colors,
but it also means we can confuse them. Therefore, if we place a light blue color on a dark
blue background, it will appear brighter, since the cones that process this color are centred
on the dark blue color that is in the background, and the rest of the cones are not that sen-
sitive to that color. Something similar is what happens in the experiment using grey with
black and white card. When changing the grey strips’ position, it can be seen that at some
point they appear to be the same shade of grey (when the two strips are parallel on black or
Figure 4.3.3 Visual perception of colors in your experiments.


4.3 Experiment: And You, What Color Do You See?
white at the same time); but, when interspersed, one between black strips and one between
white strips, the shade of grey is remarkably different.
The black strips also appear darker in some areas and lighter in others. Knowing that
the tone of grey and black is always the same, why is this? Well, it is due to how our eye
processes light and dark information. Clarity is a property related to the amount of light
that objects reflect, and this is processed in conjunction with the image observed; we are
not able to separate one object from another. If we cover the black lines and only see white
and grey, white reflects 80% of the light it receives, creating a very bright environment,
so grey is affected. However, if we cover the white and only see the black, 5% of the light
it receives is reflected, and the environment becomes very dark. Grey has the ability to
reflect 10−70% of the light it receives, depending on its environment, so…now we under-
stand it! This is known as proof of clarity.
Tricks
• Try changing the backgrounds, put darker or lighter colors to see which background
causes what you place on top is perceived as lighter or darker. The contrast also works
in reverse: different colors may look the same.
• Try to take two similar but differentiable colors with the naked eye and find a back-
ground where both look the same.

Why does the background on which we see the object affect the color of which you see the
squares?

4.4 Experiment
OBJECTIVES:
Why Do People Wear Objective 1: Understand why there are myopic eyes and
hypermetropic eyes.
Eyeglasses? Objective 2: Explain how these refractive defects are corrected.
MATERIALS
Image formation, refractive • A fish tank with water • Flashlight
1 h (+) defects, retina • A magnifying glass (if you • A letter printed on
don’t have one, you can place acetate paper, which will
a converging lens inside a leave an image
cardboard roll) • DIN A4 black-and-white
• A converging lens and a cardboard
divergent lens • Plasticine (optional)
T
he size of the eyeball and the shape of
the cornea have parameters that allow
the parallel rays that reach our eyes to
focus on the retina with sharpness.
When one or more of these parameters do
not comply with the rule, the images that
form on the retina are blurred. This is what
is known as refractive defects, as was seen
in Figure 4.9. Let’s experiment with myopia
and farsightedness!
Procedure
1. Cut a hole in the middle of the bottom
of the black cardboard. Paste the image
of the letter into this hole.
2. Place the magnifying glass behind the Figure 4.4.1 Materials.
black cardboard at a distance not far Photography: in house.
away.
3. In the same line of sight, place the fish-
bowl full of water and glue the white
cardboard on the side opposite to the one
closest to the magnifying glass. This will
be the retina of our experimental eye.
4. Once all the elements are located in a
straight line, light up the image with
the flashlight to form the image on the
retina (the screen). Move the magnifying
glass to form a sharp image of the letter.
5. You have created an emmetropic eye,
that is, an eye without refractive defects.
6. To simulate an eye with myopia, the Figure 4.4.2 Image formation in one eye.
retina will be removed from its initial Photography: in house.
position. In other words, the image will
be formed before the screen. You can check it with the help of an extra white cardboard.

4.4 Experiment: Why Do People Wear Eyeglasses?
7. To simulate a farsighted eye, we will
follow the same procedure but this
time bring the retina closer to the ini-
tial position. The image will form
behind the retina. As in the previous
case, you can check it using another
white cardboard.
8. Once you have created a shortsighted
and farsighted eye, how do we make
these eyes emmetropic? To correct
shortsightedness and farsightedness,
that is, to make the image formed in
front of or behind the retina form in the Figure 4.4.3 Compensation of a simulated farsight-
retina, we place a divergent (negative) edness by approaching the beaker.
or convergent (positive) lens in front of Photography: in house.
the magnifying glass. Guess which one
is which!
Explanation
The refractive defect can be considered as a power error due to a mismatch between the
equivalent power (cornea, lens power) and eye length. For example, if the equivalent
power is too high for a certain eye length, the image is formed in front of the retina, and
this results in a myopic refractive error. If the power is too low in relation to the length of
the eye, the image is formed behind the retina and results in a hypermetropic refractive
error. To correct a myopic eye, a divergent (negative) lens is interposed, instead a hyper-
metropic or farsighted eye is corrected with a convergent (positive) lens (Figure 4.4.4).
Figure 4.4.4 Simulation using ray tracing of the different ametropies.


4.4 Experiment: Why Do People Wear Eyeglasses?

• What is an emmetropic eye? What is the difference between a myopic eye and a hyper-
metropic eye?
• If a person’s vision is corrected with divergent or negative glasses or contact lenses,
what refractive defect do they have?
Related experiments
Experiment 4.1 How does the human eye work? And that of other animals?

Objective 1: Experience the first degree that gives rise to binocu-
Do We See with lar vision: simultaneous vision.
Both Eyes? Objective 2: Experience the third degree that gives rise to binocu-
lar vision: stereopsis.
MATERIALS
• A sheet of paper • 2 drinking straws
Binocular vision,
30 min (+) simultaneous vision, • Two pieces of cardboard • Two coins or cardboard circles
fusion, stereopsis, • Template for glasses of different sizes
distance perception • Red and blue tissue paper • Sheet of paper or cardboard of
• A shoe box with lid a color that contrasts with the
• Scissors inside of the shoe box
• Sticky tape or masking tape
I
f we have two eyes, it is not simply nature’s whim. Having binocular vision (Figure 4.10)
gives us an in-depth vision, but to reach this, it is necessary to fulfil a series of previous
degrees: simultaneous vision (first grade), fusion (second grade) and finally stereopsis,
that is, insight into depth (third grade). When a person does not have deep vision (it hap-
pens to 8% of the population) and, for example, is not able to watch 3D movies, it may be
because they fail any of the three degrees of binocular vision, but how can you know if you
have binocular vision?
Procedure
Simultaneous vision and fusion
1. Take the sheet of paper and roll it up.
2. Place it in front of your right eye (it will be easier on the left if you are left-handed)
and look through it as if it were a spyglass. You must keep the other eye open.
3. Tilt the tube slightly towards the nose.
4. In the middle of the tube place your open hand, with the palm facing you.
5. Move it along the sheet of paper. What happens? Figure 4.5.1.
Figure 4.5.1 Position and result of the experiment when you have binocular vision: a hand with a hole.

4.5 Experiment: Do We See with Both Eyes?
Stereopsis (depth perception)
1. On a piece of cardboard, draw the
shape of spectacles twice.
2. Cut out both templates, including the
spaces where you will look through
(we will call these windows).
3. Cut out two pieces of tissue paper, one
red and one blue, larger than the win-
dows already cut out.
4. Glue the pieces of tissue paper around
the window’s edge. Try to stretch them
out as far as possible.
5. Paste the second shape of cardboard
you have cut out, making them both Figure 4.5.2 Viewing an anaglyph through the
coincide and leaving the tissue paper red-blue glasses.
squares in the centre. Photography: IOS
6. Fold the cardboard to shape the pins.
7. Search online for “anaglyph video” and watch it with your glasses on. What differ-
ence does it make if you take them off (Figure 4.5.2)?
Correct distance?
1. Take the shoebox and remove the lid.
2. Cut an 8 x 13-cm window on one of the short sides of the box and make a hole in the
center of the cropped rectangle. The hole should be 0.5 cm in diameter, so you can see
through it with one eye.
3. Cover the window you made in the box with the rectangle. To do this, put sticky tape
at the bottom of the rectangle and paste it to the bottom of the window. The window
must be covered by the rectangle.
4. On the opposite side of the box (in front of where the window is), make a hole for each
straw. Make them the same height, with a little separation between them so the straws
are held in place.
Figure 4.5.3 Description of the assembly (left) and experimental assembly (right).
Sources: in house.

4.5 Experiment: Do We See with Both Eyes?
5. Cut out the cardboard to the same height as the box. The width of the cardboard must
be greater than that of the box, in order to make some flaps. Make two holes in the
cardboard, at the same height and distance as the ones you made in the shoe box. Each
straw must pass through these holes.
6. Glue the cardboard to the box. To do this, place the flaps where the holes of the straws
are, so that the flaps are not visible through the box window.
7. Insert the straws through the holes. As there is also a hole in the cardboard, the straws
will remain straight and aligned.
8. Use the two coins of different sizes to cut two circles of different sizes. The color of
the circles must contrast with the color inside the box. Paste each circle to the end of a
straw and...let’s start!
9. Place the straws at different distances from the window. Look through the hole in the
window and try to move one of the straws until you think the two circles are the same
size. When you are sure, take off the window and check it with both eyes.
Explanation
In the first experiment, we are forcing each eye to see a different thing, with one the hole
and with the other the hand. If there is simultaneous vision, you will see both images.
If your brain also has the ability to merge, it will appear as if your hand has a hole (both
images overlap). The position of the hole on the hand depends on the distance at which
you have your hand with respect to yourself.
In the second experiment, your eye is again receiving two different images (anaglyphs),
one bluish and one reddish, but from the same scene. Also, if you look at the scene, the
images are laterally shifted with regard to each other. As the images are different, your
brain can merge them and give them depth. The more you move between them, the more
different they will appear, and the brain will give them greater depth. In the third experi-
ment, it is seen that, when looking only with one eye, depth perception is affected. It is
difficult to know which circle is farther away and how much. When checking with both
eyes, we see two different images (one for each eye), and that provides enough information
for our brain to analyze and discriminate the size, shape and distance of objects.
Tricks
On the internet, there are web pages to generate anaglyphs from your own images. You can
try it with a funny picture of yourself!

Do you think we can differentiate depth with one eye?
Related experiments

Objective 1: Build a thaumotrope.
How Do We See Objective 2: Build a zoetrope.
Movement?
MATERIALS
• Sheet of paper • Stiff cardboard
• Drinking straw • Black cardboard
Retinal persistence, • Felt-tipped pens • Plastic beaker
45 min (+) cinema • Glue • Drawing pins
D
ue to the extraordinary characteristics of vision, optical illusion games can be cre-
ated by using the underlying physical principle. As early as 1824, John Ayrton
Paris was aware of this and invented the thaumotrope, an apparatus with which
he intended to demonstrate retinal persistence but which eventually became a popular
game in Victorian England. The same happened with the zoetrope, created in 1834 by
William George Horner, after which the
same concept is hidden and which, in
this case, was the precursor of the begin-
nings of cinema. You can also build both
devices and see for yourself what John
and William already knew.
Procedure
Building a thaumotrope
1. Take a sheet of paper and fold it in
half.
2. Draw a fish on one side and a fish
tank on the other. Both drawings
must face the same way. Check that
the fish is smaller than the fish tank.
3. Paste the sheet, placing the straw
between both sides.
4. Spin the straw around quickly and
look at the paper. The fish is inside Figure 4.6.1 Thaumotrope on both sides.
the fish tank! Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.
Building a zoetrope
1. Glue the two ends of the cardboard.
2. Glue the cardboard rectangle on the
other side of the cardboard, so that a
cylinder (drum) is formed. With the
triangles on one of the edges, it will
be easier to give it the circular shape.
So that eyelashes are not visible, you
can cover it with the other circle of
black cardboard. Figure 4.6.2 Template to make the zoetrope.
Source: in house.

4.6 Experiment: How Do We See Movement?
3. To rotate the drum, take a plastic cup,
place it face down and glue a piece of
cardboard the size of a coin. Place the
drum on top and hold it in place with a
drawing pin.
4. On a piece of white cardboard measur-
ing 50 cm wide and 5.5 cm high, draw
a series of sequential drawings, e.g., an
animal running.
5. Paste the ends of the cardboard and
insert them into the drum.
Figure 4.6.3 Black cardboard measurements and of
6. Spin the drum and look through the
the parts to be assembled for construction of the zoetrope and
windows. You will see how it looks
clippings.
like you see an animal running!
Explanation
Behind both experiments is the same principle: an image projected on the retina remains
in it a very small time, 0.1 seconds, before disappearing completely. If after this image
another one is presented, then the brain will interpret them as being together. In the first
case, the fish seemed to be inside the fishbowl, as the two images overlapped, and that is
why we can also build an illusion of movement through static drawings using the zoetrope.
Figure 4.6.4 Final result of the experimental setup and the moving image strip.
Tricks
For the first part, you can use infinite pairs of images: a bird and a cage, a fried egg and a
pan, a window and a face, a bouquet and a vase, the two sides of a coin...it’s up to your
imagination! The same happens in the second part: a balloon that flies, a person running,
someone putting a basket or a trapeze artist. You set the limits! On the internet, you have a
lot of options available that you can print and use.

In the second part, why does the strip of images get into a drum, and why do you have to
look through the windows?

4.7 Experiment OBJECTIVES
Objective 1: Understand the psychophysical effect behind the
You Won’t Believe optical illusion of Benham’s disk and its variations.
What You See! Objective 2: Understand the illusion of Helmholtz, in its usual
format with squares of vertical lines and in its three-
dimensional human form.
Optical illusions MATERIALS

30 min (+)
• Cardboard • Small wooden cylinder
• Scissors • Benham’s disk template
• Glue • Sheet of paper (best graph)
• Ruler • Ballpoint pen
• Toothpick
O
ptical illusions are quite simple
phenomena that deceive our brain.
For example, a circle with a black
half and the other half white and black
lines drawn is a very simple structure that,
turning it quickly, will make you see dif-
ferent colors. This phenomenon is called
“Benham’s disk”, and there are people
who see red, green, blue, brown...And you,
what colors do you see?
Surely you have heard that vertical
striped shirts flatter the figure because
they make you look taller and thinner,
while horizontal striped shirts have just
the opposite effect, but is this true? With
only one piece of paper and a pen, you can
check this out. It is as easy as that!
Figure 4.7.1 Benham’s disk.

Procedure
Source: Selket, Wikimedia Commons.
Benham’s disk
1. Cut out a circle in the cardboard of the
same size as the disk you are going to
use. You can use the template to draw
Benham’s disk or print it online. Mark
the center of the cardboard circle with
a cross.
2. Paste the disc template on the
cardboard.
3. Use the stick to punch the cross.
4. Enter the small wooden cylinder.
5. Turn your disk with the template up
and pay attention to the lines. What
can you see? Figure 4.7.2 Benham disk assembly.
Source: in house.

4.7 Experiment: You Won’t Believe What You See!
Helmholtz square theory
1. Draw on a piece of paper the same
number of vertical and horizontal
lines, equidistant from each other.
You will have two squares of identi-
cal areas.
2. Which group of lines do you think is
narrower and longer?
3. Now have someone dress in striped
vertical and horizontal clothes.
Which do you think streamlines you Figure 4.7.3 Helmholtz square theory.
the most? Source: in house.
Different optical illusions

1. Look at Figure 4.7.4; the circles seem to move!
2. If you now look at Figure 4.7.5, can you see the black dots in the white circles? Do
they disappear when you look at them?
Explanation
In Benham’s disk, there are only two colors, black and white. In order to see the color
white, the three types of cones must respond equally, however, in each person they have
different response times. As in this template, both colors, black and white, are alternating
rapidly, and each person sees different shades, as the color receptors respond. If we vary
the speed of rotation of the disk, we will see how the saturation of the colors we perceive
varies and, furthermore, if we vary the direction of rotation of the disc we will observe
how the colors are reversed.
Helmholtz (1867) found that a square composed of horizontal lines seems to be too
tall, and one composed of vertical lines seems too wide. This effect is observed in situa-
tions of everyday life, such as an empty
room that looks smaller than one that
is furnished, and a wall covered with
a paper pattern that looks larger than
an evenly painted one color. The exact
explanation is still unknown, but stud-
ies have been conducted, the last led by
the expert perception psychologist Peter
Thomson, in which this theory was con-
firmed. In human figures, this effect of
thinness or width is observed especially
in the hips; the vertically striped pattern
makes the hips appear wider, the outline
of the silhouette being the same, so it can
be denied that the vertical stripes have a
slimming effect.
Figure 4.7.4 shows an optical illusion Figure 4.7.4 Optical illusion of rotating snakes.
known as rotating snakes, created by Source: Wikimedia Commons.

4.7 Experiment: You Won’t Believe What You See!
scientist Akiyoshi Kitaoka. These circles
were created following patterns of colors
and shadows similar to those we receive
from a moving object. That is why it seems
that they are in continuous movement. This
type of illusion affects peripheral vision; if
we stare at a single circle, the movement
will stop.
Figure 4.7.5 shows the optical illusion
of the scintillating grid, a variant of the
Hermann grid. This optical illusion is due
to the complex functioning of the ganglion
cells that form the retina and to the lateral
inhibition process. This, in short, means
that the intensity of the specific point is the
result of the sum of different cells, so the
distance between the grid lines causes our
cells to be confused and omit the intersec-
tion between squares. Figure 4.7.5 The twinkling grid.
Source: Wikimedia Commons.
Tricks
• Not everyone sees the same thing when the disc spins; try it with your friends.
• Search for optical illusions on the internet and discover how to cheat your brain in a
fascinating way!

• Why is it necessary for Benham’s disk to spin?
• If you want to recommend someone a type of print to streamline their figure, what
would you recommend? Vertical or horizontal stripes?
Related experiments
Experiment 4.6 How do we see movement?

Chapter 5
Light in nature
O
ptical phenomena in nature are generally caused by interactions between sun-
light and the atmosphere, clouds, water, dust and other particles and materials,
animals and plants, and even objects, both natural and man-made. From sunsets
to the rainbows, passing through the blues and green of the oceans and the astound-
ing variety of colors of animals and plants, nature unveils many examples of optical
phenomena.
Some are a consequence of the dual behavior of light as a particle and wave. Some
are easily observable, such as rainbows, and others can only be observed and measured
by precise scientific instrumentation, such as the curvature of a star by the sun dur-
ing a solar eclipse, demonstrating the curvature of space as predicted in the theory of
relativity.
Reflection and refraction

As has been seen in previous chapters, light propagates along the fastest and straightest
path in a transparent and homogeneous material. Its behavior is basically governed by the
laws of reflection and refraction.
What are mirages?

Mirages are phenomena associated with the propagation of light in non-homogeneous
mediums, where the refractive index (n) varies continuously with height and the light
describes curved paths. These curves feature a concavity in the direction of the increase
in the refractive index. That is, the light curves towards the middle with a higher refrac-
tive index. In a mirage, light changes trajectory (bends) as it passes through the layers
of air at different temperatures. Popularly, mirages are associated with hallucinations,
but this is not the case. Mirages are real optical phenomena where the true position of
the object is subject to human interpretation, since the formation of the image is condi-
tioned by the refraction of light. Mirages (see Experiment 5.1) can be classified as lower
and upper.
Lower mirages occur on hot days, when the layer of air that is directly on the ground
is hotter than the upper layers, producing a thermal gradient that has a refractive index
gradient associated with it. The index of the layers near the ground is lower (hotter, less
dense areas) than that of the upper layers (denser areas). As a consequence, the light rays
are curved so that they appear to be reflected on the ground (Figure 5.1, upper part).
139

Due to the different densities of cold
air and hot air, the mirages that occur
in deserts or roads show not only
water where there is none but also
other elements that seem to be inside
it and that are actually above it. The
“appearance” of water in these types
of mirages is explained by the bright-
ness produced by the reflection of
the sky on the ground.
The upper mirage occurs when
the refractive index decreases with
height, a phenomenon that usu-
ally occurs in cold areas, where
the layer of air near the ground
is very cold and denser than the
upper layers. This happens at sea,
since the water is cooler than the
Figure 5.1 Diagram of the process of forming a lower mirage
air, so it cools the layers of air close
(top) and diagram of the process of forming an upper mirage (bottom).
In both diagrams, the different densities of the different layers of air are
to the water’s surface, thus chang-
represented with points that are closer together or separated (bottom). ing its density and the way in
which the rays of light are refracted
(Figure 5.1, lower part). This cre-
ates a mirage in which it appears
that boats float. A type of superior mirage is known as the fata morgana mirage, where
objects that are on the horizon, such as islands or cliffs, acquire an elongated and ele-
vated appearance, similar to castles in fairy tales. The regular separation between hot
air and cold (denser) air can act as a refractive surface, producing an inverted image on
which the distant image seems to float. These effects are usually visible in the morn-
ing after a cold night. The best known fata morgana occurs in the Strait of Messina,
between Calabria and Sicily in Italy.
Is there total reflection in nature?

If light passes from a higher-index medium to a lower-index medium, for example,
from water to air, it can lead to total internal reflection, which occurs in the medium
with a higher index when the light strikes the surface with an angle greater than the
limit or critical angle. Total internal reflection can be observed when diving, since,
when opening ones eyes under the surface of the water, the water–air interface will
appear silver, like a flat mirror (see Experiment 5.2). An example of total inter-
nal reflection effects are the diamonds cut for jewellery, in which the combination
between the very high refractive index of the diamond, which allows a very small
critical angle, and the different carvings allows all the incident light to be reflected
internally with astounding effects. Total internal reflection is the basic principle for
the propagation of light in an optical fiber (Figure 5.2). This phenomenon will be
studied further in chapter 6.
An interesting combination of reflection and shadows occurs in the so- called caustics.
You can observe caustics in a glass of water (see Experiment 5.2). The glass casts a shadow
but also produces a curved region of bright light. Under ideal circumstances (perfectly paral-
lel rays, with an origin in the infinite), a part of the nephroid or kidney-shaped light should

Did you know...?
An object can be made invisible using
the optics of mirages. When the
temperature of a material is changed
at high speed and it is in water or
air, an invisibility effect is created,
and the material disappears! We
only see water or air! This is called
photo-thermal refraction, and it is
caused by the refractive gradient that
is generated around a hot surface. It
is exactly the same effect we see on
roads in summer.
You can find more information on
Figure 5.2 Total internal reflection in a glass, the basic prin-
the internet: look for photo-thermal
ciple of the transmission of information in optical fibers.
refraction and learn how to make
things disappear!
be seen. In the pool, caustics are formed when the light passes through the waves of the
pool water. In optics, a caustic or caustic network is the envelope of light rays reflected or
refracted by a curved surface or object, or the projection of that envelope of rays on another
surface.
Is there natural
polarized light?
Standard light sources in nature emit
non-polarized light; however, there are
quite a few examples of the polarization
effect (which we discussed in Chapter 1)
around us. The usual way to polarize
light is through dichroism (Figure 5.3).
This phenomenon consists of the pref-
erential selective absorption of all the
components of the electric field, except
those parallel to the axis of the material.
Therefore, only the component paral- Figure 5.3 Dichroism diagram: the vertical component is
lel to its axis is transmitted through the transmitted, and the rest is absorbed.
dichroic material. The phenomenon of Source: Internal creation.
dichroism occurs naturally in some crys-
tals, such as tourmaline, which is highly
dependent on wavelength, or herapa-
Did you know...?
thite, in the form of very small crystals. Fishermen can go unnoticed by fish if they
The polarization of light can be eas- calculate the angle at which there will be total
ily detected by observing its reflection reflection. In this way, the fish will be unable to
through a linear polarizer that we place see them.
before our eyes. It is very interesting to
Chapter 5 Light in nature 141

Figure 5.4 Diffraction of light in a spider web.
Photography: Vineeth Mathew, Wikimedia Commons.
Did you know...?

There are different insects, such as bees, that take advantage of the polarization of the sky to get their
bearings, so if you put a polarizer in front of a hive (don’t do it!) in the right direction, the bees would
become disoriented.
use polarized glasses to observe the rainbow, since the light that forms features a high
degree of polarization. The reason is that the angle of reflection that occurs inside the
drops of water that remain after the rain is very close to the Brewster angle, as was seen
in Chapter 1. The drops also produce a dispersive effect, giving rise to the colors of the
rainbow. In this way, in the rainbow, in addition to the chromatic separation, polarization
of light naturally occurs as well.
Areas of the blue sky can be seen that have a significant degree of polarization, caused
by diffusion into the atmosphere, which will be explained later. Photography enthusiasts
know that contrasting images can be obtained between the blue sky, clouds and landscape
by properly placing a polarizer in front of the camera lens.
Interference and diffraction in nature

As we have seen in previous chapters, interference and diffraction phenomena have a
common origin: the superposition of light waves (discussed in Chapter 1). In essence,
both phenomena can be explained by the fact that the superposition of two or more light

waves can lead to another wave. The
intensity of this new wave is not the
sum of the intensities of the overlap-
ping waves but depends on the spa-
tial and temporal overlap between the
superimposed waves. In our everyday
environment, there are numerous phe-
nomena of interference and diffraction
(see Experiment 5.3).
It is very common to find diffraction
patterns when looking at or photograph-
ing a light source, especially if it is rela-
tively intense and small. For example,
when the sun’s rays are viewed through Figure 5.5 Example of iridescence in an oleander beetle.
the leaf of a tree, diffraction occurs Photography: Skeeze, Pixabay.
through the hollows of the leaf.
What is iridescence? Did you know...?

Iridescence, or goniochromatism, is Some beetles are iridescent thanks to the
defined as a change in color observed structure of their shell, which also usually has
by varying the angle of illumination or a specific polarization that they use to confuse
observation of an object. predators. Furthermore, those bright colors
have made beetles useful for jewellery or
• Iridescence in the atmosphere: this ornaments in suits. Cats’ eyes have multilayer
effect occurs with the formation of structures with shapes similar to the structures
crystals or water droplets of tiny that suffer the phenomenon of iridescence. This
sizes in some layer of the atmo- helps them improve their night vision, since
sphere. When sunlight illuminates these structures produce metallic reflections of
them, diffraction occurs. Later, we iridescent colors.
will see some example of irides- The light is refracted by passing through the
cence in the atmosphere. small grooves of the beards (the hairs) of a bird’s
• Iridescence in materials: it is due to feathers. Watch out, though, this phenomenon is
interference in thin films of oil or not iridescence!
gasoline, for example, in puddles
created on asphalt.
• Iridescence in the animal world:
some species of beetles, flies, butterflies and molluscs use very thin structures with
multiple layers to produce surprizing effects (Figure 5.5). The iridescence patterns
that occur in the plumage of some bird species, such as the peacock, are due to more
complex mechanisms based on similar microstructures to those that can be found in
photonic crystals, in which the index of refraction varies periodically.
Fluorescence and phosphorescence

Fluorescence and phosphorescence phenomena are characterized by absorbing a cer-
tain wavelength and emitting light of greater wavelength, that is, of lower energy (see
Experiment 5.4). The energy difference is mainly due to losses in the form of thermal
vibrations during the absorption-emission process. In fluorescence, the energy emission is
practically immediate, while in phosphorescence the emission occurs over a much longer
period of time.

What is life in the dark like? Bioluminescence
Light is essential for life. When in short supply, living things have to adapt to survive.
Thus, in the dark there are life forms capable of adapting to these extreme conditions and
generating their own light (Figure 5.6).
Bioluminescence is the production and emission of visible light by a living organism
thanks to a chemical reaction that occurs inside: the luciferase enzyme catalyzes the oxi-
dation of luciferin, a protein that emits light but does not produce heat, which makes it
energetically efficient. It is a widespread phenomenon at all biological levels: in certain
species of bacteria, fungi, insects, molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, echinoderms and
fish, amongst others. The emission spectrum varies depending on the species and the sur-
rounding conditions, although 80% of bioluminescent animal species inhabit the oceans,
where they have developed various light emission systems. Bioluminescence is used in
the animal kingdom as a measure of defence and attack, or with the aim of communicat-
ing or reproducing. Abyssal creatures and fireflies are clear examples of this phenomenon.
The first use light as bait for its prey, which are attracted to the light and fall into the jaws
of the predator. Female fireflies are the only ones that are bioluminescent, and shine to
facilitate the search for a partner, although it is also believed that they could use that light
to avoid being eaten by predators.
The exoskeleton of the scorpions also has fluorescent compounds. There are several
hypotheses to explain this fact, since scorpions are nocturnal animals. This fluorescence
could be due to the fact that in the beginning the scorpions were diurnal and used these
compounds to block ultraviolet radiation. Another hypothesis is that fluorescent mole-
cules were produced during hardening of the exoskeleton.
Plants’ coloring
The color that each plant presents depends on the predominance of a pigment or the
combination of several. The green of the leaves is due to the presence of chlorophyll
(see Experiment 5.5), which is essential for photosynthesis, the process by which plants
Figure 5.6 The Aequorea Victoria jellyfish produces the green fluorescent protein (GFP) (left). The brightness visible in this
image is due to the reflection of the flash used to take the photo. Pyridinium bahamense is a type of unicellular micro-organism that
has the capacity to produce light in highly favorable environmental conditions and when its population has a high rate of growth. At
that time, when the water is moved, the light reaction occurs, as would be the case with the famous star beaches (right).
Photography: Adapted from the exhibition “A universe of light”, CSIC, 2015 (left). Bruce Anderson (University of Stellenbosch), BMC Ecology, 2013,
13: 6, doi: 10.1186 / 1472-6785-13 -6 (right).

Figure 5.7 Fluorescent markers.
Photography: IADE-Michoko, Pixabay.
Did you know...?

The tiny stars that we put on the ceiling of bedrooms, the hands of some watches, emergency signs,
etc., are phosphorescent. This is the reason why they glow in the dark. Phosphorescence is based
on the same principle as fluorescence, but light is emitted for longer. Don’t mix them up! The markers
we use for highlighting are fluorescent. They shine so much because their ink contains fluorescent
compounds, producing fluorescence by absorbing the ultraviolet light that comes from the sun.
convert sunlight into chemical energy. Most healthy plants are green since they contain
chlorophyll, a pigment that reflects the green component of light and absorbs the blue
and red components. Although a small part of this absorbed light dissipates in the form
of fluorescence, most is used to activate photosynthesis. The majority of the fruits and
vegetables are green, and as they ripen, metabolic changes occur that alter the color.
Chlorophyll degrades and other pigments appear, such as carotenes and anthocyanins,
which provide colors from pale yellow to orange and dark red. These pigments are vital
not only for the self-protection of the plant but also for the health of humans owing to
their antioxidant effects. Sick plants may undergo changes in the composition of their
pigments, causing color changes or light emission at different wavelengths than healthy
plants (Figure 5.9).

Figure 5.8 Autumn forest.
Photography: Valiunic, Pixabay.
Figure 5.9 In ripe bananas, dead blackhead cells light up in fluorescent chlorophyll catabolites.
Photo: “Fluorescent chlorophyll catabolites in bananas light up blue halos of cell death”, Simone Moser, Thomas Muller, Andreas
Holzinger, Cornelius Lutz, Steffen Jockusch, Nicholas J. Turro and Bernhard Kräutler. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Sep 15;
106(37):15538-43. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0908060106. Epub 2009 Sep 8.
Did you know...?

In autumn, the days become shorter and chlorophyll degrades without regenerating. That is why
other pigments, such as carotenoids and anthocyanins, which give the leaves yellow and red,
respectively, are visible. When bananas are overly ripe, chlorophyll degrades, as happens with
plant leaves. However, in this case, the metabolites that occur in degradation are fluorescent.

The sky and atmospheric
phenomena
The Earth’s atmosphere, aside from being
fundamental to life on the planet, is home to
a wide variety of optical phenomena usually
caused by the interactions between sunlight
and atmospheric particles. When crossing
the Earth’s atmosphere, the light coming from
the sun interacts with molecules (N 2, O2, O3,
CO2 and other gases) and solid or liquid par-
ticles (dust, pollen, drops of water, etc.) that
can cause the selective absorption of light or
a phenomenon known as scattering, which
consists of the deflection of rays when small
objects are found. Figure 5.10 Apparent position of the sun and
The degree of dispersion depends on the real position at dusk.
degree of scattering and mass of air that the Source: in house.
light passes through. If there is low particle
density or the mass of air is small, the dis-
persion is less than if there is a high particle
Did you know...?
density or a large mass of air to pass through. At sunset, when we see the sun touch
The lower part of the atmosphere is denser the horizon line, it is actually lower. This is
and contains more suspended particles than due to atmospheric refraction. At dawn,
the upper one. For this reason, on a sunny the opposite occurs; we see the sun
day, the sky looks darker from the mountain before it has risen.
than from the beach.
Why is the sky blue?

The atmosphere is transparent to visible light. In other words, the wavelengths corre-
sponding to this range of the spectrum reaches the surface of the Earth.
The Rayleigh scattering mechanism, which happens when the relative size of the parti-
cles in the atmosphere is small, makes short-wavelength light (violet blue) more scattered,
regardless of the incident radiation. This is why, on a clear day, we can observe an intense
Figure 5.11 White light passing through a drop of water and decomposing in the different colors that compose it and
bring about the rainbow.

violet blue in the sky. Likewise, as the human eye has a greater spectral sensitivity for blue
than for violet, the color of the sky turns out to be predominantly blue.
When the relative size of the particles and molecules with respect to λ is greater (as
with clouds or raindrops on a cloudy day), all wavelengths are dispersed equally, so they
do not change the color of the scattered light. Then, depending on the concentration of
water droplets in the atmosphere or in the cloud, more or less diffusion will occur, and
the color will go from white to dark grey, almost black, when the light that strikes is white.
At sunrises and sunsets, the sun approaches the horizon. At that time, the thickness
of the atmosphere from the sun to our eyes is greater, so all short wavelengths are elimi-
nated by scattering in the atmosphere due to the Rayleigh dispersion mechanism; that the
Rayleigh scattering gives a reddish color (Experiment 5.6). In large cities, due to pollu-
tion, the presence of suspended particles increases throughout the day, so sunsets have
brighter colors than sunrises.
On the other hand, at the top of mountains and at sunrise and sunset you can see the
outburst. This phenomenon takes place when the sun is just below the horizon. At that
time, everything is dyed red. On the opposite side of the horizon to where the sun is setting,
there are also atmospheric phenomena taking place. For example, the Venus Belt is pink
and is produced by the refraction of the last rays of the sun. Below this, the shadow of the
Earth appears, which looks blue and is produced because sunlight is covered by the Earth.
How are rainbows formed?

The characteristic rainbow spectrum, like the one in Figure 5.12, is generated when sun-
light passes through raindrops and is refracted differently according to the wavelength.
Figure 5.12 Image of a rainbow after rainfall.

Photography: Brigachtal Pixabay.

Something similar occurs with light halos,
luminous discs that form around the sun or the
moon and have an iridescent ring around, as
you can see in Figure 5.13. They are produced
by refracting sunlight or moonlight in the small
suspended crystals of the atmosphere. Glories
are halos that are produced by the interaction of
light with the drops of clouds or moisture. They
are colored, meaning they must not be confused
with rainbows, which have a larger radius.
As we have just seen, sunlight, when passing
through the Earth’s atmosphere, causes different
optical effects. Figure 5.13 Image of luminous halos.
Here are more effects of this type: Photography: Oimheidi, Pixabay.
• Iridescent clouds: sunlight, or moonlight,

diffracts as it passes through a fine cloud
that contains droplets of water or small ice
crystals of the same size, forming rings of
brightly colored light (crowns). The irides-
cent edges of a cloud represent small por-
tions of unusually large crowns. The color,
which depends on the size of the droplets,
ranges from blueish-white to brownish-red
(Figure 5.14).
• Northern Lights: these impressive color
curtains are produced by the interaction of
particles from the sun with the oxygen and
nitrogen compounds of the upper part of the
atmosphere (thermosphere), after having
previously been diverted to the poles by the
magnetosphere, the field magnetic envelop-
ing the Earth (Figure 5.15).
• Green ray: during the exit or the sunset,
the sun changes color, and, suddenly, a
green flash can be seen that lasts between
one and two seconds. The causes are Figure 5.14 Iridescent clouds.
found in the refraction of the light when Photography: Marco Brotto, Pixabay.
crossing the atmosphere: the light moves
more slowly in the lower, denser layers
of air lower than in the less dense air in
upper layers (effect mirage) (Figure 5.16).
Owing to this, the rays of sunlight follow a
slightly curved path (see Experiment 5.1),
in the same direction as the curvature of
the Earth.
The high-frequency light (green/blue) curves

more than the low-frequency light (red/
orange), so the green and blue rays from the
top of the sun on the horizon remain visible, Figure 5.15 Aurora borealis (Northern Lights).
while the red rays are covered by the horizon. Photography: Hans, Wikimedia Commons.

Figure 5.16 Green ray observed during a sunset.
Photography: Yuhansso, Wikimedia Commons.
Did you know...?

The novel Le Rayon Vert (The Green Ray), by Jules Verne, is dedicated to the rare but fascinating optical
phenomenon that gives the novel its name. There are more than 50 atmospheric optical phenomena. If
you search for “atmospheric optics” on the internet, you will find many more!
A green flash is more likely to be seen in stable, clear air, when more of the light from
the setting sun reaches the observer without being scattered. The possible “blue flash”
occurs because the light of that color is not seen, as blue colors disperse more in the air
and only the green light remains. To see the green ray, you must have a perfect view of
the horizon, that is, being on a beach during sunset. Even so, you must be patient to see
it, as it does not occur every day and is difficult to see.
The night sky: why can’t you see the stars

in the city like you do in the countryside?
The glare of artificial light, caused by the use of lamps or streetlamps in cities, sends light
directly and indirectly to the sky. This light collides with the particles in suspension pres-
ent in the atmosphere, which return it to the ground in the form of diffused light, which is
known as light pollution. It is defined as the lighting produced by artificial light sources
that negatively affect the skies, the environment, natural resources and the health of human

beings. A simple definition of this phenomenon is “all the artificial light that escapes
outside the perimeter or area that is intended to be illuminated” (see Experiment 5.7). The
consequences of light pollution are numerous. The main one is that the sky is no longer
black enough to adopt the color of artificial urban lighting. While this aesthetically affects
the visibility of beautiful starry skies, it is also felt in the pockets of electric power con-
sumers. Yet light pollution can be reduced, improving the design of lamps and lanterns to
avoid sending unnecessary excess light to the sky, where nobody needs it, optimizing the
emission spectrum of these sources and, of course, streamlining the use of light sources
(Figure 5.17).
Can we see artificial satellites with the naked eye?

The moon is the natural satellite of the Earth and can sometimes be seen with the naked
eye by day, although apparently it is not very bright, and at night, when it seems that its
brightness increases considerably, although it is the same. Although it looks bright, with
a color somewhere between silver and white, the moon is composed of an almost black
Figure 5.17 Example of light pollution: aerial view of the large city of Madrid (left) and the much smaller town Santiago
de Compostela (right).
Did you know...?

Astronomical observatories have agreements with nearby cities to regulate light pollution and thus
not interfere with their measurements. Eclipses can be observed irrespective of light pollution.

stone. So, knowing that artificial satellites are almost always lined with reflective material,
do you think we can see them with the naked eye? The answer is yes, we can.
Earth’s artificial satellites are usually small objects that orbit outside the atmosphere,
more than 300 km from the Earth’s surface, in the lower orbit. If the observation condi-
tions are appropriate, we can see them with the naked eye. To achieve this, the sky must
be dark, and the sun has to illuminate the orbits of these bodies. These conditions are
met every day: at the beginning and end of each night, when the sun goes down, and
when it rises.
Still, not all satellites are going to look the same, some shine more than others, and
that depends on distance and size. The closer and bigger the satellite, the brighter we will
see it. But also, like the moon, the illuminated fraction of the satellites will also influence
things (like the phases of the moon): the greater the illuminated surface is, the greater the
perceived brightness.
Surely many people have seen an artificial satellite, but they will have confused it with
an airplane, and that is because the satellites are in continuous motion. They move very
fast, which is why they can look like airplanes, but artificial satellites leave no trail, they
don’t have flashing lights, and they are pure white. Try searching for a satellite on the next
moonless night!
Is the universe purely optical?

For millennia, human beings conceived of the cosmos as a vast dark region in which
floated many luminous points, called stars, whose nature was totally unknown and inac-
cessible. Many ancient civilizations believed that heaven sent them signs about life, war,
earthquakes, the future of the kingdoms, etc. Humans have watched the sky with burgeon-
ing curiosity regarding the sun, the moon, the planets and the stars, and have used them
to indicate the seasons of the year to hunters and farmers to navigators or as a measuring
instrument, as we will see in Experiment 5.8.
A phenomenon that can be observed without the necessary optical instrumentation
(but with adequate protection!) are eclipses. An eclipse occurs when a planet, or a moon,
blocks the path of the sun. From Earth, you can observe two different types of eclipses:
solar or lunar.
In the case of a solar eclipse, the new moon is positioned between the Earth and the
sun, and in broad daylight everything becomes dark for a few moments (Figure 5.18). Solar
eclipses can be observed approximately every year and a half, but from different places on
Earth. They are rare and can be total, partial or annular.
Never look directly at the sun during this type of eclipse! Your everyday sunglasses
don’t work! You must wear goggles with special filters for this occasion, or you can suffer
irreversible injuries to your eyes.
During lunar eclipses (Figure 5.19), it is the Earth that situates itself between the sun
and the full moon. The moon enters the shadow zone of the Earth, so that during the night
the full moon disappears for a few moments. Lunar eclipses can be seen in more geo-
graphic locations than solar eclipses. All the people who are on the side of the Earth where
it is night during the eclipse can see it. This type of eclipse can be total or partial.
Today, we can analyze most of the information contained in the radiation emitted by
the stars. This light has been able to travel unimaginable distances and taken millions of
years to reach Earth. A true time traveller that shows us both the present of the universe
and its past.

Figure 5.18 Image of a solar eclipse.
Photography: Pxhere.
Figure 5.19 Display of the different phases of a lunar eclipse.

Photography: IB306660, Pixabay.

Thanks to the light and the associated
optical technologies (which we will talk
about in chapter 6), we obtain a fairly com-
plete picture of what the observable uni-
verse is like: the internal structure of the
stars and the thermonuclear reactions that
occur inside, causing its brightness; the
movement of galaxies and the endless dis-
tances at which they are found; what is our
place in the universe and where the chemi-
cal elements that form us come from.
This technology has also allowed us to
measure the circumference of the Earth,
view other galaxies apart from ours, ver-
ify that the Earth is NOT the center of the
Figure 5.20 The National Aeronautics and Space solar system or the universe, see the cra-
Administration, better known as NASA, is the US government ters on the moon, predict the return of
agency responsible for the civil space programme, as well as Halley’s comet and quantify the probabil-
aeronautical and aerospace research. ity of finding life in other solar systems.
Source: NASA. Optics opens a window to the universe.
Did you know...? What color are the stars?

NASA publishes every day a different In order to discriminate and classify
photograph of an optical phenomenon in what colors the stars are, the spectrum
of each star must be analyzed, or what is
our fascinating universe together with a brief
explanation by a NASA astronomer. To view the same, generate the artificial rainbow
these photographs, search online for “NASA that would be formed by breaking down
& Astronomy Picture of the Day”. the light that each star emits. The sun
According to a NASA average, a solar eclipse is a star that emits mainly green light,
can be seen from the same place on Earth which means, when the rainbow forms,
every 375 years, and only for a few minutes. the green color becomes more intense. If
we changed the sun for a different star,
we would have the same colors but with
different intensities.
When creating the spectrum of each star, the difference in intensities between the
band energy of blue and that of the green is calculated. This difference is known as
the color index and is between –0.5 and +2.0. This creates a classification, depending
on the value of the color index. If this number is between –0.5 and 0, the stars are clas-
sified as blue. If the color index is a number between 0 and 0.5, the stars are called
white. When the value increases to 0.8, they are deemed yellow, and orange stars when
the color index increases to 1.1. And finally, they are called red stars if the color index
exceeds the value of 1.1.
Stars’ coloring is linked to the surface temperature that each star has. Yet, this rela-
tionship is contrary to the subjective perception that people have. We tend to relate the
color red to heat and blue to cold. With stars, the opposite is true: the red stars are the
ones with the lowest surface temperature, and blue stars have a much higher surface
temperature.

Bibliography
Fundación española para la Ciencia y la Tecnología (2015): “Unidad Didáctica. Ciencia con luz propia.
Donnelly, J. and Massa N. (2007): Light: introduction to optics and photonics, Boston, Hardcover.
Galadi-Enríquez, D. (2008): A ras de cielo, Córdoba, Almuzara.
Serway, R. A. and Jewett, J. W. (2018): Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Brooks/Cole; 10th edition.
Tippler, P. A. and Mosca, G. (2007): Physics for Scientists and Engineers, WH Freeman; 6th edition.

Objective 1: Prove that in the same medium light travels in a
Is Everything We straight line.
Objective 2: Show that in a visually homogeneous environment
See Real? light does not travel in a straight line.
MATERIALS
• Pencil • 1 kg sugar
Refraction • Glass • 2 L of water
15 min (+)
• Transparent rectangular • Laser pointer
beaker as long as possible
M
irages are optical phenomena that
occur under particular conditions
and that cause us to see things
where there are none. Who has not seen
in a movie someone in the desert run to
drink water and, when they reach where
the water should be, there is only sand?
Formerly, it was believed that mirages such
as the fata morgana were works of witch-
craft to attract sailors to their death.
Procedure
Figure 5.1.1 Example of mirages.
Does light travel in a straight line? Photography: Adapted from the exhibition “A universe of light”,
CSIC, 2015.
1. Put a liter of water in the beaker.
2. From one end of the beaker, turn on the laser pointer.
3. You can verify that the laser light travels in a straight line through a homogeneous
medium.
Creating a mirage with sugar

1. Put each liter of water in a separate jar
(reuse the liter of water from the pre-
vious procedure!) And mix the sugar
with only 1 liter of water.
2. Mix the water and sugar well; you will
obtain a saturated concentration.
3. You will have a jug with 1 liter of water
and 1 liter of water saturated in sugar.
4. Take the beaker and first put in it the
liter of fresh water.
5. Then, pour over the saturated water,
carefully (you can help yourself with
a cardboard or funnel to avoid splash- Figure 5.1.2 Laser beam going through a beaker
ing) and try to spread it throughout the with only water.
beaker. Photography: in house.

5.1 Experiment: Is Everything We See Real?
6. Let the solution stand for at least 1 day,
so that the sugar is at the bottom of the
beaker.
7. You can now take the laser pointer and
turn it on at one end of the beaker.
8. What happens? Does light still travel in
a straight line?
Explanation
As we have seen in previous chapters, light
travels in a straight line within the same
medium. As a result of this, our brain inter-
prets that light always travels in a straight
line and that is why we see mirages. Figure 5.1.3 Laser beam going through a beaker
However, when we can differentiate two with sugar dissolved in water.
media, such as water and air, we no longer Photography: in house.
associate that light travels in a straight line,
because we are able to see the difference in medium and we know that the speed of light
changes with the index of refraction, as we have seen in Chapter 1.
The mechanism by which we have been able to bend a laser beam is similar to the one
that causes the appearance of mirages. In our experiment, the different refractive indices of
fresh water and sugar-saturated water create the laser beam curve. This is similar to what
happens with mirages, where the density of the different layers of air is different, caus-
ing the rays to refract, although visually the difference between the different layers is not
noticed.
Tricks
• Try turning off the light: you will see how the laser beam bends more clearly.
Furthermore, you can try different laser colors!
• Take a longer rectangular beaker to better see how the laser beam curves.

Why do you think the brain interprets that light travels in a straight line?
Related experiments

Objective 1: Make homemade caustics.
Objective 2: Observe the exterior surface from the bottom of
What Does the pool.
Water Hide?
MATERIALS
• A swimming pool
• A crystal glass
Total internal reflection, • Water
30 min (+) caustic
• Sunlight or artificial light
A
s we have seen throughout this book,
optics are present in many of our
daily activities, even in summer,
when we go to the pool or when we drink
a glass of water. Have you ever wondered
why sometimes it seems that the water is
“cracked”? Surely, once, while diving in
a pool or at sea, you have noticed that the
surface became a mirror. In this experi-
ment, you will learn why.
Procedure
Figure 5.2.1 Caustics observed on the bottom of
Making homemade caustics a pool.
1. Fill the bottom of the glass with water. Photography: Pixabay.
2. Light up the glass with white light and
watch what happens when the light passes through the glass.
3. Move the glass and observe the changes that occur in the light that passes through the
water.
Water observation
1. Dive into the pool, preferably with div-
ing goggles, and, from a few cm below
the surface of the water, look up at dif-
ferent angles; do you see something
different according to your angle of
vision?
2. Dive to different depths and see what
happens.
Explanation Figure 5.2.2 Formation of caustics with a glass of

Caustics are concentrations of light rays water.
reflected or refracted by a curved surface Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) /
or by an object. When the light crosses the IOSA.

5.2 Experiment: What Does Water Hide?
glass with water at one point, it refracts and
produces a shadow and a concentration of
light that we call a caustic.
If we are submerged near the surface and
look just up, we can see a 96° cone of light
known as the Snell window, but outside
that cone the surface of the water acts like
a mirror due to the phenomenon of total
internal reflection. That surface outside the
cone will reflect the light that comes from
underwater species, either because they
emit light or because they reflect it, but it
will look a bit dark in areas where there are
no objects or animals nearby that reflect the
light.
Tricks
• If the day is cloudy or you are in a room
with low light, you can use a flashlight
to observe the caustics in the cup more
easily!
• If you want to see another effect on Figure 5.2.3 Total reflection underwater.
caustics, add some milk to the water!
Photography: Jean-Marc Kuffer, WiKimedia Commons.
• If instead of diving in the pool, you can
do it in the sea; you can observe the
phenomenon of total reflection in the
fish or algae that you have around you.
You can use it to take some amazing
photos! You can search the internet for
how a fish sees underwater due to total
reflection.

Why does the phenomenon of total internal
reflection occur a few centimeters from the
surface of the water?
Related experiments Figure 5.2.4 Melichthys niger swimming under-

water and the corresponding image generated by total
Experiment 6.2 A stream of light: Tyndall– reflection.
Colladon experiment Photography: Janderk, Commonswiki.

Objective 1: Obtain an iridescent surface that shows the colors
Where Do Those that form white light.
Colors Come From? MATERIALS

• Pot of soap bubbles
• Water
• Clear nail polish
Iridescence, interference
15 min (+) • Black cardboard, the size of the palm of your hand
• A beaker or bowl
M
any times, we observe bright and
changing colors in everyday phe-
nomena, such as soap bubbles, an
oil stain on the road or in some animals.
The thin layers suffer the effect of interfer-
ence: depending on the angle of incidence
of light, we will see different colors.
Procedure
1. Fill a beaker with water and dip the
black cardboard to the bottom; keep it
submerged at the bottom of the bucket.
In the subsequent steps, you have to
be fast so that the cardboard does not Figure 5.3.1 Formation of giant soap bubbles.
soften too much. Photography: Xoana Barcala Gosende.
2. Put two or three drops of clear enamel
on the surface of the water.
3. Wait for the enamel drops to expand onto the largest possible surface of water.
4. Collect the enamel film with the black cardboard on the bottom, being careful to keep
it as even as possible.
5. Wait for the cardboard to dry.
Explanation
When a beam of light strikes the outer
layer of the soap bubble, part of the light is
reflected by going to the eye of the observer,
and another part is refracted through the
water layer to its innermost part. In that
innermost part we find another process
of refraction and reflection, The beam
reflected from the last layer of the soap bub-
ble has to pass through the first layer again Figure 5.3.2 Manufacturing process of the thin
and reaches the eye of the observer paral- sheet in a black cardboard.
lel to the first reflected beam. The different Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.

5.3 Experiment: Where Do Those Colors Come From?
colors are due to the path of the light rays
through the thickness of the soap bubble
at that time. When the soap bubble is cre-
ated, it can be several microns thick, which
decreases to a few nanometers before being
destroyed. The light is reflected on the two
surfaces of the soapy film, as we saw in
Experiment 1.4. The thickness of the layer
varies, meaning the color distribution does
as well. When the wall is thicker, blue and
green colors can be seen, which change to
shades of reds and yellows as the wall of
the soap bubble becomes thinner. This hap-
pens if the angle of incidence is the same,
since it is another factor that influences the Figure 5.3.3 Results after immersion of the card-
board and its subsequent drying.
colors that can be appreciated. Therefore,
when this angle changes, the colors we see Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.
vary even if the thickness is the same, since
the light path is not the same.
With respect to the second procedure, nail polish is a mixture of a resinous substance
and a solvent. When it evaporates, only a thin layer of that resinous substance remains on
the surface of the water, which functions as a thin sheet subject to interference phenom-
ena. The enamel does not spread completely evenly, so its thickness varies from one area
to another, and constructive interference is
created for some colors and destructive for
others.
Tricks
• Write letters on the black cardboard, glu-
ing pieces of tissue paper. Dip it in the
water. When collecting the enamel drop
with the cardboard, it will only stay in
areas where there is no heat. This way
you can write an iridescent message.
• Make soap bubbles and observe the dif- Figure 5.3.4 Diagram of refraction on each of the
ferent colors depending on how the light surfaces of the soap bubble.
affects them. Photography: Camilo Florian Baron.

Why does the bubble look blue and green when its walls are thick and yellow and red
when they are thin?
Related experiments
Experiment 1.4 Is light really a wave?

Objective 1: Observe the fluorescence of quinine and modify its
electronic structure by adding ammonia.
The Light Hidden Objective 2: Observe and identify different fluorescent elements
by Nature of nature.
Objective 3: Understand how bioluminescence is produced.
Objective 4: Understand that luminescence is used as an anti-
counterfeiting measure.
Emission of light in the
5 min (+) organic and inorganic world MATERIALS
• Ultraviolet light • Fluorescent mineral (fluorite, corundum)
• Tonic • Glow sticks or bracelets
• Ammonia • Official banknotes or documents (ID card,
passport, driver’s licence or stamps)
I
n nature there are multiple examples
of fluorescent organisms. The jelly-
fish Aequorea victoria produces a fluo-
rescent protein called green fluorescent
protein (GFP) because it emits green
light. Researchers Martin Chalfie, Osamu
Shimomura and Roger Y. Tsien were
awarded the 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
for the discovery and development of GFP,
which is used to mark other proteins in
vivo.
Quinine, which is also fluorescent, was
used as a remedy for malaria. This is a mol-
ecule that comes from the red cinchona
tree and is bitter to the taste. Nowadays, it
is used to give tonic its characteristic bitter
taste. Minerals also contain many fluores-
cent specimens. The phenomenon of lumi-
nescence allows us to introduce apparently
invisible marks in banknotes and other
official documents that appear only under
ultraviolet light.
Procedure Figure 5.4.1 Fluorescenet jellyfish.

Fluorescence is everywhere Photography: Pxhere.
1. Serve tonic in a glass and illuminate it with ultraviolet light. You will see the tonic
fluorescence.
2. While illuminating the tonic with ultraviolet light, add a little ammonia to the tonic.
What has happened?
3. Illuminate minerals with ultraviolet light. You will see that they change color. If you
don’t have this material, take a look at the pictures.
4. Take one of the sticks and fold it in half. Light! You will see that little by little, the
whole stick lights up and shines. Hence the name “glow stick”.

5.4 Experiment: The Light Hidden by Nature
5. After folding the glow stick, illuminate
it with ultraviolet light. You will see
that the intensity of its color increases.
A counterfeit banknote detector

1. Turn on the UV lamp and illuminate
the documents and banknotes. In a
dark room, you will see even more
spectacular results.
2. Have fun looking for brands and seeing
what appears when illuminated with
ultraviolet light.
Figure 5.4.2 Tonic illuminated with ultraviolet light.
Explanation
The quinine present in the tonic is fluo-
rescent, however, by adding ammonia the
electronic structure of the quinine is altered
and no longer has fluorescence.
Fluorescent minerals usually have ura-
nium in their composition. In the case of
fluorite, it is the rare earth impurities that
give it the fluorescent property. The glow
sticks have two parts, the outer plastic coat-
ing and another glass tube inside. The glass
tube contains hydrogen peroxide, while the
plastic tube has oxalate compounds. When
the stick is bent, the glass tube is broken,
and the hydrogen peroxide and oxalate
come into contact. A chemical reaction that
produces light begins. It is a chemilumines-
cent reaction. Depending on the dyes that
are put in the oxalate solution, the light
will seem one color or another. Something
similar occurs in bioluminescent animals.
Two compounds produced by the animal
give rise to a chemical reaction that pro-
duces light. This must not be confused with
phosphorescence or fluorescence.
Banknotes, passports and official docu-
ments from many countries make use of
luminescence. The lamp you have used Figure 5.4.3 Fluorite with normal lighting and
under ultraviolet light.
emits a violet light that you can see, but its
emission spectrum is wider and comprises Photography: in house.
part of the ultraviolet radiation, invisible to our eye. It is this part of radiation that
activates the luminescence and allows us to observe the luminescent marks that these
documents have.

5.4 Experiment: The Light Hidden by Nature
Tricks
Now you know why in some supermarkets
they illuminate with a purple lamp the
banknotes you use to pay. The purple lamp
is ultraviolet and...they are checking that
the notes are not fake! If you do not have an
ultraviolet lamp and you cannot buy one,
take advantage when you go to the super-
market and ask them to let you see it in
action.

• Why do gin and tonics shine in
Figure 5.4.4 Glow sticks.
nightclubs?
• How is fluorescence different from
phosphorescence?
• Why do you have to bend the light
strip to emit light?
• How is it possible that we observe yel-
low or red figures on our banknotes
and passports with ultraviolet light?
Related experiments
Experiment 5.5 Chlorophyll, green?
Experiment 6.4 Does my olive oil have
antioxidants?
Figure 5.4.5 Banknotes illuminated with white light

(standard) and with ultraviolet light.

Objective 1: Verify that sunlight is necessary for the synthesis and
Chlorophyll, Green? development of chlorophyll, and observe what hap-
pens in the plant when chlorophyll is degraded.
Objective 2: Extract and observe the chlorophyll fluorescence.
MATERIALS
• Plant with large green leaves • Fresh spinach leaves
• Tin foil • Strainer
Photosynthesis, • Iodine for wounds • Mixer
30 min (+) fluorescence • Pot • Transparent glass
• Ethyl alcohol • UV light flashlight
C
hlorophyll is found in the chloroplasts
of plants. During the day, when plants
receive light, oxygen is produced
through photosynthesis. In this experiment,
we will see what happens when a plant
does not receive light, and what the chloro-
phyll hides.
Procedure
Observe degraded chlorophyll
1. Make an envelope with the foil in
which one of the leaves of the plant
fits. You can make more than one enve-
lope and thus cover more than one leaf.
2. Wait a week and uncover the leaves of
the plant. What has happened? If the
leaves remain green, leave the enve-
lopes in place until the leaves wilt.
Figure 5.5.1 Leaves covered with tinfoil.
3. After observing the differences between
the leaves you covered and those that
you did not, boil one of the leaves that
you covered and another one that wasn’t covered for 30 seconds. Mark them to distin-
guish between them. You can remove the petiole from one of the two, for example.
4. Put them in a jar with alcohol overnight.
5. Check that there is no chlorophyll in any of the leaves (when they have lost the green-
ish color) and immerse them in a solution that has the same proportion of water and
iodine. Do both leaves have the same color?
Check the luminescence of chlorophyll

1. Cut the spinach leaves into small pieces and boil them for 1 minute.
2. Then, carefully strain the spinach pieces and put them in the blender glass. The water
in which you boiled the leaves can be thrown away.
3. Add 50 ml of alcohol and beat the leaves.

5.5 Experiment: Chlorophyll, Green?
4. Strain the resulting puree into the glass

cup. To better collect chlorophyll,
add more alcohol in the blender glass,
blend, and strain.
5. Now you have chlorophyll extracted
from the leaves in the alcohol. Turn
off the light and illuminate the chloro-
phyll with ultraviolet light. It changes
color!
Explanation
In the absence of light, chlorophyll is not
Figure 5.5.2 On the left and in the center tubes
synthesized, it degrades, and the leaf turns
with fluorescent paint dissolved, and on the right the extract
brown. This happens when you put the of chlorophyll, under ultraviolet lighting.
leaves in the tin foil.
Starch is the sugar that is produced dur-
ing photosynthesis. Iodine reacts with
it, resulting in a bluish compound. Therefore, it indicates whether photosynthesis has
occurred in the leaves or not. When mixing with iodine the leaf that was covered with
tin foil, it simply stains and becomes brown, but does not react because it has no starch.
However, the leaf that was not covered and had its chlorophyll in perfect condition, did
photosynthesis and therefore had starch, which reacts with iodine.
When illuminated with sunlight, chlorophyll looks green, as it absorbs all wavelengths
except that corresponding to the color green. However, with ultraviolet light, part of the
absorbed light is emitted in the form of heat, meaning that the energy of the emitted light is
less than that absorbed. For this reason, chlorophyll looks red.
Tricks
• Make a small hole in the foil envelope. You can make different shapes. In this way, the
leaf will have a green part with the shape that you have made in the hole.
• Remove the tin foil envelope from one of the covered leaves. Does chlorophyll reoccur
on that leaf?

• Why does the leaf covered with aluminum foil turn brown?
• What is the point of dyeing the leaves with iodine?
• Why does chlorophyll change color when viewed under ultraviolet light? Why doesn’t
this happen with ultraviolet light coming from the sun?
Related experiments
Experiment 5.4 The light hidden by nature
Experiment 6.4 Does my olive oil have antioxidants?

Objective 1: Produce the scattering of light in a controlled way
to generate a color change of the white light coming
Artificial Sunset: from the flashlight and reproduce the blue light of a
Scattering of Light clear day and the reddish light of a sunset.
in Our Atmosphere MATERIALS
• Transparent container with water
• Milk
Mie scattering, Rayleigh • White light flashlight
15 min (+) scattering, sunset, sky blue color • Spoon
A
s we explained in Chapter 1, light
travels in a straight line unless the
materials in its path modify its tra-
jectory. In the case of sunlight, which we
could call white light (it contains all colors,
including red, yellow, green, blue), when
it enters the atmosphere it undergoes color
changes, giving the violet-blue color to the
sky in a clear day and the typical reddish
color at sunset. What happens is that the
light interacts with the gas molecules in
our atmosphere and they scatter the light.
Figure 5.6.1 The dispersion of the rays of light
Because the wavelengths of the violet-blue
coming from the sun in the particles of the atmosphere pro-
colors are the shortest (400 nm), they scat-
duces the typical reddish color of the sunset.
ter about ten times more than the yellow-
Photography: Pexels.
red light (in addition to a resonance effect
with the molecules of the atmosphere that
favors the blue light emission).
On the other hand, when the sun is on
the horizon, at sunrise or sunset, light trav-
els a longer way through our atmosphere,
so most of the light of other colors is scat-
tered, leaving mainly red, orange and yel-
low colors found at sunrise and sunset.
In this experiment we will try to simu-
late the particles of the atmosphere to get
the effect of a blue sky and a reddish sun-
set. So let’s start!
Procedure
1. You must do the experiment in a dark
and closed space, with the lights off.
2. Put enough water in the transparent
container, but do not fill it to the brim Figure 5.6.2 Experimental setup.
because then you must shake it, and Source: Camilo Florian Baron.
you must avoid it spilling.

5.6 Experiment: Artificial Sunset: Scattering of Light in Our Atmosphere
Figure 5.6.3 Container with the water displayed in profile (top left) and aligned with the light source (top right). After
adding a little milk and dissolving it homogeneously, the profile image turns white-bluish due to the scattering of the blue
light (bottom left) and the light that is aligned turns reddish yellow, just like at sunset (bottom right).
3. Place the white light source at one end, as shown in Figure 5.6.2. The points where
you will observe the effects of milk on the water are located laterally to the axis of illu-
mination and in line with the source.
4. Slowly, add a few drops of milk. Use the spoon to stir the water and homogenize the
solution.
5. Now, you will have a mixture of water and milk with grey color. Add a little more
milk until you see on the sides that the white light disperses, giving the mixture a blu-
ish color.
6. Once you manage to adjust this color, look towards the light through the container,
and you will see that the white light turns yellow or somewhat reddish. What you
are viewing laterally is the analog to the color that the sky has during the day. On the
other hand, when you look at the light source through the mixture that you have cre-
ated, you are simulating the conditions that occur during the sunset, since the sun’s
rays pass through the atmosphere, scattering mostly the red and orange wavelengths
in that direction. That’s why we see that color.

5.6 Experiment: Artificial Sunset: Scattering of Light in Our Atmosphere
Tricks
• Be careful when you are mixing the milk in the water. If you add too much, the whole
solution will become too dark to appreciate the effect, and you will have to reduce it
by adding more clean water.
• You can use the flash of your phone as a source of white light.

• Why are clouds white if they should similarly scatter light from the sun?
• Would the experiment work if instead of milk we used sugar or salt, for example?
Related experiments

Objective 1: Observe the problem of light pollution and its pos-
The Night Sky: Where sible solutions.
Are the Stars? MATERIALS

• A shoebox
• Two flashlights
• A large cap of soft drink or tinfoil
20 min (+) Light pollution, sky, stars • Dark masking tape
• A sharp element (a clip, a wire, a punch, a pushpin, etc.)
S
ince the beginning of the last century,
lighting has been damaging our skies.
The glow of artificial light, caused by
improper use of lamps or streetlights, sends
light directly and indirectly to the sky,
which is known as light pollution.
Procedure
1. Cover all slats in the box with dark
masking tape.
2. Make small holes with a sharp ele- Figure 5.7.1 Night photo of the Madrid skyline.
ment at the top of the box to create the Photography: Maxpixel.
planetarium.
3. On the opposite side of these holes,
that is, at the bottom of the box, make a small hole to insert the flashlight.
4. Switch on one of the flashlights and insert it into the hole you have just made. You
now have a small planetarium that you can project on a low ceiling or on the shelves
of a bookcase in a dark room.
5. Place the other flashlight near your
planetarium. This must be on and
pointed towards the starry sky that you
formed in the previous step. This flash-
light will simulate a lamppost.
6. Place a soft drink cap or a small “hat”
made of aluminum foil on top of the
flashlight. Do you notice any difference?
Explanation
Light pollution takes place when you see
a glow of light in the sky produced by the
reflection of artificial light in the gases and
very light particles that are suspended in Figure 5.7.2 Holed box to simulate a planetarium.
the air. That same glow makes the night less Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) /
IOSA.
dark, and then the starlight “disappears”

5.7 Experiment: The Night Sky: Where Are the Stars?
Figure 5.7.3 Sky simulation Figure 5.7.4 Sky simulation Figure 5.7.5 Sky simulation

without artificial lights around. with light pollution. with attenuated light pollution, thanks to
Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scien- Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Sci- the screen placed on the flashlight.
tific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA. entific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA. Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Sci-
entific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.
progressively from our sky. We say that they “disappear”, since we cannot perceive the
stars that shine with less intensity. The upper screen that is put on the streetlamps pre-
vents much of the light they emit illuminate the sky. In this way, light pollution decreases.
Tricks
If you want it to look even cooler, you can use a celestial planisphere to place the holes in
your planetary box.

• What happens to the lighting under the flashlight when the cap is attached?
• Can we have a lunar eclipse every month?
• Why can the moon have a reddish or orange color when a lunar eclipse occurs?

Objective 1: Understand the concept of natural collimated light
Sunlight as a and use it to cast shadows and measure the height of
a tree.
Measurement Objective 2: Use the same principle to estimate our height.
Instrument
MATERIALS
• PVC or cardboard tube measuring 1 meter in length
• Measuring tape
Collimated light, projections, • Watch
20 min (+) shadows
• Paper and pencil
• Calculator
T
he light of the stars and, in particular,
that of the sun have always captivated
mankind. From the origins of astron-
omy, starry nights became the perfect labo-
ratory where it was sought not only to find
our place in the universe, but also informa-
tion about its origin.
During the day, when the sun is just
above our heads, its light causes curious
scenarios: the shadows it produces hardly
change size when an object is placed in
its path, contrary to what happens with
candlelight or that of a flashlight, for exam- Figure 5.8.1 Projection of the shadow of four
ple, whose shadow increases in size as it people at the foot of a mountain. Despite the distance, the
approaches the light source. This type of shadows remain the same size as the people.
light, coming from the sun and the stars, Photography: in house.
both located at very far distances, can be
understood for practical purposes as collimated light. In this case, the light rays are paral-
lel to each other due to the great distances from their origin (the stars). This means that
the projection of a shadow produced by an object that opposes its path remains virtually
unchanged over great distances.
Procedure
As mentioned, the shadow produced by the tree when sunlight falls on it does not change
size when projected at a certain distance. Therefore, we can use it to estimate its height.
What we must do is simply measure some distances and relate them to the known distance
of the cardboard tube.
1. It is essential to try this on a clear day, with the tree’s shade as clearly defined as pos-
sible. Place the vertical cardboard tube on the ground, so that the tree’s shade barely
touches the top of the cardboard tube, as seen in Figure 5.8.2.
2. Now, let’s measure! With the help of the measuring tape, you must measure the dis-
tance between the cardboard tube and the end of the shade of the tree that forms on
the ground (Figure 5.8.2, B') and also measure the tube (Figure 5.8.2, A').
3. You have formed a right-angle triangle. Therefore, using trigonometric identities you
can make a very simple calculation to find the angle that is formed between the shade

5.8 Experiment: Sunlight as a Measurement Instrument
and the ground: shadow angle = arctan-
gent (tube length A ‘distance B’) We need
to measure the distance from the end of
the shade to the base of the tree (B).
4. Finally, calculate the height of the tree
using the same trigonometric identity:
tree height (A) = distance B * tangent
(angle).
Tricks
At first, compare the values obtained in
your calculations with the height of a
known object, such as your height. In this Figure 5.8.2 Diagram of the triangles formed with
way, you can validate your procedure and the shade produced by the tree, the pencil (in our case, a
move on to measuring things that you cardboard tube) and the distance to the base of the tree.
really do not have information about, such Source: in house.
as the height of a lighting pole, a tree or a
building. Why not?

• Name two more examples where collimated light can be found, either naturally or
artificially created.
• Could the light used by cars to illuminate the road be considered collimated? Why?
Related experiments
Experiment 1.1 Does light travel in a straight line?

Chapter 6
Light-based technologies
M
any times scientists hear the comment: “Very interesting, but what is it for?” Well,
if thus far we have not managed to convince you of the importance of optics and
photonics, we hope that after this chapter you will be in no doubt, since both in
our everyday lives and in the most avant-garde research there are infinite applications and
technologies based on light that improve our quality of life and enrich our world.
In Chapter 1, we described how light is a form of energy and that it can behave as a
wave and particle. Furthermore, in Chapter 2 we have seen its different forms in the EM
spectrum, where only a small portion is visible to the human eye. From the use of the vis-
ible spectrum we can give numerous examples that range from television or any other type
of screens to lighting, but it has also been possible to develop numerous applications for
the benefit of society that use the spectrum of light that humans cannot see, such as X-rays
or ultraviolet rays.
Thus, the knowledge of the properties of light by scientists has led us to develop
different applications in fields as diverse as communications, agriculture, energy, secu-
rity, health, the environment or art, amongst others. Amongst the simplest and everyday
applications of optics and photonics, the lighting and sensors of smartphones stand out
(see Chapter 2) or the construction of different optical instruments (see Chapter 3). In
addition, it should be noted that in optical discs (CD, DVD or Blu Ray) the information
is saved and read thanks to a laser, and there are other technologies that also use elec-
tromagnetic radiation, although at frequencies outside the visible one, for communica-
tions applications (Wi-Fi or remote controls) or energy (microwave oven, as is used in
Experiment 6.1). Therefore, in this chapter we will try to give some examples of how
light improves and enriches our world in different applications and its potential use in
the future.
Light in telecommunications
How does the internet work?
Light-based technologies, especially those related to fiber-optic communications, are
essential for the exchange of information. Following the legacy of the telegraph and tele-
phone, fiber optic cables have replaced copper cables since they can carry a greater amount
of data and faster than their electronic counterpart.
In optical communications, information encoded in a beam of light is sent through a
glass or plastic wire known as optical fiber. This system was originally devised for endo-
scopes in the 1950s, with the goal of helping doctors see the inside of the human body
175

without having to open it first. In 1960, engineers found a way to use this same technology
to transmit telephone calls at the speed of light (300,000 km per second).
An optical fiber is formed by a core and a cladding (Figure 6.1, left). The main part is
the core along which the light travels, while the cladding is wrapped around the outside of
the core. Intuitively, one might expect that the light traveling in a transparent thread would
spill over into the edges. However, photons travel through the fiber optic core bouncing
against the walls repeatedly, like a ball between the glass walls of a squash court. In order
for the light to be completely confined inside the fiber core without leaving the roof, the
core must have a higher refractive index than the cladding. This allows the phenomenon of
total internal reflection (see Chapter 1) to occur, which means that when the light reaches
the surface that separates two different media with an angle equal to or greater than the
limit angle the light is fully reflected and not refracted, as will be seen in Experiment 6.2.
A fiber optic cable is made up of a few or hundreds of fine fiber optic wires. The size of
each fiber wire is less than one tenth the thickness of a human hair (50/125 µm), and about
25,000 phone calls can be made through each wire, so an optical fiber cable can easily
carry several million calls.
Another interesting feature of optical fibers is their low attenuation. Thanks to this fea-
ture, we can observe the transmission of a beam of light after 15 km of fiber, although the
intensity of the transmitted beam will have been reduced by half. However, not everything
is used to transmit the light; rather, it also serves to convert light into information at the
other end, for which sensors are used to convert the pulses of light into electrical informa-
tion and subsequently into information, as will be seen in Experiment 6.3.
Something similar to fiber communications is free space optical communications (FSO),
which transmit information encoded in a near-infrared laser without the need for physical
support to transport photons. This system is expected to be used for communication with
space satellites. Also, the visible light of the lighting systems can be used to transmit infor-
mation. This technique, known as VLC (Visible Light Communication), is beginning to be
used experimentally in domotics and smart cities.
How does our phone know where we are on the map?

If you use a navigation system in the car, phone or other device to reach a destination,
knowing your position depends on emissions of electromagnetic radiation transmitted by
a network of satellites orbiting 20,000 km from Earth. Originally designed for military and
intelligence use, the Global Positioning System (GPS) in the US, the Russian GLONASS
Figure 6.1 Diagram of an optical fiber (left). Light traveling through optical fibers (right).
Photography: Groman123, Flickr

Figure 6.2 Galileo Global Positioning System.
Photography: European Space Agency.
system and the Chinese BeiDou are the satellite network systems that tell you your posi-
tion in real time if you have a signal receiver. These systems are based, among other fea-
tures, on precise optical clocks that use the fundamental properties of the decay of the
caesium or rubidium atoms. The future European Galileo system will use lasers (micro-
wave lasers) that will improve its accuracy (Figure 6.2).
The satellites emit signals constantly, marking their position at every moment
throughout the day. The corresponding receivers on Earth, for example, your mobile
phone, configure these signals to determine the exact location of at least four of these satel-
lites. With this information, the system is capable of calculating your specific longitude,
latitude and altitude on the Earth’s surface.
Light as a security tool

How do the police see what we carry inside a suitcase?
Airport security is very strict nowadays. Optical technologies are essential to combat
threats and protect passengers. The same is true for railway stations, public offices, muse-
ums, etc. Many inspection systems at airport terminals throughout the world use X-rays
that generate images in real time to scan luggage and search for objects and prohibited sub-
stances. Terahertz (mm wavelength) are used to make full-body scanners and detect bombs
and explosives underneath a passenger’s clothes. New systems are under study at airports
where a laser passes through a translucent or opaque bottle to detect the crucial difference
between your shampoo and an explosive liquid.
How to avoid forgeries?

How to know if a banknote is real?
Ultraviolet light is used to verify authenticity and prevent counterfeiting in government
documents and paper money. One of the typical anti-counterfeiting measures is the
insertion of a strip of fluorescent material (which we discussed in Chapter 5) that shines
under the exposure of an ultraviolet light; another safety measure is the insertion of
fluorescent wires that are added to the pulp of the paper and therefore appear randomly;
finally, we have security ink that is only visible under ultraviolet light, as we saw in
Experiment 5.4.
Another security measure is holography, since this imaging technique is very difficult to
reproduce. The principles of holography were discovered in 1947 by Dennis Gabor while
looking for ways to improve his electron microscope. Through the interference patterns
Chapter 6 Light-based technologies 177

Figure 6.3 Holograms on 20 euro (left) and 50 euro (right) banknotes.
Photography: Roberta Morea.
created by laser beams, a three-dimensional image of an object can be reconstructed. In

many cases, there is a hologram on credit cards or banknotes to help distinguish them
from counterfeits, as shown in Figure 6.3.
Light is energy!
Solar technology, a great source of energy
available to everyone. How can we use it?
On Earth, life in all its forms ultimately depends on the light and energy radiated by the sun.
Recently, humanity has made important advances in the understanding of how to acquire
and store the enormous energy of the sun to power our infrastructure, homes and industries.
There are two ways to collect solar energy:
• Indirect: an intermediate step is used before obtaining usable energy. This example
is found in solar thermal energy, where sunlight is used to heat a liquid that moves a
turbine.
The first reference of the use of solar thermal energy is due to Archimedes (3rd century BCE),
who during the battle of Syracuse would have used parabolic mirrors to concentrate the solar
rays on the sails of Roman ships, with the aim of making them burn. Currently, cylindrical-
parabolic collector mirrors are used that concentrate the light in a tube that passes through
the focus of these mirrors, which contains a liquid that, when heated, is taken to a tank that
evaporates water and moves a turbine, producing electricity. In Experiment 6.5, you will
have the chance to make a solar oven.
• Direct: for example, solar cells that convert light directly into electrons. This type of
energy is called photovoltaic energy.

The first solar cell was manufactured by
Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel (1820– Did you know...?
1891) in the 19th century. Nowadays, com-
mercial solar cells, or photovoltaic cells, If only 30% of the solar energy that reaches
employ semiconductor materials to con- us could be used, we could cover all the
vert solar energy into electrical energy for planet’s energy demands.
immediate or future use. As was seen in
Experiment 2.3, when a photon impacts
on a p-n junction of a semiconductor, its energy may be used to create an electron–hole
pair. The electrons will move towards the negative part (n-type layer), while the holes will
move towards the positive part (p-type layer), generating an electric current.
Photovoltaic energy is considered a clean and endless energy since it does not depend
on fossil fuels (such as oil). Although contemporary solar cells are not very efficient at
transforming solar energy into electrical energy, this is an emerging field of research where
many scientists study the processes and materials to make increasingly efficient cells,
since sunlight is a free energy source. In Experiment 6.6, we will undertake an experiment
to take advantage of this energy source.
Light in industry and materials

On a large scale: light in today’s industry
On an industrial level, optical technologies have meant a minor revolution. Its most
common application is the processing of materials, although they can also be used for
metrology (precisely measuring the size or position of a material) or detection (checking,
for example, the composition of an element without degrading it).
Amongst the advantages of the laser for use in material processing, the possibility of
concentrating a large amount of energy in a small area stands out. In this way, it is possible
to carry out shutdowns, perforations or welding tasks with great accuracy. Another advan-
tage is its ability to induce photochemical reactions useful for photolithography, created
in the 19th century by Alphonse Poitevin. This technique uses light to transfer a geometric
pattern to a material. The principles of this technique are still used to make sophisticated
integrated circuits inside smartphones, computers or all kinds of electronic devices. The
resolution of up to 10 nanometers in the manufacture of complex electronic circuits, thanks
to electromagnetic waves of small wavelengths, has allowed the creation of very small cir-
cuits with reduced energy consumption. Thus, these techniques have led the semiconduc-
tor industry to produce progressively smaller, cheaper and higher performance devices.
Without photolithography, devices like personal computers or smartphones would not fit
in your room, let alone in your pocket, and would be really expensive.
New materials
New materials are also being developed that interact with light in exotic ways, such as, for
example, the so-called metamaterials, which, as indicated by their suffix, are artificially
created materials (they do not exist in nature), as shown in Figure 6.4. They consist mainly
of very small metal structures compared to the wavelength of light. And it is the geom-
etry of these structures that governs their electromagnetic properties, that is, the material’s
interaction with light.
What at first glance might seem like a simple trick of the light led to an important amal-
gam of new physical phenomena and a number of applications, such as the construction of
flat lenses or the possibility of obtaining super-resolution, that is, exceeding the diffraction

Figure 6.4 Metamaterial based on gold micro-resonators on graphene.
Source: Juan Luis García Pomar.
limit, which could mean increasing the capacity of information storage systems. But per-
haps one of the most striking properties is the possibility of obtaining invisibility more
effectively than we learned in Experiment 3.5.
Thus, a group from Duke University in the United States explored the possibility of
creating a metamaterial layer around an object in such a way that it transformed the path
of light to surround it and continue as if there had been no such object, which would
remain invisible to an outside observer. This first tasks were performed in two dimen-
sions and for microwaves; new studies are being carried out in the visible spectrum and in
three-dimensional situations. While much remains to be obtained for a cloak like the one
that made Harry Potter invisible, the door to science fiction has been once again opened,
and the chimera of invisibility may be a little closer.
Foodstuffs and agriculture: Light as a

traditional and innovative instrument
How do light-based technologies help agriculture?
Plant life has evolved efficiently to use sunlight through photosynthesis (see Experiment 5.5).
In agriculture today, farmers routinely grow crops under cover using artificial light, where
the spectrum and intensity can be controlled to increase the crop or produce crops outside
their seasonal growth cycles. Aside from controlling the growth cycle, light is also used to
analyze the health of a crop, optimizing the irrigation and application of insecticides and
fertilizers or predicting when a plantation is ready to be harvested.
Infrared analysis reveals the amount of sugar or water in living plants, while mea-
suring the transmission of light through the leaves is a simple way to determine their
chlorophyll content and therefore analyze the plant’s health. With fiber optic sensors,
the chemical composition of the soil can be known using a fluorescence sensor and an

Figure 6.5 NASA photography detecting infrared radiation. It is seen that the highest infrared intensity corresponds to the
Amazon jungle.
Photo: Holli Riebeek, NASA / Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory / Carnegie Institution of Washington.
LED light (see Chapter 2). During harvest times, laser-guided machinery maximizes crop
harvesting.
Remote sensors from different sources such as satellites or drones can produce more spe-
cialist information. Thus, the hyperspectral image, the one that captures the light beyond the
optical range by increasing the bandwidth, provides us with useful information regarding
areas with different crops, risk of fire or floods or even illegal drug crops (Figure 6.5).
How is light used in the food industry?

Light is one of the few tools to inspect the composition and quality of food without degrad-
ing it. Therefore, from the farm to the packaging industry, different optical techniques
are used extensively to ensure the quality and safety of the food we consume every day.

For example, many foods are scanned with photographic techniques to ensure that the size
and surfaces are those expected, for example, that each pea in its frozen form is isolated
and is uniform in shape, size and surface. Also, the packaging processes are often con-
trolled by means of light to measure the amount of oxygen inside the packages and thus
ensure that the food does not spoil.
More sophisticated and perhaps more vital for quality control are the techniques that,
through a light measurement, they allow us to check the inside of the same foods, making
their consumption safer.
X-rays and laser diffraction images can detect imperfections and contaminants, today
even below the nanoscale. On this scale, the molecules that cause such defects can be seen.
Spectroscopy techniques study the interaction between radiation and matter, such as fluo-
rescence, which can identify chemical characteristics in foodstuffs (see Experiment 6.4),
allowing the detection of contaminants and pathogens. The same techniques are used, for
example, to measure the fat content of peanuts, still within their shells, or the nitrogen
content in vegetables.
How is salt obtained? Can you get drinking

water from sea water?
Sea salt evaporation ponds (Figure 6.6) have been used historically by the different civili-
zations that have settled in the Mediterranean basin. From the Phoenicians to the present,
salt ponds and salt marshes have been methodically used to obtain a fragile crystal of great
economic importance: salt.
Salt extraction is a dynamic process that can be divided into five periods that corre-
spond to the same number of evaporating ponds. In them, thanks to solar energy, the water
gradually evaporates, and the other minerals begin to precipitate, until finally the precipi-
tation of the sodium chloride, thus creating salt.
The reverse process obtains drinking water through desalination plants. The shortage of
fresh water in many areas of our planet and the greater industrialization and development
of many countries requires greater amounts of water. Brackish water desalination of sea
water is the most used procedure in those regions most in need of fresh water. Desalina-
tion essentially consists of removing dissolved salts in water in order to make it drinkable
or at least usable in industry, agriculture, etc.
Figure 6.6 Coastal salt marsh on the island of Lanzarote.

Photography: Heinrich Pniok, Wikimedia Commons.

The desalination process has been known since ancient times, when through rudimen-
tary evaporators and using solar energy, small-scale drinking water was obtained, as it is
still done today and as we will do in Experiment 6.7. Current technological developments
allow for large-scale production of water suitable for agricultural and industrial applica-
tions based on seawater or other brackish water.
Light is our friend: the impressive applications

in biomedicine
To the extent that we can consider it our ally, in addition to offering infinite applications
in education, communication or industrial production, light allows us to view our body
with an incredible degree of detail, being able to monitor its structures, however small
they may be or because they are very hidden that are, almost in real time.
How does light help us diagnose diseases?

Radiography is one of the most common and
ancient diagnostic techniques found in med-
icine. These images are obtained by letting a
very high-energy light, such as X-rays, pass
through our body. Since X-rays are absorbed
differently according to the density of the tis-
sues they pass, when they reach the detector
it is possible to collect an image of the inside
of our body, as shown in Figure 6.7. Com-
puted tomography, also known as a scan, is
another medical technique that uses X-rays
to obtain very-high-precision images of the
inside of the body. In this way, it is possible
to see if there is an internal anomaly that
can be a symptom of some disease and also
see injuries due to accidents, such as a bone
fracture. Furthermore, in recent decades,
the introduction of digital detectors (such as
CCDs, described in Chapter 2) with a much
higher sensitivity than the traditional photo-
graphic film has allowed us to improve the
quality of the image and, at the same time, Figure 6.7 X-ray of a left hand taken in 1896.
reduce the patient’s exposure to X-rays, Photography: WC Röntgen, Wikimedia Commons.
which have harmful effects on cells.
Two other common diagnostic techniques based on light to obtain images of our body are
endoscopy and optical coherence tomography:
• Endoscopy typically uses a camera with a lens and white light that is inserted into
the body with a cable (endoscope) through a natural orifice (such as the mouth, anus
or genitals) or through a surgical incision. The organs that are often viewed with this
technique are the stomach, intestine and gallbladder. In recent years, the use of the
so-called endoscopic capsule is also being disseminated, which incorporates a tiny
camera that patients can swallow and transmits images to doctors.
• Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is an imaging technique that allows for the view-
ing and quantifying of three-dimensional tissues of the human body with microscopic

Figure 6.8 Three-dimensional image of the two lenses of our eye (cornea and lens) and of the iris.
Photography: Visual Optics and Biophotonics Lab (Viobio Lab) of the Institute of Optics of the Spanish National Research Council (IO-CSIC).
resolution in a non-invasive manner. Common elements in OCT are infrared mono-

chromatic light (this light can be of low coherence with a spectrum composed of a
range of wavelengths or light composed of several lasers with different wavelengths), a
Michelson interferometer in fiber optic configuration, an optical scanner and a detec-
tor. The wavelength range of the light source is what allows us to penetrate the tis-
sue axially, that is, if we have in mind the Cartesian coordinates and their orthogonal
distances to the three main planes, each wavelength of the light source will penetrate
a different part of the tissue and offer us the information with which it is located on
the z axis. The scanner is responsible for scanning the other two main planes, the x y
z axes, covering the three dimensions of the space. And finally, the interferometer will
allow us to obtain phase information for each wavelength and each position in space,
staying in the detector with the waves that give rise to constructive interference (see
Chapter 1). This technique is used in different medical specialties, such as cardiology
or dermatology, but it is in the field of ophthalmology where it has a greater application
due to the transparent tissues of the eye that facilitate the passage of light (Figure 6.8).
Another commonly used and non-invasive technique to monitor the amount of blood
oxygen uses a device called an oximeter that rests on the tip of the patient’s finger. The
oximeter uses two LEDs (see Chapter 2) of different wavelengths that send pulses of light
capable of crossing the patient’s skin. The measurement of the absorbed light allows us to
determine the level of oxygen in the blood.
Alongside the techniques described above, commonly used in hospitals, there are oth-
ers that are still in the research phase, such as optical biopsy. Unlike traditional biopsies,
where a tissue sample is sectioned and then analyzed if the tissue shows any signs of a
tumor, an optical biopsy aims to analyze the tissue in the body itself by direct skin imaging

techniques or by endoscope, where OCT-based systems and other optical techniques are
being coupled that allow imaging and study of biochemical reactions on the spot: laser
(see Chapter 2), fluorescence emission (see Chapter 5), spectroscopy and microscopy (see
Chapters 2 and 3). As an example, some scientists have developed a method to locate can-
cer cells by injecting a fluorescent liquid marker onto a tumor. The marker sticks only to
cancer cells, which emit blue light under the illumination of a specific light, making them
visible to surgeons. In this way, one can act with precision to remove only the malignant
tissue, preserving healthy tissue.
Exciting research continues to be undertaken in the use of light to obtain new forms
of medical and biological images. For example, some researchers are using near-infrared
light to detect tumors and measure oxygen levels in living tissues. These new methods
improve our ability to see the borders or margins of the tumor and diagnose and treat it
more efficiently.
Furthermore, it will not be long until we
can have medical devices in our homes that
can inform a medical data center in real time.
Now mobile applications and developments
associated with the Internet of Things con-
cerning health are appearing that will allow
us to have better medical care in the future.
How does light help us

treat diseases?
Light not only helps us detect diseases but
also often comes to our aid to cure them. The
treatment of diseases with light, whether
of natural or artificial origin, is called
phototherapy.
In medicine, infrared lasers are used exten-
sively in surgical procedures that require high
levels of accuracy, such as in the removal of
Figure 6.9 Photograph of the DNA obtained by
nodules in vocal chords while preserving this
Franklin and Gosling in 1952.
delicate tissue. In addition, lasers are also
Photography: Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling. Lucas, A.
used to cauterize cuts and stop the bleed- (2008): “A-DNA and B-DNA: Comparing Their Historical X-ray Fiber
ing of rich tissues in vessels such as gums. A Diffraction Images”, Journal of Chemical Education, 85 (5), p. 737.
laser is also commonly used in dermatology
for the removal of tattoos or birthmarks.
Through the use of optical fibers similar Did you know...?
to those used in telecommunications, laser
Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling
light can also be sent to places within the
were the first scientists who managed,
body. For example, by allowing a fiber to
in 1952, to obtain a very clear image of
pass through the urethra, the laser light can
the DNA using the phenomenon of X-ray
be carried inside the kidney without requir-
diffraction. In the photograph they obtained
ing surgical incisions. There, the laser energy
(called Photography 51), the characteristic
is used to fragment kidney stones. In a simi-
double-helix shape of the DNA can be
lar way but with a small incision, the laser
observed. This image helped two other
light can be carried inside the blood vessels
scientists, Francis Crick and James
to remove thrombi, that is, blood clots that
Watson, to clarify the structure of DNA and
lead to heart attacks. Optical fibers are also
thus publish the first scientific article that
used in orthopedic surgery to deliver laser
described it the following year.
energy to precise points of the joints.

In ophthalmology, laser light penetrates
the eye and is therefore used for numerous
surgical treatments. These can be classi-
fied into two types: those that are aimed at
correcting vision defects and those that are
used to treat diseases that affect the eyes.
In the first case, the treatment called LASIK
(Laser Assisted in Situ Keratomileusis) is
a widely used surgical technique for the
correction of vision defects such as myo-
pia, farsightedness or astigmatism (see
Chapter 4). LASIK uses a powerful ultra-
violet laser to remove corneal tissue (see
Chapter 4) and thus remodel it and change
its shape so that the light focuses correctly
on the retina without using eyeglasses.
Figure 6.10 Simulation of the electric field in a clus- With regard to eye surgery for the treat-
ter of light-activated gold nanoparticles, used in experimental ment of diseases, this often employs near-
cancer treatments. infrared laser pulses to weld a detached
Source: Juan Luis García Pomar. retina, destroy abnormal blood vessels in
the retina of patients suffering from diabe-
tes or cut internal membranes that often become opaque after cataract surgery.
Radiation therapy, which involves irradiating tumor tissue with X-rays to destroy
it, is one of the oldest and most common treatments for certain types of tumors. Other
therapies are being studied for cancer treatment using light, which are still in the clini-
cal trial phase. For example, ultraviolet light can be irradiated to the blood to improve
its ability to fight against cancer cells in patients affected by leukaemia. Photodynamic
therapy is based on the fact that the medicines absorbed by the cancerous tissue
include agents that can be activated by light when they are exposed to a certain wave-
length and thus kill the cancer cells. Another method uses nanoparticles (Figure 6.10),
which are introduced into the tumor and which, when irradiated with light, heat up
and kill cancer cells.
Finally, exposure to non-laser light sources, including sunlight, is indicated in
dermatological treatments (acne and psoriasis), treatment of rickets and osteomalacia
(bone softening due to a lack of vitamin D), treatment of physiological jaundice in
newborn infants and to relieve mood disorders and circadian rhythm (variation of hor-
mones and other biological substances every 24 hours).
Wonders at our fingertips: light for cultural heritage

Light in art and research. How does light help in
architecture and art?
Light-based technologies play a major role in the conservation, preservation, reconstruc-
tion and authentication of paintings, sculptures and monuments. Lasers can remove cal-
careous deposits, layers of oxides and other contaminants from stones, bronzes or paints
without damaging the original materials.
To analyse the different layers that make up a painting or an old manuscript, images of
these are taken at different wavelengths of the EM spectrum to obtain a so-called multi-
spectral image (Figure 6.11). In particular, each wavelength penetrates a different layer of

Figure 6.11 Eight images of the Virgin of Crivelli (1470) obtained with visible, ultraviolet, infrared and X-ray light.
Photo: Heritage Science Journal, 2014, 2: 8, Max Kemman Digital Libraries and Archives of the University of Luxembourg.
paint. For example, X-rays (shorter wavelength) reach the deepest layer of the painting, as
far as the frame that supports it. Visible light (VIS) only manages to penetrate the surface
layer of the paint, while infrared (IR) wavelengths get through the surface layers until they
reach the drawing on the canvas.
What is more, thermal cameras (which detect the infrared wavelength) are used to ana-
lyze historic buildings and works of art instead of traditional cameras since they can detect
water damage or cracks below the surface.
Why is the sea blue and what is its importance

in terms of materials research?
Raman was an important twentieth-century scientist who dedicated his life to the study
of the interaction between light and materials. In particular, his interest was aroused by
observing the blue color of the sea when traveling from England to India. According to
another eminent scientist, Lord Rayleigh, this color was due to the reflection of the sky in
the water. Still, this argument did not convince Raman, who began seeking out its origin.
Thus began his research that was carried out in India for many years in order to under-
stand the interaction between light and liquid molecules. During his experiments, Raman
observed a particular phenomenon: a small percentage of light changed color when scat-
tered. This effect is known today as the Raman effect or Raman scattering, and it won him
the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930.
Not only liquids but also solids and gases display Raman scattering. Therefore, the
Raman effect is widely used in the research of materials, since it allows us to determine
their chemical composition without breaking them.
In research laboratories, a laser is used (in the visible or near infrared) to illuminate
the sample of the material to be analyzed, a spectroscope (see Experiment 2.1) to sepa-
rate the different wavelengths scattered by the material and a detector (see Chapter 2) to
collect the intensity of scattered light. This is how the Raman spectrum is obtained from

the material under analysis, which is unique
for each substance and characteristic of the
molecules that compose it. The measure-
ment technique described is called Raman
spectroscopy and is especially valuable for
analyzing fragile and delicate materials such
as works of art, since it is minimally inva-
sive. For example, Figure 6.12 shows the
Raman spectrum of the pink pigment used
by Van Gogh.
Furthermore, the Raman spectrum of a
pigment is as if it were its “fingerprint.” So,
in the restoration of works of art an unknown
pigment can be searched for by comparing
its spectrum with that of other known pig-
Figure 6.12 Raman spectrum of the pigment (eosin) ments, like a detective who searches files for
used by Van Gogh in his paintings. a suspect’s fingerprints to identify them.
Source: Francesca Gallazzi.
Figure 6.13 A half-scale version of the ExoMars rover, called the ExoMars Testing Rover (ExoTeR), seen maneuvering
itself carefully through the red rocks and sand of the 9x9-m Planetary Utilization Testbed, part of ESA's Planetary Robotics
Laboratory at its ESTEC technical center in the Netherlands, as a test of autonomous navigation software destined for ESA's
ExoMars 2020 mission to the Red Planet.
Photography: European Space Agency
Did you know...?

The mission of the ESA (European Space Agency) ExoMars, led by the Center for Astrobiology (CSIC/
INTA), is scheduled for 2022 and aims to find out if there was ever life on Mars. To do this, the space
exploration vehicle that will be sent to Mars will be equipped with a Raman spectrometer. This will be
used to analyze samples of the Martian subsoil in search of the characteristic molecules of bacterial life.

Figure 6.14 Arthur Ashkin, Gérard Mourou and Donna Strickland, winners of the Nobel Prize in Physics 2018.
Illustration: Niklas Elmehed. © Nobel Media AB 2018.
Did you know...?

Since 1960, the year the laser was born, until 2018, 30% of the Nobel Prizes in Physics have
been awarded for discoveries in the field of optics and photonics or have been possible thanks to
technologies based on them.
Neither have awards been lacking before that date, such as that of Albert A. Michelson in 1907 “for
his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and meteorological investigations carried
out with their aid” or Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman in 1930 “for his work on the scattering of light
and for the discovery of the effect named after him.” And there have been many awards in other
areas of knowledge, such as the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2014, awarded to Eric Betzig, Stefan W.
Hell and William E. Moerner “for the development of super-resolved fluorescence microscopy.”
The high number of awards related to light and light-based technologies, such as those you’ve
learned throughout the book, demonstrate its importance in the world around us. Regardless of more
theoretical discoveries, which have also been awarded, remember that laser, holography, different
spectroscopic techniques and microscopic and many discoveries made through them, the optical
fiber, the CCD sensors, the blue LED, amongst others, have deservedly won a Nobel Prize.
The 2018 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Arthur Ashkin, Gérard Mourou and Donna
Strickland “for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics.” Ashkin invented the “optical
tweezers” with which, using light as a tool, a single molecule can be isolated and operated, a fact
that has numerous applications in biological systems, while Mourou and Strickland were the first
to create a method for generate ultra-short laser pulses of high intensity, which allows us to obtain
high-power and high-energy lasers, such as those used in thousands of eye surgeries every day.

Bibliography
Agrawal, G.P. (2002): Fiber-Optic Communications System, Hoboken, John Wiley & Sons.
Barbero, S., Dorronsoro, C. and Gonzalo, J. (2015): La luz. Ciencia y tecnología, Madrid, CSIC-Los
Libros de la Catarata.
Fraile, F.J., Marti, J. and Capmany, ,J. (1998): Fundamentos de comunicaciones ópticas, Madrid,
Síntesis.
National Researcher Council (1998): Harnessing Light Optical Science and Engineering for the 21st
Century, Washington, The National Academies Press.
Various authors. (2015): Celebrating light. 50 ways light-based technologies enrich our world”, SPIE Press.

Objective 1: Observe the effect of invisible electromagnetic
Can We See the waves for the human eye (microwave) and calculate
the speed of light.
Invisible?
MATERIALS
• A microwave oven • Ruler
• A bar of chocolate around • Stick or teaspoon (optional)
Electromagnetic spectrum, 20 cm long (or another • Paper and pencil (optional)
10 min (+) microwave, light speed, foodstuff that melts easily)
frequency, wavelength
• A microwave-proof dish or
container
M
icrowave ovens are one of the most common optical technology applications that
we use in our daily lives. Water molecules stand out for the absorption power of
photons present in microwave energy. Therefore, the food’s water is heated, and,
as a consequence, all the food becomes evenly hot. In this experiment, you can check the
operation of the microwave oven thanks to the microwaves and even calculate with it the
speed of light.
Procedure
1. Remove the rotating device from the
microwave. It is important that the
plate and the chocolate bar do not
move.
2. Place the chocolate bar on the plate
and place it in the microwave so that
the longest side of the bar is parallel
to the door. In some microwaves it is
necessary to place the chocolate at a
Figure 6.1.1 Operation scheme.
certain height so that the experiment
Source: in house.
works properly (Figure 6.1.2). This is
because microwave waves do not reach
all points of the microwave oven.
3. Heat at maximum power for 20-40 sec-
onds or until you see that the chocolate
begins to melt at certain points. Make
sure the dish and chocolate do not
rotate during microwave operation.
4. Remove the dish from the microwave
and measure the distance between the
center of the two melted points with
the ruler. If you do not see well where
it has melted, you can prick it a little
with a toothpick, so you will notice
the consistency differences more
clearly (Figure 6.1.3). The first image Figure 6.1.2 Microwave with chocolate over the bowl.
shows how the chocolate should look Photography: in house.

6.1 Experiment: Can We See the Invisible?
after irradiating it in the microwave.
If it looks like the second image, you
should repeat the experiment but place
the chocolate par in a lower position in
the microwave.
5. Multiply this distance by 2, and you
will obtain the wavelength (λ) of the
radiation emitted by the microwave.
6. Now you just have to multiply the
(λ) found by the frequency (f) of your
microwave (usually 2.45 GHz, but
check the microwave instruction book).
The value you obtain is the speed of
light. Take care with the measurement
units! To avoid problems, work with
the fundamental units: the frequency
in hertz and the wavelength in meters.
This way you will get the speed value
in meters per second (m/s).
Explanation
This type of oven generates electromag-
netic waves in the range of microwaves
that heat food. These waves cause a vibra-
tion in the water that can be more or less
energetic following a periodic pattern. If
we eliminate the mechanism that allows Figure 6.1.3 Chocolate melted after heating in the
the food to rotate inside the microwave, we microwave.
will produce a non-uniform heating in the Photography: in house.
food. The chocolate points that have melted
correspond to the nodes of the wave, which
are one-half wavelength apart. By knowing that the speed of light (c) corresponds to the
multiplication of the frequency (v, known) and the wavelength (λ, measured), we can cal-
culate the speed of light: c = λ · v
In a microwave oven, the magnetron generates electromagnetic waves in the microwave
range, usually at a frequency of 2.45 GHz. Every electromagnetic wave transfers part of its
energy to the medium in which it propagates. Water is a polar molecule, that is, it has a
slightly negative charge near its oxygen atom and a slightly positive charge near its hydro-
gen atoms. This causes the water molecules to vibrate with the EM field and, therefore,
suffer a greater transfer of energy.
By eliminating the rotating part of the microwave, this transfer is not constant through-
out the entire food but rather follows a periodic pattern. The maximum, minimum and
nodes of this pattern are repeated at a distance that depends on the microwave’s wave-
length and, indirectly, on its frequency and the speed of light by means of the formula:
c = λ · v.

6.1 Experiment: Can We See the Invisible?
Tricks
Don’t like chocolate? You can use any food that can easily melt in the microwave: strips of
jelly beans, marshmallows, slices of cheese, egg white (in that case, you will have to mea-
sure the distance between the points that are cooked first), etc. Try them all and find out
which one gives you a more accurate measurement!

• What radiation parameters do we need to know to measure the speed of light?
• If we could measure those values in another area of the EM spectrum, would we get
the same result?
Related experiments

Objective 1: Observe how light can travel following the path of a
A Stream of Light: water jet.
Tyndall–Colladon Objective 2: Understand, through Snell’s law, how the phenom-
enon of total internal reflection occurs in the trans-
Experiment mission of light through optical fibers.
MATERIALS
Total reflection, • Clear plastic bottle
30 min (+) Snell's law, light • Laser pointer
transmission • Scissors, cutter or similar
• Cube
I
n optical communications, light travels through optical fibers thanks to the process of total
internal reflection. Water acts similarly to fibers, and if a beam of light strikes a water jet at a
certain angle; we can see how the light is confined within the jet traveling with its same curva-
ture. An example where we can observe this phenomenon is the source of colladon, also known
as Tyndall’s experiment. With this experiment, you can make your own Colladon source.
Procedure
1. Take the clear plastic bottle and make a
small hole near the bottom.
2. Place the laser pointer at the point
opposite the side where the hole is.
Make sure that the laser light beam
goes out through the hole we made in
the bottle.
3. Cover the hole with your finger or a
piece of masking tape.
4. Fill the water bottle, turn on the laser
and uncover the hole. You can already
see a beautiful light source (Figure 6.2.2).
5. Make sure the water falls on the bucket
to be able to reuse it.
Explanation
The water-air surface acts as a mirror in
which the light is reflected and therefore
follows the path of the water. At the point
where the water jet falls into the bucket,
a point of light is observed. As the bottle
empties, the point of light will move with
the water until there comes a time when the
jet has excessive curvature and the light is
no longer confined, continuing its path in a Figure 6.2.1 Colladon fountain.
straight line. In an optical fiber, light travels
Source: Jean-Daniel Colladon, reproduced in the journal The Nature
in a similar way. (1884).

6.2 Experiment: A Stream of Light: Tyndall–Colladon Experiment
As we have seen previously, according
to Snell’s law, on the water–air surface the
angle of light transmission experiences an
equivalent change: n1 sin(Ø1) = n2 sin(Ø2),
where n1 is much greater than n2, and the
angle Ø2 will be greater than Ø1. The con-
finement situation occurs whenever Ø2 is
greater than 90°.
In the case of water (n1 = 1.33), the criti-
cal angle occurs at approximately 49°,
while in the case of optical fiber (n1 = 1.50),
the critical angle is somewhat smaller, 42°.
This implies that the fiber supports greater Figure 6.2.2 Experiment results. The laser pointer is
curvatures than water. located to the right of the image, so that the water in the bottle
passes through the plastic inside and out through the hole you
made in the bottle.
Tricks
Photography: Juan Aballe / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.
• Use a large bottle and make the hole as
low as possible to get better results, since the less curvature the water jet has, the more
light will be confined.
• As the bottle empties, the water flows with less intensity, and little by little, the con-
finement effect is lessened. If you want it to last longer, connect the bottle to a tap
using a straw.

• How is information transmitted through an optical fiber?
• When you bend a fiber that transmits a visible beam, we can see how the point of
maximum curvature is illuminated. What causes this phenomenon?
Related experiments
Experiment 6.3 Listening to light: optical communications system

Listening to Light: Objective 1: Understand how light can be used to transmit
information.
Optical Communications Objective 2: Learn the function of all the elements used in the
System circuit.
MATERIALS
• LED • 470-Ω resistor
• Photovoltaic cell • Speaker
Communications,
30 min (+) modulation, light • Jack–jack cable • Sound transmitter
transmission • Cable and wire stripper, (radio, smartphone or
or scissors and pliers microphone)
• 9V DC battery • Audio amplifier (optional)
J
ust like a microphone transforms our voice (a vibration) into electricity, we can use
this electricity to modulate the light and transmit that information. In this experi-
ment, we will design an optical communications system in which the information is
transmitted by an LED (light-emitting diode). Similarly, with lasers in free space, certain
satellites communicate. An example of this is ESA’s ESRS system (Figure 6.3.1).
Procedure
1. Connect the LED in parallel to the bat-
tery and the resistor. Make sure the
polarity of the LED is suitable (the long
pin is the positive pole) (Figure 6.3.3).
2. Use the jack–jack cable to connect the
radio in parallel. The jack connector
has three different parts (two if not ste-
reo). The part closest to the cable is the
ground, which you must connect to the
negative output of the LED. The other
two parts carry the sound, meaning you
can connect either to the positive side.
3. Connect the photovoltaic cell to the
speaker. Figure 6.3.1 The European EDRS (European Data
4. You may hear the sound very faintly. In Relay System) system developed by the European Space Agency
that case, connect an audio amplifier (ESA) and Airbus.
between the photovoltaic board and the Source: ESA.
speaker to increase the volume.
Explanation
Every communication system contains a sender and a receiver. The emitter of our sys-
tem, the LED, generates a beam of light that contains the information of our voice or the
music that we are playing. On the other hand, the detector, the photovoltaic cell, detects
that information and transforms it back into electricity, which will be transformed into
sound through the loudspeaker. If we put an object between the LED and the photovol-
taic cell, we will observe that the communication is interrupted, and therefore the music
can no longer be heard.

6.3 Experiment: Listening to Light: Optical Communications System
Figure 6.3.2 Materials. Figure 6.3.3 Circuit diagram.

Photography: in house. Source: in house.
We will also observe a lower-quality

transmission if we move the LED away from
the photovoltaic cell or if we move it from
top to bottom or from left to right. The path
of light would not be direct, and part of the
light would be lost in the transmission.
To build the transmitter of our optical
communication system we needed an LED,
a battery, a resistor and a microphone, as
well as a radio or telephone to generate the
sound sent. The battery is used to power the
LED with the intensity necessary to activate
the diode. This intensity is regulated by Figure 6.3.4 Circuit assembly.
the resistor. By connecting the sound gen- Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.
erator in parallel, we obtain a small vari-
able intensity that reaches the LED. It can
be said that it has the modulated amplitude (AM) ILED = (1 + m) · cte, whereby m contains
the sound information we want to send. In the receiver, composed of a photovoltaic cell
and a speaker, the light that reaches the cell is transformed into electricity, and since it
is modulated in amplitude, we can recover the original sound. In the transmission, the

6.3 Experiment: Listening to Light: Optical Communications System
light generated in the LED is attenuated, so if the distance between the LED and the cell is
increased, more noise will be heard.
Tricks
• We can replace the LED diode with a laser pointer. Due to the characteristics of the
lasers, we will have a much higher sound quality.
• If you have an optical fiber, you can try to couple the LED or laser light and take it to
the photovoltaic cell. In this way, you will avoid obstacles and get better sound qual-
ity in the speaker.

• How is the information in our system coded?
• Could we use our system to transmit video signals?
• Can we use a mirror or a lens to improve our communication system?
Related experiments
Experiment 6.2 A stream of light: Tyndall–Colladon experiment

Objective 1: Understand how fluorescence can help us to control
Does My Olive Oil food quality.
Have Antioxidants? Objective 2: Experience how exposure to different agents can

impair the quality of food.
MATERIALS
• Extra virgin olive oil
• Sunflower oil
Fluorescence, power, • Glass containers or beakers
30 min (+) optical technology
• Green laser pointer
O
live oil is unique compared to other
oils, since it is the product of a fruit
and not of a seed. Thus, it has a dif-
ferent constitution, particularly with respect
to its flavor, but also due to the major pres-
ence of antioxidants and natural pigments.
It is the central product of Mediterranean
cuisine and is treated as a “healthy oil”.
In this experiment, we will analyze the
presence of antioxidants in our olive oil
by fluorescence. As previously mentioned,
fluorescence can be applied as food control
technology, since it does not imply a dete- Figure 6.4.1 Olive grove.
rioration of the food product, as there is no Photography: Stocksnap, Pixabay.
contact and possible degradation.
Procedure
1. Place olive and sunflower oils in separate containers. Add another container with
water.
2. Pass the green laser beam through the
different oils.
3. View how the fluorescence changes
from one oil to another.
4. As an additional study, you can see
how it affects extra virgin olive oil left
in the sun for a week or that has been
heated several times (always heat the
oil with adult supervision, since you
can burn yourself).
Explanation
Some olive oils may contain chlorophyll. Figure 6.4.2 From left to right: water, sunflower oil
These oils are usually greener than those and olive oil with green light.
that do not contain it. Although chlorophyll Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.

6.4 Experiment: Does My Olive Oil Have Antioxidants?
by itself does not add quality to the oil, it is
present to a greater extent in oils that come
from younger olives, which usually contain
more antioxidants and have a fresher flavor.
Fluorescence can be used to identify the
presence of certain types of substances.
Chlorophyll, in this case, absorbs light in
the visible zone of high energies. A green
laser pointer provides enough energy to
stimulate chlorophyll, more than a red one.
When passing through sunflower oil, it
does not turn red, since it comes from the
sunflower seed, which does not contain Figure 6.4.3 From left to right: result of the experi-
chlorophyll. ment with white light: water, sunflower oil and olive oil.
Extra virgin oil is obtained by cold press- Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.
ing the olives against other oils of lower
quality that are hot pressed. In the latter,
the chlorophyll molecules are broken, which eventually oxidize the other molecules and
degrade the quality of the oil. The same happens when the oil is exposed to light, meaning
it should be stored in bottles that do not let light through.
Tricks
• Find a dark place to observe the effect more closely.
• Change the order of the oil containers. If you put olive oil in front of sunflower oil,
you will notice that olive oil absorbs more than sunflower oil.

• Presumably, what color must a good quality oil have? What effect will you observe if
you illuminate it with ultraviolet light?
• Should you reuse many times the oil you used to fry food?
Related experiments

Objective 1: Build a solar oven to cook food using only solar
Cooking for Free: energy.
Build a Solar Oven MATERIALS

• Two square cardboard boxes: • Scissors
one measuring 45 cm and • Glue
the other 50 cm. They must • Tin foil
be large enough for the • Black card
Solar energy, transmission, container you want to cook • Packing tape
1 h (+) reflection, absorption
in later to fit into. • Nylon thread
• Newspaper • A flat glass or transpar-
• Ruler ent plastic (plexiglass) of
square shape (45 cm side)
and about 3 mm thick
T
o cook food, electricity or fuels such as natural gas or firewood are required, which
in some countries or remote places are often not available. An alternative to cook-
ing with cheap and renewable energy is solar energy, which you can also use almost
anywhere. In addition to solar energy, you need a solar oven to boost the calorific value
of the sun. The diffusion of solar ovens for cooking food took place in rural areas of India
during the fifties of the last century. The United Nations has also promoted the use of solar
furnaces in refugee camps, as a result of military conflicts in different parts of the planet.
Next, we will describe the process of building a solar oven with low-cost and affordable
materials.
Procedure
1. Cut the ends of the flaps of the large box so that they are trapezoid shaped and line
them with the foil, as shown in Figure 6.5.2. Try to avoid creases or wrinkles in the tin
foil for better operation of the solar oven.
2. Cut out the flaps of the small box.
3. Cover the inside of the small box with black cardboard.
Figure 6.5.1 Diagram of the experiment. Figure 6.5.2 Final assembly of the solar oven.
Source: in house. Photography: Eliezer Sánchez González / Scientific Culture (CSIC) / IOSA.

6.5 Experiment: Cooking for Free: Build a Solar Oven
4. Place the small cardboard box in the center of the large box. Fill the space between the
two boxes with newspaper.
5. Join the flaps of the large box with the nylon thread so that each one maintains an
angle of 45° with the box.
6. Finally, build the lid of the solar oven using a few pieces of cardboard for the edges
and sticking to them the glass or transparent plastic. The solar oven is ready!
Explanation
The solar oven uses sunlight to heat the air in a thermally insulated space. The air temper-
ature in the oven increases by reducing the possibility of heat loss. This same effect hap-
pens inside a car when left closed and in the sun for a long time. The temperature inside
the oven can exceed 100°C.
Out of all the energy of the sun that reaches the Earth, the one that has a wavelength
in the infrared can manage to heat the objects. In particular, infrared radiation can be
absorbed, reflected or transmitted according to the type of material it passes through.
In general, transparent glasses and plastics largely allow almost all the solar radiation
that passes through them to not be absorbed. Instead, the rest of the bodies absorb a part
of the radiation that reaches them and reflect the remaining part. Black objects absorb
all solar radiation and become warmer than other objects. The solar oven we have made
bases its principle on the accumulation of heat generated by the sun’s rays. The rays that
pass through the glass or plastic lid are absorbed by the oven walls, which are black. This
causes the air inside the oven to heat up, and when there is a lid covering it, the heat can-
not escape. This effect is called the greenhouse effect. Furthermore, the presence of the
reflective exterior surfaces increases the area of sunlight capture, reflecting many of them
inside the oven.
Tricks
• With the solar oven, you can prepare the same recipes that are made in a conven-
tional oven, although in some cases you can reduce the cooking time by making cer-
tain tweaks. For example, it is advisable to reduce the amount of water in the recipe
and cut the food into small pieces.
• You can put a kitchen thermometer inside the solar oven to know what the tempera-
ture is and thus have a more precise idea about the time needed for cooking food.

What color are the objects that absorb more solar energy?
Related experiments
Experiment 6.6 Obtaining electricity from the sun: build a photovoltaic cell
Experiment 6.7 Desalinate water for free

Objective 1: Understand that the energy that comes from the sun
Obtaining Electricity can be transformed into electricity.
from the Sun: Build a Objective 2: Understand what mechanism occurs inside the pho-
tovoltaic cell.
Photovoltaic Cell MATERIALS
• Two strips of copper or • A spoon
aluminum or copper wire • A cup or glass
Solar energy, electricity (uncoated) • A filter for coffee or similar
2 h (+) • Two pieces of flat glass of • Sunscreen with high protection
the same size (microscope factor (check that the
slides) ingredients contain
• Glue titanium dioxide, TiO2)
• Adhesive tape • A tea candle or lighter
• A bowl or deep dish • Iodine for wounds (pharmacy)
• Blueberries or blackberries • A multi-meter
O
ne of the most important challenges
of our day is to obtain sources of
clean, cheap and abundant energy
that allow us to end the dependence we
have on fossil fuels. Photovoltaic energy is
an excellent candidate. In this experiment,
we will develop a photovoltaic cell with
homemade elements. We will create a dye-
sensitized cell that will allow us to produce
electricity through a photoelectrochemical
phenomenon. This type of solar cell is very
promising compared to the classic ones
based on silicon, because although they are Figure 6.6.1 Solar panels.
less efficient, they have a lower production Photography: Blickpixel, Pixabay.
cost.
Procedure
1. Glue the copper or aluminum strips
along the glass pieces.
2. Place masking tape on the edges of one
of the glasses (on the side of the strip).
3. Cover the surface abundantly with sun-
screen. Wait 15 minutes for the protec-
tor to dry. Remove the adhesive tape.
4. Put the blueberries in a bowl and
squeeze them with a spoon, so that
the juice is released. Now use the fil-
ter to separate the juice and store it in
the bowl. If you do not get much juice,
do not worry, save the puree you have
obtained.

6.6 Experiment: Obtaining Electricity from the Sun: Build
a Photovoltaic Cell
Figure 6.6.3 Different steps of the procedure: glue the metal strips, cover the first one with sunscreen and then leave it
to soak in the juice, smoke the other with a candle or lighter, finally join the two plates and measure the voltage.
5. Place the glass in the juice or puree and leave it for 15 minutes to soak.
6. Meanwhile, prepare the other glass. Light the candle and be careful! (you can use a
clothespin) smoke the surface of the glass on which you have glued the copper. You
have to wait until enough soot is deposited (the surface will be black).
7. After the necessary time has elapsed, remove the glass from the juice and, if necessary,
dry it with a cotton cloth. It is not necessary to remove everything. Deposit a few drop-
lets of iodine on the surface.
8. Place the soot-covered glass on top of the other. Fix them with small strips of masking
tape. Be careful that the copper strips do not touch either.
9. Your solar cell is ready: just put it in the sun and check the voltage with a multi-meter.
Prevent the copper strips from touching when measuring voltage.
Explanation
The cell we have built transforms light energy into electricity through a photoelectrochem-
ical process. Sunlight interacts with the photosensitive dye contained in the juice of blue-
berries or blackberries, a pigment called anthocyanin, abundant in these fruits. Anthocy-
anin is absorbed by a semiconductor material (titanium dioxide, TiO2, from the sunscreen).
Sunlight allows the electrons in the dye to absorb enough energy to move in the cell. These

6.6 Experiment: Obtaining Electricity from the Sun: Build
a Photovoltaic Cell
electrons pass directly to titanium dioxide

(semiconductor) and then to copper (cath-
ode, the negative electrode of the cell).
Iodine functions as an electrolyte (that is, a
substance with free ions that conducts elec-
tricity) and soot carbon as a catalyst (that is,
it increases the speed of the chemical reac-
tion). Once the electrons reach the cathode,
they move towards the anode (positive elec-
trode), in this case, the catalyst (soot). From
there, moving through the electrolyte solu-
tion (iodine), they return to the dye, closing
the cycle so that it can start again. In this
way, we obtain an electric current.
Tricks
• If you wish to obtain higher voltages,
you can play with the size of the cells:
the larger the surface, the higher the
voltage. You can also connect different
cells in series or parallel.
• Although our system does not yield
high energy, you can try to connect an Figure 6.6.4 Diagram of the components of our solar cell.
LED or a small motor. A cell the size of
Source: in house.
a microscope slide should produce a
current around 0.5 volts.

• Do the electrons that generate the electric current circulate from the oxidized plate to
the clip or vice versa?
• If we use colored LEDs to illuminate our system, which LED color generates a greater
electrical current?
Related experiments
Experiment 6.5 Cooking for free: build a solar oven

Objective 1: Build a solar desalination plant.
Desalinate Water
for Free MATERIALS
• 1 liter of seawater (or salt water)
• 1 plastic bowl
• 1 crystal glass (shorter than the height of the bowl)
Solar energy, transmission, • Food-grade plastic film
5 min (+) reflection, absorption • Adhesive tape
• Stones
W
e all know that without fresh water
there would be no life for many
animals or plants on our planet,
including humans. But this resource is
highly limited, since about 97% of the water
present on Earth is salty and therefore can-
not be used for agriculture or food. However,
this water can be desalinated by various
techniques, which allows for it to be used.
In this experiment, we will see how it is pos-
sible to build a desalination plant without
Figure 6.7.1 Beach.
spending money, using the sun energy and
Photography: Joe de Sousa, Flickr.
materials available in any household.
Procedure
1. Put the glass in the center of the bowl.
2. Deposit the seawater into the bowl so
that it surrounds the glass.
3. Cover the bowl with the film, being
careful not to leave any holes.
4. Place the stones in the center of the
film paper so that it sinks into the inte-
rior of the bowl. This sinking should
coincide with the center of the glass.
5. Leave the bowl in the sun until there is
no water left in the bowl and the glass
is full. Figure 6.7.2 Diagram of the experiment.
6. Now you have drinking water! You can Source: in house.
use it to water plants and even drink to
check that it has no salt.
Explanation
In our experiment, we have simulated the water cycle to convert salt water into fresh
water. The sun’s energy absorbed by salt water causes it to transform into steam, which
rises and collides with the plastic film. The presence of plastic also makes the tempera-
ture inside the bowl higher than the temperature outside, since the heat cannot escape.

6.7 Experiment: Desalinate Water for Free
This temperature difference causes the
condensation of water vapour in the form
of droplets in the plastic. When the drop-
lets are large enough, gravity directs them
towards the center of the depression we
have created with the stones.
From there, they fall into the glass,
allowing us to obtain pure and salt-free
water like rainwater. The solar desalination
plant we have made is based on the prin-
ciple of water distillation due to the effect
of solar energy. This is transmitted through Figure 6.7.3 Assembly of the experiment.
the air as radiation of different wavelengths, Photography: in house.
from ultraviolet to infrared. The infrared
wavelength is what heats objects. When it
reaches the surface of the water through the transparent plastic it is absorbed by the water
molecules. Thus, these molecules increase their energy until they can break the forces that
bind them in the liquid state and evaporate. The water vapor produced rises to condense
on the surface of the plastic. The latter, in addition to being necessary to allow the con-
densation of water vapor, also encourages the evaporation process, because it leads to an
increase in the temperature of the water since it does not let out the heat absorbed by the
water.
Tricks
The described method to desalinate seawater can also be used to purify fresh water from
any toxic or microbial substances and thus make it drinkable. You can check it by staining
the water placed in the bowl with a coloring substance and seeing that it is not present in
the water that is deposited in the glass.

• Why does water evaporation occur if 100°C is not reached?
• What characteristics must the outer container have to favor the experiment?
Related experiments
Experiment 6.5 Cooking for free: build a solar oven.

Chapter 1 | What is light?
Why do hydrogel beads become invisible in water?
If you look at one of the hydrated hydrogel beads between your fingers, it seems to work
like a magnifying glass. The reason is that, in addition to having a curved surface, its index
of refraction is different from that of air, and thus it deflects the beams as if it were a lens.
However, once you put it in the glass with water, as the hydrogel bead is hydrated with
water, the difference in refractive index is so low that it does not deflect the beams that
pass through it. It’s like having an air-to-air lens: no matter how much curvature you have,
the beams will not be deflected since the refractive indexes match.
How can it be observed that the refractive index of ethyl alcohol is lower than that of
sunflower oil?
A very simple way to verify differences in the refractive index of different liquids is to put
them in the same container and then introduce a pencil or a straw, for example. When you
look at the sides, you will see that the light is refracted differently in each liquid, making
the pencil appear discontinuous. If you see that the image of the pencil does not change
when the two liquids pass through, then they have the same refractive index; but if you
notice a discontinuity (as if the pencil were broken), then its index of refraction is differ-
ent. Image 1.1.3 illustrates three liquids with different refractive indices. The most drastic
change in index can be observed between air and water, since the straw seems wholly
broken (Figure 1.6).

Why don’t we see the decay in colors when we look through the window, which is made of
glass?
When we look through a window, the surface where a beam of light arrives and where
it comes from are parallel. This indeed makes a slight deviation of the position of the
refracted ray with respect to the incident when the angle of incidence is different from
normal to the surface. In this case, the difference of roads is so short that, practically,
209

all wavelengths travel the same distance and the same path, and in the end they do not
decompose, forming a rainbow. In the case of the prism, since the path that the light trav-
els near the apex is shorter, the effect of decomposition occurs at different wavelengths.
What happens to wavelengths that our eyes cannot perceive? Does the same effect occur
with ultraviolet and infrared?
If you have a white light source that goes through a prism, in fact, even if your eyes cannot
perceive it, beyond the red is the infrared component that contains the light and, beyond
the violet or violet blue, is the ultraviolet, although both in low quantity. To be able to
visualise it more easily, use a white light and the prism that you have built in the experi-
ment, and with a camera that has the “night vision” mode you will be able to observe an
additional color of the spectrum next to the red that corresponds to the close infrared. Try
it and impress yourself!
Experiment 1.3 How does sunscreen work?

Could we look directly at the sun if we put on a pair of glasses with UV filter?
No. Although many of the coatings we have in our sunglasses allow us to eliminate most
of the harmful UV components that come from sunlight, the visible light has enough inten-
sity to cause irreversible damage to our eyes by focusing on our retinas. This is why, when
there is a solar eclipse, we must wear protective glasses that not only block UV but also
radically reduce the intensity of sunlight to be able to look directly at it.
Is it true that if I wear sunscreen, my skin does not synthesize vitamin D, which is neces-
sary for my body?
No. Even if you wear the highest-protection sunscreen, a very small percentage of ultravio-
let radiation (around 3% using a 50-SPF sunscreen) manages to reach our skin. If exposure
to the sun is not prolonged, this amount of radiation is harmless to our skin, and further-
more, with that radiation it is perfectly possible to synthesize vitamin D.

Why are light and dark stripes observed when lighting with a single color?
If we have a system wherein white light normally produces interference that results in
the formation of a color pattern, when we illuminate with a single color, the pattern that
is constituted of light and dark stripes since it is only interfering with a wavelength. The
difference in the path that the light of the first reflection travels with respect to the sec-
ond one is sufficient to cause a lag that produces destructive interference, so we see that
the strip is dark, while where we see a light strip, the two waves interfere constructively.
This principle is frequently used by lens manufacturers to check uniformity in large,
polished areas.
Why are different colors observed in different positions of the bubble?

A soap bubble is a stable structure formed by the surface tension of the soap. Once formed,
the thickness of the soap layer decreases at the top and becomes thicker at the bottom due
to gravity. As we have already seen, between the light that is reflected in a layer and the
one that is transmitted and reflected again on the back side there is a 180° offset that causes
the interference produced by the colors we can see. As the soap moves downwards, the
210 Review of what we have learned

thickness of the layer decreases enough to create a different thickness. Therefore, depend-
ing on the position from which we see it, we can see different colors.
Why do we observe different colors when there is a spot of gasoline on the asphalt?
In this case, we also have a system of a thin layer of gasoline on water. Between the inci-
dent light that is reflected and the one that is transmitted and reflected again at the inter-
face between water and gasoline there is a 180° offset. This leads to destructive interference
that lets only a dependent wavelength pass through the layer’s thickness. For this reason,
too, in the central parts of the stain (where there is more gasoline and this form a thicker
layer) visible interference does not occur, but, as we move away from the center and the
layer becomes thinner, we see the colors.
Experiment 1.5 How thick is my hair?

Can we observe interference patterns using other light sources such as sunlight or the
light from a bulb?
In reality, interference patterns are easily observed with sources of light such as that emit-
ted by lasers, known as coherent light. In this type of light, the photons have on aver-
age the same wavelength, the same state of polarization and travel in the same direction
(on average), and thanks to that they can interfere at well-defined distances. In the case of
the light from a bulb or sunlight, the way in which the photons are emitted from their source
is random, and they have many wavelengths, many polarization states and also travel in
multiple directions. This makes its coherence length very short, so as not to observe inter-
ference. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to use a set of at least two slits, since this will
allow some spatial coherence that will facilitate the production of an interference pattern.
Experiment 1.6 To be or not to be a particle!

What differences do you see in the pattern generated when you use natural light (the sun)
or a laser?
When natural light is used, such as that of the sun or of an incandescent bulb, the pattern
generated is two spots of light, corresponding to each of the slits. To produce an interfer-
ence pattern, it is necessary to create a coherent light source. To do this, using an opening
we can create, based on sunlight, a spatially coherent wavefront that we will then pass
through the two slits. In this case, the pattern that is formed is the same as when using a
laser light source through the two slits but with a white central maximum and colored side
lobes.
What size should the slits be so that the waves generated are spherical point sources and
the effects of diffraction are reduced by a single slit?
The size of the slits must be somewhat smaller than the wavelength of the light used to
generate intermittent spherical waves.
What happens if one of the two slits is covered?

If one of the two slits is covered, the interference pattern does not occur, since a second
intermittent source of spherical waves is necessary. A pattern formed by a central bright
band is generated, which can be much wider than the groove, and a series of dark and
bright stripes whose intensity decreases rapidly, as a nodule of the central peak.

Experiment 1.7 Change of wave! Polarization and birefringence
What is the difference between natural light and polarized light?
Natural light is one that comes from a light source that emits photons randomly, both in
terms of direction, as well as with different wavelengths and oscillating in different planes.
This is why the light is considered to be unpolarized. In the case of the light coming from
a laser, for example, it is mostly oscillating in a single plane, due to the way in which it is
emitted inside the laser.
Why do glasses between polarizers show different colors and not just one?
In general, one way to view the tension within an organic material, such as plastics, is
to place it between cross polarizers. The tensions that are within the material product
of forces, such as the force that makes the frame of our glasses on the lenses, cause the
polymer molecules to modify their position with each other, acting as local polarizers and
rotating the direction of the plane of oscillation of the light that crosses one of the polar-
izers. As the tensions are gradual, the plastic behaves as a polarizer gradually, producing
the effect of multiple colors.
Experiment 1.8 Photons give you wings!!! The photoelectric effect

How can a material be negatively charged?
First of all, you must know that the net charge of materials in general is neutral. When we
rub two objects that can be charged, such as a balloon and our hair or a PVC tube and some
cotton garment, the most common is that these materials (balloon and PVC tube) yield
some electrons ending with a positive net charge and consequently loading the hair or cot-
ton garment with negative charge.
Whenever a photon touches a material, does it release an electron?

Only when the photons of the incident light have an energy higher than the threshold of
that material can an electron be released. Otherwise, even with high light intensities, it
will not be possible to produce the photoelectric effect.
Is it easier to release an electron with ultraviolet light than with infrared?

The probability of releasing an electron from a material increases with the energy of the
incident photons. Therefore, with ultraviolet light it would be easier. However, it also
depends on the characteristic threshold energy of each material. If the threshold energy is
suitable for ultraviolet and infrared, both photons can release an electron.
Chapter 2 | Light sources and detectors

Can you see spectral differences between different light sources? Why is that?
If you have observed the spectrum of an incandescent lamp (or of the sun), you will
have noticed that its spectrum is continuous, while in a halogen lamp, for example,
black lines are noted. Their emission spectra are different because they have a different
chemical composition. The absorption lines can be used as a fingerprint of the chemical
compound.

Through what element and phenomenon do we get to see the spectrum in our home
spectroscope?
To be able to decompose the white light into the different color components, we must use
a dispersing element, be it a diffraction network, a prism or in the case of the rainbow,
small droplets of water. In our case, we use a piece of CD or DVD that has a series of micro-
metric tracks where the information is stored. As the separation between these tracks is
very close to that of the visible spectrum (between 400 and 800 nm), the disc acts as a
dispersing element, allowing us to see the different colors.
Experiment 2.2 Reinventing Edison: build a lightbulb

What advantage do you think a tungsten filament can provide compared to the one
Edison used or the one we used?
Using a material with a higher melting point allows for the use of higher temperatures
without affecting its durability. This allows the filament emission spectrum to be shifted
towards higher frequencies, so we have a light with a greater proportion of blue and less
red and infrared, thus gaining both luminosity and efficiency. Tungsten, at 3,422°C, is the
element with the highest known melting point.
Is this an efficient way to produce visible light? Explain your answer.

No. The mechanism of light production in an incandescent lamp is based on using electri-
cal energy to heat its filament until it becomes incandescent. This implies that most of the
energy will be transformed into thermal energy and only a residual part into light, whereas
the reverse process would be desirable.
If you look through a spectroscope, what do you think the spectrum you see would be?
What do you think would be the spectrum you would observe?
The spectroscope is a device that allows you to view the different wavelengths wave
(colors) that come from a light source by either emission or absorption. The different dis-
tributions of color lines indicate the elementary materials that are present in said emitter.
In the case of an incandescent bulb, since it comes from a high-density material, the spec-
trum we would see would be a mainly continuous spectrum.
Experiment 2.3 Detecting light with semiconductors

Why do you think we specify the color of the LEDs we use as sensors? Do you think it may
have some bearing on their operation or sensitivity as sensors? If so, what do you think it
is, and what do you think is the reason for this?
Only light with more energy than that emitted by the LED itself is able to stimulate it. Therefore,
an IR or red LED will work better than a yellow or green one in this experiment. The worst
result we would have with blue and white LEDs, which actually work like a blue LED. The blue
light is highly energetic, and therefore it is not easy to stimulate the LED for the sensor to work.
Do you think it is essential to use a microcontroller like the one we used to observe this
property of LEDs? Why do you think we have used it?
It is not essential, since the experiment is based on a characteristic inherent to the operating
mechanism of the LEDs. However, a microcontroller allows us to continuously and simul-
taneously sample several of them at the same time, as well as calculate a “base” value and
execute actions when it is exceeded up or down (turn on or off the indicator LEDs).

Experiment 2.4 An extraordinary light: The laser
What are the main characteristics of the light generated by a laser that distinguish it from
other light sources?
Unlike the other light sources, the laser light is monochromatic (it has only one wave-
length), collimated (the beams travel in parallel) and coherent (the waves have the same
phase relationship). Thanks to these properties, we obtain a highly energetic light source.

Try to repeat the experiment at different times of the day or by slightly changing the
position of the thermometers with respect to the spectrum. Do you notice any difference?
What conclusions can be drawn?
The temperatures recorded by the thermometers will always be lower in blue and higher
towards red and infrared regardless of the time of day at which the experiment is per-
formed. The big difference at different times during the day is the maximum temperature
that the thermometers will reach. Surely, if you did it the first time in the morning or late
afternoon, you would get lower temperatures than at noon. This is because at noon the
layer of the atmosphere that has had to pass through the sunlight is smaller than the one
that must pass through in the morning or in the afternoon, thus obtaining higher tempera-
tures, especially in the red and infrared.
What is the relationship between temperature and color (or, rather, electromagnetic spec-
trum, since we cannot see it completely)?
Each color of the light (or part of the EM spectrum) has its own wavelength (or frequency)
and each frequency (𝜈) corresponds to a certain energy (E) according to the Planck equa-
tion E = h · 𝜈, where h is a constant (Planck’s constant). Color is only one type of energy.
Chapter 3 | Optical instruments

How do you think the image must appear on the tablet or mobile for you to see it properly?
The part of the mirror resting on the tablet or mobile will be at the bottom
of our hologram, and the images must be placed facing that direction. The reflection is
directed on each of the walls, and therefore, if the direction changes, it will be rotated.
What would happen if there were only one image on the tablet or mobile?
We would not achieve the same effect. In that case, the image is reflected only in the side
that is facing the image, and therefore, we would only see the “hologram” from the side.
Turning the phone or tablet would have no three-dimensional effect.

Why is it important for mirrors to internally form a 45° angle with the sides of the box?
The mirrors are located in the tube parallel to each other and at an angle of 45° with the
axis of the tube. The mirror at the top is the one that reflects the objects that are located
outside the area of our vision and we wish to observe. When it affects the surface of the

mirror at 45°, following the second law of the reflection of light, it is reflected at 45° also,
so that the incident beams and the reflected beams form a right angle to each other. This is
what allows the beams reflected in the upper mirror to accompany the path of the tube and
be directed vertically downwards, although projecting the inverted image. These reflected
beams affect the mirror located in the lower part of the periscope, and this same phenom-
enon is replicated: when they hit 45°, they are also reflected at 45° and form an angle of
90°. By following the path to the observer, the image is inverted again, so that the reflected
beams are perceived by the observer’s eye exactly as in the original image.
Why is the use of lenses not essential in this experiment? Are you able to relate it in some
way with your daily life?
The use of lenses is not necessary, since we do not need to focus the light beams to form an
image on a specific plane. By using flat mirrors, the direction of all light beams is changed
equally, meaning that the beams that come parallel from infinity to the periscope entrance
will continue to be at the exit of the periscope. Our eye, assuming it is emmetropic or
properly corrected, will be the one that will focus the beams so that they form the image
on the plane of the retina, just as it does when we look at the world around us or see our
image reflected in the mirror of the bath in the morning.
Is there an image formation in this experiment? Yes? No? Where?

In this experiment, image formation does NOT occur on a specific plane, since, by using
flat mirrors, we do not change the relationship between the reflected beams. Yes, an image
can be formed if we add extra optical elements that allow it, such as the lens of our eye
(which will form an image on the retina) or the lens of a camera (which will form an image
on the sensor), but not with only flat mirrors used.
The reflection of light in a mirror is possible thanks to a property of light that we have
already learned before. This is also the one that allows imaging in a dark chamber
(through a hole). Do you know the one we’re talking about?
Specifically, the rectilinear propagation of light.
What would happen if the lens surface were not completely smooth?
If the lens surface were not completely smooth, part of the light would diffract in all direc-
tions and therefore would not propagate parallel to the optical axis. This would result in a
loss of brightness in the image formed with respect to the one that would be visible using
a perfectly smooth lens.
What happens to the focal length if you squeeze the lens and increase its curvature?
By squeezing the converging lens, its curvature increases. This causes the focal length of
the lens to decrease since it increases the ability of the lens to deflect light beams.
What would happen if we used sparkling water to make the ice magnifier? Do you think it
would improve?
No. Ice, created from this water, would not be uniform because it would contain gas bub-
bles. The light passing through a non-uniform medium would be diffracted differently by
ice and gas. A lens with these characteristics would lead to distorted images.

Why do you think we need a small lens to see the light-emitting pixels of our mobile screen?
With small lenses, it is easier to obtain heightened curvature and, with it, achieve a greater
magnification that allows us to clearly distinguish small objects, such as the pixels on the
screen that have a size of around 90 microns.

Why does a spherical or hemispherical lens behave like a converging lens?
This is because their sides (or at least one of them) are convex, since the index of refrac-
tion of the lens (water or hydrogel) is greater than that of the air. Therefore, the diffracted
light on the convex surface of the lens converges at a point similar to what happens in a
converging lens.
Why are objects magnified that are very close to the micro-lens support point?
Because the micro-lenses, being very small spheres, have a large curvature that results in
a very small focal length. Therefore, by leaning on a surface the micro-lens magnifies the
objects that are in it.
Why does such a large magnification occur when the spheres (or hemispheres) are getting
smaller and smaller?
The magnification depends on the curvature of the surface of the spherical lens; smaller
size means greater curvature and, therefore, greater magnification.
Why with the hydrated hydrogel ball do we see the image without inverting when the
object is near and inverted when the object is far away?
Inversion occurs when the object is located further from the focus. This is because the focus
is the point where all beams converge and intersect. Thus, if the object is before the focus, the
beams do not cross and, therefore, there will be no image inversion, simply a magnification.
Instead, the beams that originate beyond the focus cross in it, and therefore, the image is inverted.
Experiment 3.5 Nothing here, nothing there: invisibility with

mirrors and lenses
Are hidden objects invisible to an observer from any point?
The observer must stand in front of or behind the system so that the hidden part of the
object is invisible. If the observer stands to the side of the system, the hidden object will be
perfectly visible.
How would we see an object located in the area marked out between the mirrors?
Objects outside the invisibility area will be visible to the observer. In the case of a mirrored
configuration, the object positioned in the area delimited between the objects will appear
to be displaced, apparently, within the invisibility zone.

Why is the image projected on the transparent screen upside down?
This is because we project the image behind the focus.

If we remove the lens from the system, will the image of the object be shown on the
screen? Why?
In this case, if we remove the lens from the system, the object will not be shown on the
screen. However, if we replace the lens with a small opening, we will have a pinhole cam-
era or ‘camera obscura’, where the image will be projected on the screen.

What is the difference between a refracting telescope and a reflector?
Between refracting and reflector telescopes, the main difference is the optical elements
they use: in the refractor, they are lenses, and in the reflectors, mirrors.
What is the main difference between the Galileo and Kepler telescopes?
In the Galileo telescope, the eyepiece is a divergent lens, and the lens is a converging lens.
In contrast, both the eyepiece and the objective are converging lenses in the Kepler tele-
scope. In the Galileo telescope, the image is upwards. However, in the Kepler telescope we
obtain an inverted image.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of each type of telescope (Galileo, Kepler and
Newton)?
The Galileo telescope is a very bright telescope, and the final image is right without the
need for an inverter system. However, it has a very small field of vision. The Kepler tele-
scope, however, by using a convex lens in the eyepiece (instead of the concave of the
Galileo model) has the advantage of allowing a much wider and more detailed field of
vision, but the image for the viewer is reversed. The Newtonian telescope, when using
mirrors, prevents chromatic aberration of the lenses. The disadvantage of Newtonian
telescopes compared to those that use lenses (refracting telescopes) is the shading of the
incoming light. This is because refracting telescopes have no element in the optical path
that causes an obstruction, thus being capable of providing more light and contrast to
images with the same aperture as reflector telescopes.
Experiment 3.8 Microscope: how to see the tiniest things

What is the importance of lighting in the image quality that we could obtain?
Bad lighting can cause, for example, a modification of the observed colors. It must be
ensured that the illumination is bright, free of flashes and evenly dispersed in the observa-
tion field. In addition, if it exceeds the observation field, parasitic lights may occur.
Could we use a telescope as if it were a microscope?

The telescope is designed to observe distant objects, while the microscope is used to
observe tiny bodies that are close to it. With a telescope, it will be impossible to focus on
a nearby object.
What size is a virus? With our microscope, can one be viewed?

A virus measures about 100 nm. With a classic optical microscope, we cannot view it, as
this size is smaller than the wavelength of visible light.

What do you think is the smallest object we could observe with a light-based microscope?
The resolution power of an optical microscope depends on the wavelength of the light.
The spectrum of visible light ranges from 400 nm to 750 nm, so it is impossible for us to
observe objects smaller than 400 nm.
What would be needed to view an atom? Would it be possible with a similar system?
We would need to use some radiation of wavelength similar to the size of atoms, such as
X-rays. However, X-rays are quickly absorbed by the system’s lenses. To see atoms, an elec-
tron microscope is used, which features an electron beam instead of a light beam.

Taking into account that the refractive index of water is n = 1.33, and knowing the distance
(d) of the droplet to your screen, can you calculate the magnification of your microscope?
The magnification of your microscope depends on the distance (between the droplet and
the screen) and the focal length. In a spherical lens, the focal length is determined by the
radius of curvature R and the refractive index of water (n = 1.33) through the following
formula: A = d/f = 2d(n - 1)/nR
If we finally assume that the distance (d) from your droplet to the screen is 2 meters, and
the radius (R) of your droplet for your syringe is R = 1 mm, your increase will be A = 992.5.
Chapter 4 | Light perception: the human eye

How must the image on the retina appear?
Not all visual systems work in the same way. In our case, the light beams coming from an
external object penetrate the eye through the cornea, they cross the pupil and are focused
by the lens on the retina, where an inverted image is formed that is then interpreted by the
brain in its original position. But, for example, the jumping spider’s retina is the one in
charge of focusing, and it does so thanks to the arrangement of its ladder-like photorecep-
tors. In this way, one layer has a clear image, and the rest, unfocused images.
The part of the retina we are observing, what would it be and why?
The part of the retina corresponds to the end of the tube where the onion skin paper is. By
adjusting the magnifying glass, what would be our cornea and lens, we do it so that the
image is formed exactly on the retina, on the onion skin paper. And what is more, we can
verify that it is our retina because the image that is formed is back-to-front!
Experiment 4.2 What happens in your retina?

In the after-image experiment, why when the one-eye experiment is performed is the effect
not transferred to the other?
Entrusted with seeing post-images are the rod cells, photoreceptors that are in our retina.
When observing an intense light with one eye, the rods of that eye are the ones that satu-
rate, but since the other eye was not observing the light stimulus, its cones are normal, so
we will see the post-images only with the eye that has saturated rod cells. Each eye works
independently, and the organ entrusted with gathering the images visually is the brain. In
the experiment, what is happening is at the level of the retina, before the information from

both eyes gets together. Since only the photoreceptors of the retina of one eye are excited,
the effect only appears in one eye.
Why don’t we usually realize the existence of blind spots?

There are a number of reasons why this is so. The most obvious reason is that we usually
use both eyes in everyday vision; so when an image is projected on the blind spot of one
of them, it is also projected on the receptors of the other. Despite being true, this does not
explain why we do not perceive the blind spot when we look with one eye. Another rea-
son we don’t appreciate it, even with monocular vision, is that the blind spot is separated
from the center of our visual field. Perhaps the most important reason we don’t see blind
spots is that the brain process fills the place where the image disappears.
At what angle is the blind spot of the optical axis approximately?

The blind spot is located about 15° from the eye axis from the center of the pupil, looking
forward, right in the right eye and left in the left eye.
Experiment 4.3 And you, what color do you see?

Why does the background on which we see the object affect the color of the squares you see?
The photoreceptors that are responsible for processing color vision are the cones. We have
three different types of cones, and each of them processes a different color (red, green and
blue). Depending on the color of the background and the object, there will be different
cones involved in analyzing the color and in different proportions. That is what makes a
color of an object modified according to the color of the background where it is placed.
Experiment 4.4. Why do people wear eyeglasses?

What is an emmetropic eye? What is the difference between a myopic eye and a hyperme-
tropic eye?
An emmetropic eye is an eye that focuses the image on the retina correctly. The myopic
eye forms the image in front of the retina, and the hypermetropic behind the retina.
If a person’s vision is corrected with divergent or negative glasses or contact lenses, what
refractive defect do they have?
That person has myopia. The eyeball is larger than it should be, which makes it more
powerful, and therefore the image is formed in front of the retina. Myopia is corrected with
divergent lenses to compensate for the extra power that the eye has and to focus the image
on the retina.
Experiment 4.5 Do we see with both eyes?

Do you think we can differentiate depth with one eye?
Generally, no. Each eye receives different spatial information, two images of a similar
scene but from different perspectives, and thanks to that, the brain when fused generates
“3D” vision in which we are able to distinguish depth. This would not be possible by hav-
ing only one single eye image. However, some monocular clues, such as the relative size
of objects (when they are further away, they are smaller, and when they are closer, larger)
allow us to try to distinguish some depth.

Having two eyes helps us calculate the distances and depth in a highly precise way.
However, there are some monocular clues that can help, such as the fact that an object that
is in front covers another that is behind, or the relative size of an object with respect to
another that is closer and therefore seems larger. The experience of what is already known
also helps to deduce distances.
Experiment 4.6 How do we see movement?

In the second part, why does the strip of images enter the drum and you have to look
through the windows?
This is so you can see only the area of interest and not have external clues of what is really
happening.
Experiment 4.7 You won’t believe what you see!

Why is it necessary for Benham’s disk to spin?
In Benham’s disk, there are only two colors, black and white. To see the white color, the
three different types of cones have to react equally, but the alternating white with black
causes the cones not to react in equal parts, which is what gives rise to the different shades.
That’s why we need to spin Benham’s disk, to play with our cones and create an optical
illusion.
This fact is what causes the alternation between white and black and forces the cones
to react, producing the optical illusion.
If you want to recommend someone a type of pattern to stylize your figure, what would
you recommend, vertical or horizontal stripes?
The horizontal pattern. In human figures, this effect of thinness or width is observed
mainly in the hips; the vertically striped pattern makes the hips appear wider, the outline
of the silhouette being the same. So, it can be denied that vertical stripes have a slimming
effect.
Chapter 5. Light in nature

Experiment 5.1 Is everything we see real?
Why do you think the brain interprets that light travels in a straight line?
Light usually reaches our retina in a straight line. The brain is used to interpreting the
information that comes from rectilinear light beams. It has adapted itself to do this. For
this reason, upon receiving information from light beams that are not straight, the brain
interprets them as if they were, causing us to see the mirage.
Experiment 5.2 What does water hide?

Why does the phenomenon of total internal reflection occur a few centimeters from the
surface of the water?
Total reflection only occurs when there are two different media. In the region near the sur-
face of the water, there are two perfectly differentiated means: air and water. When enter-
ing the depth of the pool, the whole medium is water, and there is no difference in means
and therefore no internal reflection.

Why do the bubbles look blue and green when their walls are thick and yellow and red
when they are thin?
As we have seen in Figure 5.3.4 (the soap bubble diagram), part of the incident light is
reflected upon reaching the surface of the pump. The other part is refracted on the inside
of the wall. If the wall is thick, the interference causes the longer wavelengths (red and yel-
low) to be cancelled, leaving the lather blue and green. When the wall becomes thin, the
interferences cause the shorter wavelengths (blue and green) to cancel due to the interfer-
ences, resulting in red and yellow bubbles.
Experiment 5.4 The light hidden by nature

Why do gin and tonics shine in nightclubs?
Quinine is a fluorescent molecule that gives the tonic that characteristic bitter taste. In
nightclubs, there are usually ultraviolet lamps that stimulate quinine and “shine”. You can
check it when you go to a nightclub.
How is fluorescence different from phosphorescence?

Both are a process of absorption and emission of energy. Fluorescence alone occurs while
the stimulus lasts (while the material is illuminated with UV light), while the emission of
energy in the phosphorescence takes place over a prolonged period of time, although the
external illumination stops.
Why do you have to bend the light strip to emit light?

Inside the strip, there is a glass tube containing hydrogen peroxide. When folded, it breaks
and comes into contact with the oxalate in the plastic strip. Both substances are mixed,
and a chemical reaction that produces light begins.
How is it possible that we observe yellow or red figures on our banknotes and passports
with ultraviolet light?
Both elements, tickets and identity documents (ID, passports, driver’s license), have lumi-
nescent marks to prevent counterfeiting of documents. These marks can only be seen when
they are illuminated with UV light, since it causes the luminescence to be activated.

Why does the leaf covered with aluminum foil turn brown?
Aluminum foil prevents light from reaching the leaf. Under these conditions, new chlo-
rophyll is not synthesized, and the existing one degrades, causing the leaf to turn brown.
Why dye the leaves with iodine?

Starch is a product of photosynthesis. In the presence of iodine, it reacts by producing a
blue compound. In this experiment, we have used this fact to verify that in the absence of
light photosynthesis does not occur.

Why does chlorophyll change color when viewed under ultraviolet light?
Why doesn’t this happen with ultraviolet light coming from the sun?
Chlorophyll is a fluorescent molecule that absorbs ultraviolet light (high energy) and emits
red light of lower energy. This difference in energy is due to the fact that in the process
of emission of the fluorescent substance, energy is dissipated in the form of vibrational
energy. The fraction of ultraviolet light from the sun is not enough for the phenomenon of
fluorescence to be seen with the naked eye.
Experiment 5.6 Artificial sunset: scattering of light in our atmosphere

Why are clouds white if they should similarly scatter light from the sun?
The clouds also scatter light. However, unlike the small nitrogen and oxygen molecules in
our atmosphere, which tend to absorb light of shorter wavelengths while allowing the rest
of light wavelengths pass through it (blue sky), water droplets (which are larger) scatter all
wavelengths equally in all directions (a phenomenon explained by the diffusion of Mie).
When we look up at the clouds, we see red, blue, yellow, orange and green light coming at
the same time. We do not distinguish each of the colors individually since they all reach
us simultaneously combined from the same point, forming white light.
Would the experiment work if instead of milk we used sugar or salt, for example?
No, since we need a large particle size for this type of scattering. Milk is composed of fatty
acids and proteins, which facilitate the scattering of light. The ions present in the sugar or
salt solutions are not large enough for light to scatter.
Experiment 5.7 The night sky: where are the stars?

What happens to lighting under the flashlight when the cap is attached?
The mini-screen, which in this case is the plug or the piece of aluminum foil that you have
placed on the flashlight, being opaque, mostly blocks the passage of light, so that when
external lighting is dimmed we can see the “stars” forming our planetarium, and light pol-
lution is reduced.
Can we have a lunar eclipse every month?

No. Although the moon goes around the Earth every month, the moon’s orbit does not have
the same inclination as the Earth’s orbit around the sun. With this difference in inclina-
tions, the moon may be behind the Earth and continue to receive sunlight.
Why can the moon have a reddish or orange tinge when a lunar eclipse occurs?
The Earth’s atmosphere disperses the blue and green light that comes from the sun’s spec-
trum. The red light passes without dispersing. During the lunar eclipse, the light that reaches
our satellite is the red of our atmosphere. That is why the moon looks red during an eclipse.
Experiment 5.8 Sunlight as a measurement instrument

Name two more examples where collimated light can be found, either naturally or artifi-
cially created.
Most lasers emit in a collimated manner. We can consider as almost collimated the light
coming from the lighthouses of the beach or that given by the fiber lanterns that we find in
any convenience store.

Could the light used by cars to illuminate the road be considered collimated? Why?
No. The light would be pseudo-collimated in the case of car headlights. If it were colli-
mated, it would not cover the area in front of the car, which is what generates the vision
depth that is essential in night driving.
Chapter 6. Light-based technologies

Experiment 6.1 Can we see the invisible?
What radiation parameters do we need to know to measure the speed of light?
We need to know the wavelength and frequency. From these parameters, we can obtain the
velocity by means of the equation: velocity = wavelength * frequency.
If we could measure those values in another area of the EM spectrum, would we get the
same result?
Yes. The speed of light is a constant. It only changes if it is transmitted by a different
medium, for example, light is slower in water or glass than in air.
Experiment 6.2 A stream of light: Tyndall–Colladon experiment

How is information transmitted through an optical fiber?
In an optical fiber, because its index of refraction is greater than the index of refraction of
air, the phenomenon of total internal reflection occurs. Therefore, most of the light inside
the fiber remains confined in it. We will observe certain losses due to absorption or disper-
sion phenomena.
When you bend a fiber that transmits a visible beam, we can see how the point of maxi-
mum curvature is illuminated. What causes this phenomenon?
As we have seen with our experiment, when the curvature of the water (and by extension
of the fiber) is very high, the phenomenon of total internal reflection does not occur, and
part of the light continues its path in a straight line.
Experiment 6.3 Listening to light: optical communications system

How is the information in our system coded?
The information is encoded in the intensity of our light beam. If we were transmitting 1
and 0, we would see (if our eye were fast enough) that the laser works intermittently.
Could we use our system to transmit video signals?

In theory, there is nothing in our system that prevents transmitting video signals, since all
we do is transform an electrical impulse into light, and vice versa.
Can we use a mirror or a lens to improve our communication system?

Yes. The use of lenses, mirrors or an optical fiber will improve our system since we can
“direct” the light from the transmitter directly to the receiver avoiding possible obstacles.
However, this increases the complexity of our system and makes it more expensive.

Experiment 6.4 Does my olive oil have antioxidants?
Presumably, what color must a good quality oil have?
What effect will you observe if you illuminate it with ultraviolet light?
It will have a more greenish color that indicates a large presence of chlorophyll and, prob-
ably, its cold extraction. If you illuminate it with a UV (high-energy) light source, we will
observe a red luminescence, as is the case with the green laser.
Should you reuse many times the oil you used to fry some foods?
When you heat the oil, it loses its properties. If we repeat our experiment with an over-
heated oil, we will observe a less reddish color.
Experiment 6.5 Cooking for free: build a solar oven

What color are the objects that absorb more solar energy?
Since black light is the absence of color, black objects do not reflect practically any ray
of light and, therefore, are the ones that absorb the most solar energy. For this reason, we
have painted the oven walls black to make solar energy absorption more efficient.
Experiment 6.6 Obtaining electricity from the sun: build

a photovoltaic cell
Do the electrons that generate the electric current circulate from the oxidized plate to the
clip, or vice versa?
Electrons circulate from the oxidized plate (loss of electrons to the clip) through the
saltwater.
If we use colored LEDs to illuminate our system, which LED color generates a greater elec-
trical current?
Blue or green light has an energy greater than red light; for this reason, if we illuminate our
system with an LED of these colors, a greater amount of electrical current will be noted.
Experiment 6.7 Desalinate water for free

Why does water evaporation occur if 100°C is not reached?
At 100°C, all water molecules have the necessary energy to convert in steam, but at a lower
temperature, the particles found on the surface could have the energy needed to evaporate.
However, at higher temperatures and lower pressure, water evaporates more easily.
What characteristics must the outer container have to favor the experiment?
Ideally, the outer container should be dark and large in size to absorb a greater amount of
solar energy and thus facilitate water evaporation.

Glossary
Aberrations: optical path difference between the real and the ideal wavefront. This leads to the deg-
radation of the image that is formed.
Amplitude (wave): maximum value of the wave position, measured from its balance point (or null
amplitude point).
Angle of incidence: angle formed between the direction in which the ray of light propagates and the
imaginary line perpendicular to the surface on which said ray strikes. The perpendicular imagi-
nary line is defined as the “normal” direction of said surface.
Angle of reflection: angle measured from normal once the beam strikes the material.
Angle of refraction: angle measured from normal once the beam has passed through a material.
Aperture: given an optical system, the element that limits the amount of light that passes through the
system is called the aperture diaphragm. In cameras, it refers to the measure of the amount of light
that passes through the lens and reaches the sensor. It depends on the relationship between the
objective lens (f) and the aperture of the diaphragm (D).
Artificial light: any type of unnatural light produced by devices capable of generating light. Artificial
light is mainly generated through the flow of an electric current.
Atomic model: structural representation of an atom that tries to explain its behavior and properties.
Aqueous humour: transparent substance found in the anterior chamber of the eye, between the cor-
nea and the lens, that serves to provide nutrients and oxygen to these structures, which have no
blood vessels.
BeiDou: project developed by the government of China to obtain a satellite navigation system with
GPS-like operation.
Black body: ideal physical body that absorbs all the radiation that falls on it, regardless of frequency
or angle of incidence.
Black body radiation: light emitted by a body that has previously absorbed all the incident radiation
within itself. The emission spectrum of the black body depends on the temperature at which it is
(Max Planck, 1900) and is independent of the type of light radiation it has absorbed.
Center of curvature: equidistant point of all points of a curve. The distance from that point to each
point of the curve is the radius.
Chromatic dispersion: the chromatic dispersion is the variation of the refractive index of an optical
medium with the wavelength.
Coastal salt evaporation pond: coastal area in which sea water is isolated in very deep reservoirs so
that, through evaporation, saturation is reached, and salt begins to precipitate.
Concave: curved surface with the center sunk deeper than the edges, as opposed to convex.
Constructive and destructive interference: combination (superposition) of waves in the same region
of space that gives rise to another resulting wave. This can be constructive (both waves have the
same phase) or destructive (the waves are in contra phase).
225

Continuous spectrum: spectrum of light that contains all visible wavelengths. It is the characteristic
of the light produced by a phenomenon of incandescence.
Convergence: phenomenon according to which the beams that pass through an optical element tend
to come together at one point. Derived from this word is the term converging lens, for example, a
magnifying glass, which concentrates the beams in a single point.
Convex: curved surface with sunken edges than the center, as opposed to concave.
Cornea: external lens of the eye that provides its greatest dioptric power: 40 of the 60 D in total. The
ordering of the cells that comprise the cornea and the absence of vessels allow it to be transparent.
Critical angle (limit angle): minimum angle of incidence for total reflection to occur. There is no
refraction (angle of refraction 90°) when a ray propagates from one medium to another with a
higher refractive index.
Crystalline: biconvex and internal lens of the human eye that provides 33% of the eye’s total view-
ing power. The main quality of the lens is that it is able to change its shape, increasing its power
and allowing close distances to be focused.
CT scan: medical imaging technique that uses x radiation to obtain sections of anatomical objects for
diagnostic purposes.
Depth of field: in optics, and in particular photography, the area of the field between the point
closest to the furthest that is acceptable in terms of sharpness, once the image is formed on the
same focus plane.
Diffraction pattern: intensity distribution generated by wave fronts that interfere with each other.
The pattern is detectable in light waves by the presence of very close dark and light bands
(diffraction pattern) at the edge of a shadow.
Diopter: unit of measurement of the refractive power of the lenses. A diopter equals a focal length of
one meter and corresponds to the inverse of its focal length.
Diopter (flat/curved): optical system formed by a single surface that separates two means of different
index of refraction.
Discrete spectrum: spectrum of light that contains only some of the lengths of visible light waves.
It is the characteristic of the light produced by luminescence phenomena.
Divergence: phenomenon according to which the beams that pass through an optical element tend to
separate from each other. Derived from this word is the term diverging lens, which separates the
beams as if they came from a virtual point.
Electric field: description of the space in which there is interaction between bodies of an electrical
nature.
Electromagnetic spectrum: energy distribution of electromagnetic waves. The spectrum is divided
into bands that correspond to different types of waves (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible
light, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma beams).
Electromagnetic wave: transverse wave that carries electrical energy and magnetic without the need
of a material medium in which to propagate. Its speed of propagation in vacuum is the so-called
speed of light, approximately 300,000 km/s.
Emission spectrum: spectrum of electromagnetic radiation frequencies emitted due to the transition
by an atom or molecule from a high-energy state to a lower one.
Endoscopy: visual examination of the ducts or internal cavities of the human body using an
endoscope.
Eye orbit: bone cavity in which the eyeball, the optic nerve and the eye muscles are located.
The orbit contains fatty substances to protect the structures.
Eyelids: portion of the eye that covers the eyeball for protection.
Fiber optic: transmission medium, commonly used in data networks and telecommunications,
consisting of a very fine wire of transparent material, glass or plastic materials, through which
pulses of light that represent the data to be transmitted are sent. The light beam is completely
confined and propagates inside the central part of the fiber, called the core, characterized by a
refraction index greater than that of the adjacent material, called the cladding.
Fiber optic sensor: device for measuring physical quantities (temperature, pressure, humidity, elec-
tric or magnetic fields, amongst others) through changes in refractive index or wavelength within
the optical fiber.
226 Glossary

Flat mirror: optical element that basically allows for the diverting of light beams in a preferred direc-
tion. It consists, in general, of a glass substrate coated with a metallic layer, which allows the
reflection of light.
Flat-parallel laminate: combination of two flat diopters parallel to each other, separating the remain-
ing medium between the two diopters of the external environment.
Fluorescence: particular type of luminescence that characterizes substances that are capable of
absorbing energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation and then emitting part of that energy
in the form of electromagnetic radiation of different wavelengths. Fluorescence emission can be
considered instantaneous.
Focal length: the focal distance or focal length of a lens is the distance between the optical center of
the lens and focus (or focal point), while in a mirror it is the distance between the vertex of the
mirror and the focus of the mirror.
Focus depth: range of distances in which we can move the image plane without losing sharpness.
That is to say, it is the margin of error in the approach that we can have without noticing the sub-
ject unfocused.
Focus or focal point: every optical system, i.e., image maker, has two focal points: an image focus
and an object focus. The point of the optical axis where the beams that come from infinity and
that are parallel to the optical axis are cut is called the image focus. Similarly, the point of the
optical axis whose image is infinity is called the object focus.
Fovea: area of the retina of greater visual acuity, with a high concentration of cones and that does not
contain rods.
Frequency: in a periodic wave, it is the number of ridges (or valleys or any other point in the wave)
that pass through a given point in a unit time interval.
Fundamental state: state of an atom or molecule in which it meets its amount of natural energy.
Galileo (ESA): European radio navigation and satellite positioning program, developed by the
European Union (EU) alongside the European Space Agency (ESA).
GLONASS: Russian acronym for Global Satellite Navigation System, the satellite navigation system
developed by the Soviet Union, today administered by the Russian Federation. The system has
been operational since 1996.
GPS: acronym in English of Global Positioning System, a system that allows us to determine the
position of an object throughout the Earth. The system was developed, installed and used by the
United States Department of Defence and has been operational since 1995.
Holography: technique of recording and reconstructing stereoscopic images of an object without
using optical systems, based on the coherent properties of light emitted by a laser.
Homogeneous and isotropic: property of the media (liquid, solid or gaseous) whose refractive index
is the same in any part of that medium (homogeneous) and where the refractive index value is
independent of the polarization of the incident light (isotropic).
Hyperspectral image: multispectral image in which images obtained are joined in hundreds of con-
tiguous wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Image (real/virtual): the point where the beams meet, once they pass through an optic system. If the
beams physically pass through a point, it is called a real image. The image is virtual if extensions
reach or arrive from the divergent beams.
Image space: geometric space where both real images can exist virtually, located behind the corre-
sponding optical element if it is real and in front if it is imaginary.
Incandescence: emission of light by heat. Each body exposed to sufficient heat emits electromag-
netic radiation in the visible spectrum from a certain temperature.
Infrared analysis: analysis technique that uses infrared light (0.8-1.0 µm) to identify a compound
and investigate the composition of a sample, based on the rotation and vibration of groups of par-
ticles at certain infrared wavelengths.
Iridescence: optical phenomenon by which iridescent materials display different coloring depend-
ing on the angle of observation.
Iris: diaphragm of the human eye that regulates the size of the pupil. It is in front of the lens. The iris
contains pigments that are responsible for typical eye coloring.
Irradiance: radiometric magnitude that describes the incident power per unit area.
Glossary 227

LASIK: acronym in English for Laser Assisted in Situ Keratomileusis, refractive surgery for the cor-
rection of myopia, farsightedness and astigmatism with a laser operating at low power. The shape
of the cornea is permanently modified, changing its refractive power.
Lens: in an optical system, it is the element that concentrates the light from the observed object
and focuses it to produce an image. Lenses can be one or combination of several optical ele-
ments. They are used in microscopes, telescopes, cameras, slide projectors and many other opti-
cal instruments.
Linear polarizer: optical element that only transmits light with a specific polarization direction.
Longitudinal wave: wave in which the direction of vibration and the direction of propagation are
equal.
Luminescence: emission of light by a cold-body radiation, which does not result in the emission of
heat. It can be produced by chemical reactions, electrical energy, subatomic movements or stress
in a crystal, resulting in the last instance of spontaneous emission phenomena. This differentiates
luminescence from incandescence, in which the light is emitted as a result of heating.
Magnetic field: description of the space where there are magnetic currents, which exert a force due
to moving charges along interacting objects.
MASER: acronym in English for Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. A
MASER is an amplifier similar to the laser, but it operates in the microwave region (wavelength of
1 mm to 1 m) of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Mechanical oscillation: when an object describes a periodic movement, the natural movement of
any object that is near an equilibrium position is known as mechanical oscillation. An example of
harmonic movement is the movement of a mass that hangs from a spring or a pendulum.
Mechanical wave: wave that needs a medium (solid, liquid or gas) for its propagation. The particles
of that medium oscillate in the presence of the wave, but do not travel with the wave, in other
words, there is no transport of matter.
Meniscus: lens formed by a concave and a convex surface.
Metamaterial: material designed in the laboratory to have properties that are not found in nature.
In particular, the properties of metamaterials do not derive from the same material they compose
but from the geometric structures (of dimensions smaller than the wavelength) that have been
recorded in them.
Metrology: this is the study of the systems of weights and measures guaranteeing the accuracy and
reliability of the measurements.
Monochromatic: light composed of a single wavelength.
Multispectral image: unconventional image that includes series of images (typically 3 to 15) obtained
with specific wavelengths that go beyond the visible spectrum (for example, ultraviolet, infrared
and X-rays).
Nasal: hemisphere of the retina closest to the nose.
Natural or naturally polarized light: light without a prioritized polarization direction, that is, with
components of the electric field vibrating in all directions of the polarization plane. Usually, the
light sources we use (such as sunlight, a candle or a bulb) are natural or not polarized.
Normal to the surface: imaginary line that is usually used as a reference and that forms an angle of
90° with a surface.
Object: the emitting point where the beams come from, which will pass through the eye, a lens, etc.,
depending on the optical system.
Object space: geometric space where both real and virtual objects can exist. If the object is real, it is
placed in front of the optical element, while if it is virtual, it is placed behind it.
Ocular: in a focal system, a lens that is closer to the eye of the observer. Once the lens has pro-
duced the image and it has been formed in the focal plane, the image is projected back to infinity
through the eyepiece to be focused by our eyes.
Opsins: proteins that are found in photoreceptors and that are directly involved in color perception,
stimulating the nervous system.
Optic nerve: set of retinal nerve fibers. The optic nerve leaves the eyeball to the optic chiasma,
where the optical fibers intersect, being rearranged according to the hemisphere of the visual field
from which they carry information.
228 Glossary

Optical axis: an imaginary straight line that passes through the center of an optical element and
serves as a reference for the physical parameters involved.
Optical biopsy: an optical biopsy is a non-invasive diagnostic procedure in which a tissue analysis is
performed with an optical system using laser, infrared, fluorescence, spectroscopy or microscopy
techniques, amongst others.
Optical clock: type of atomic clock that uses light at a frequency of 1015 Hz, approximately 100,000
times greater than that of the microwaves used in the traditional atomic clock and is therefore
much more stable and accurate.
Optical coherence tomography (OCT): non-invasive and interferometric imaging technique that
offers a penetration of a few millimeters with axial and lateral micrometric scale resolution.
Optical disc: point of the retina that is in the nasal half. Therein, all nerve fibers of the retina meet to
leave the eye as an optic nerve. It is also known as the blind spot.
Optical element: each one of the mediums, homogeneous and isotropic, formed by a single compo-
nent where light behaves in a specific way. It includes lenses, mirrors and prisms, amongst others.
Optical systems: set of surfaces that separate media with indexes of different refraction, combining
one or more optical elements.
Paraxial zone: also called first-degree optics. Situation in which the beams form a sufficiently small
angle of incidence (less than or equal to 10°) to approximate the sine or the tangent by the angle:
sin(x) ≈ x, tan(x) ≈ x. In addition, it is fulfilled if the beams that leave an object point focus on the
same image point.
Period: time interval required for two identical points of adjacent waves to pass through one point.
Phase (wave): in a periodic wave, the position in a certain time within a cycle of oscillation, gener-
ally measured in units of angle, whether degrees or radians. The phase difference between two
periodic waves that oscillate with the same frequency is the time difference between the two
maximum or minimum levels.
Photolithography: process used in the manufacture of semiconductor devices or integrated circuits.
The process involves transferring a pattern from a photomask (called a reticle) to the surface of a
wafer. One of the most used materials as a wafer is crystalline silicon.
Photonics: physical science that studies the generation, handling and detection of photons. Most
photonic applications focus on the visible (400-700 nm) and near infrared (1300-1600 nm).
The birth of photonics began with the invention of the laser in 1960.
Photoreceptors: light-sensitive cells found in the retina of vertebrates. There are two types of photo-
receptors: the rod cells, which are responsible for the perception of chiaroscuro, and the cones,
which are responsible for the perception of colors. There are three types of cones, depending on
the color they perceive: red, green and blue.
Phototherapy: treatment technique that uses a light source of natural or artificial origin for the treat-
ment of diseases.
Photovoltaic energy: electricity obtained from solar energy. It is produced in photovoltaic panels,
formed by semiconductors in which the potential difference necessary to generate electricity is
generated.
Pigmentary epithelium: pigmented cells located between the retina and the choroid. Its functions
include nutrient transport, light absorption and protection against photo-oxidation.
Pinhole: opaque disc with a small hole in the center of 1 mm in diameter, through which only a
small beam of light beam passes along the axis of the optical system.
Polarization plane: imaginary plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of an electromag-
netic wave. This plane contains all the possible directions in which the electromagnetic field can
vibrate.
Power or radiant flow: in radiometry, radiant energy emitted, reflected, transmitted or received per
unit of time, measured in W or J/s.
Prism: optical element resulting from the combination of two flat diopters at an angle to each other,
so that they separate the medium between the diopters of an external medium. It is usually
triangular.
Pupil: in an optical system, the opening that limits the amount of light that reaches the detector. In
some cases, the size of the pupil can be regulated, for example, by a diaphragm (in cameras) or by
the iris (in the case of the eye).
Glossary 229

Radiance: hot bodies emit thermal radiation throughout the electromagnetic spectrum, especially
in the infrared zone. If the radiance of a body is measured for the entire frequency spectrum, the
spectral radiance of the body is obtained.
Radiation therapy: medical technique that is based on the therapeutic application of ionising radia-
tion, such as X-rays, on the body.
Radiometry: study of the measurement of electromagnetic radiation at all its frequencies, including
visible light. This differs from photometry, which only takes care of the visible part of the electro-
magnetic spectrum.
Radius of curvature: any line drawn from a point on the surface of an object at the center of curva-
ture. It is the equidistant point of all spherical surface points.
Raman effect: small portion of the light that, when scattered, displays different frequencies to the
incident radiation. The different frequencies are collected in a Raman spectrum.
Refraction: Refraction is the change of direction and speed you experience a wave when passing
from one medium to another with different index of refraction.
Refractive index (n): number greater than or equal to 1 indicating the extent to which the speed of
light within that material (v) is reduced compared to the speed of light in a vacuum (c).
Refractive power: ability to change the vergence of incident beams.
Resolving powers: ability to show as separated two image points very close to each other.
Retina: posterior portion of the eye where photoreceptors are found, cells sensitive to visible light.
Worthy of special mention are blind spots, where all axons meet to form the optic nerve.
Sclera: wall of the eyeball composed of collagen and elastic fibers that maintain the shape of the eye-
ball. The sclera is formed by a lower portion called the uvea, with the iris and ciliary body, and a
posterior portion called the choroid.
Semiconductor materials: element that behaves like a conductor or as an insulator depending on
various factors, such as the electric or magnetic field, the pressure, the incident radiation, or the
temperature of the environment in which it is located.
Sine and Cosine: in trigonometry, the sine of an angle a of a right triangle is defined as the ratio
between the opposite leg to that angle and the hypotenuse. The cosine of an angle a of a right
triangle is the ratio between the leg adjacent to that angle and the hypotenuse.
Solar cells: devices that convert solar energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect.
An individual solar cell is capable of producing little energy. For this reason, they are grouped
into solar panels.
Solar energy: energy obtained from the sun’s radiation and used for thermal uses by means of collec-
tors (solar thermal energy) or to generate electricity with solar panels (photovoltaic energy).
Spectral power distribution: power measurement per unit area and per unit of wavelength of an
illuminant.
Spectroscopy: study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation, with the emis-
sion or absorption of radiant energy.
Stereopsis: the ability of the brain to form a single three-dimensional image from the two images
formed in the retina of each eye. Stereopsis allows for the perception of depth.
Stimulated state: state of an atom or molecule when absorbing energy. This state can be lost by colli-
sions or through the emission of photons.
Tear: secretion of the tear gland. Said liquid allows cleaning and lubrication of the eye, thus foster-
ing healthy functioning of the eyeball.
Total internal reflection: phenomenon that occurs when the angle of incidence is greater than a criti-
cal angle: the beam cannot cross the surface between both means and is fully reflected. It is the
basis of operation of optical fibers.
Transverse wave: wave in which the vibration (disturbance) is perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation.
Ultraviolet light: electromagnetic radiation whose wavelength is approximately between 15 nm and
400 nm. This light is invisible to the human eye because it is outside the visible spectrum.
Vacuum: in physics, total absence of matter or in an extremely-low-density matter.
Vergence (negative and positive): inverse of the focal length measured in meters. The vergence is
negative if the beams diverge and positive if they converge.
230 Glossary

Visible spectrum: within the electromagnetic spectrum, it is the wavelength range contained between
~400 and ~700 nm. Within this strip are the electromagnetic waves that we can perceive with our
eyes.
Vitreous humor: clear, jelly-like and watery substance found in the posterior part of the eye, between
the lens and the retina, and serves to maintain the shape of the eyeball.
Wave: in physics, the propagation of a disturbance (pressure, density, field electromagnetic, etc.),
which implies the transport of energy without the transport of matter.
Wavefront: geometric place where the middle points are reached at the same time by a certain wave.
The distance between adjacent wavefronts that have the same phase is the wavelength.
Wavelength: minimum distance between any two points in adjacent waves. It is represented by the
Greek symbol lambda (λ).
X-rays: electromagnetic radiation whose wavelength is between 10 and 0.01 nm. It is invisible to the
human eye and is widely used in the characterization of solid materials, since their wavelength is
equivalent to the separation between the atoms they form.
Glossary 231

Index
absorption, 10 illuminance, 45
amplitude, 1 image, 61
angle of incidence, 6 image space, 63
angle of reflection, 6 incandescence, 37
angle of refraction, 6 infrared radiation, 5
astigmatism, 113 interference minima, 12
iridescence, 143
bioluminescence, 144
birefringence, 15 laser assisted in situ keratomileusis (LASIK), 186
black body, 38, 41 lens, 67, 106
light pollution, 150
camera obscura, 71 light-emitting diode, 41
center of curvature, 64 luminescence, 37, 40
cladding, 176 luminous efficacy, 45
color index, 154
constructive interference, 10 magnetic fields, 3
cornea, 105 mechanical oscillation, 3
microscope, 76
destructive interference, 12 mirrors, 63
diffraction, 12
diffraction pattern, 12 natural light, 13
diffuse reflection, 7
object, 61
electromagnetic wave, 1 object space, 63
emission, 37 optical axis, 64
emission spectrum, 39, 40 optical element, 61, 69
optical fiber, 175
f number, 73 optical systems, 61
fata morgana, 140 orbitals, 38
fovea, 108
frame, 116 peaks, 1
frequency, 3 period, 3
phase, 2
geometrical optics, 61 photoelasticity, 16
photographic film, 72
hertz, 3 photonics, 175
233

photons, 16 resistance, 8
photopic, 43 retina, 105
photoreceptors, 46
phototherapy, 185 signal-to-noise ratio, 47
pigmentary epithelium, 107 solar energy, 178
pinhole camera, 117 spectroscopy, 40
pixels, 47 spectrum, 4
Planck constant, 16 specular reflection, 7
plane of polarization, 13 stereopsis, 113
polarized light, 13
power, 64 total internal reflection, 140, 176
prism, 9 total reflection, 8
pupil, 106 transmission axis of the polarizer, 13
transverse waves, 2
radiant power, 45
radiography, 183 ultraviolet radiation, 5
radiometry, 43
radius of curvature, 64 valleys, 1
rainbow, 148 vergence, 62
ray tracing, 68 visible spectrum, 5
rays, 18
reflection, 139 wavelength, 2, 3
refraction, 65, 139
refractive index, 8 X-rays, 4
234 Index

About the Authors
The development of this project required the collaboration of a wide selection of authors,
specialists in the different branches of optics and photonics, members at some point
of their scientific careers of IOSA (IO-CSIC young researchers’ association devoted to
furthering optics), and passionate about dissemination, optics and photonics.
María Viñas Peña Xoana Barcala Gosende

Researcher in the field of Visual Optics Clinical developer for 2EyesVision and
& Biophotonics, to investigate the visual Ph.D. candidate at VioBio Lab (CSIC)
process using Optics and Photonics tech- and 2EyesVision. Her main research is
nologies. She obtained her PhD in Physics focused on the clinical validation of a
at the University Complutense Madrid binocular visual simulator. She is also
(UCM) and later worked as postdoctoral passionate about R+D work that has a
researcher at the Institute of Optics of the direct impact and application in society
Spanish National Research Council (CSIC). and helps to improve the
She is co-founder of a spin-off company, quality of life.
2EyesVision. Currently she is a Marie
Skłodowska-Curie Fellow at Harvard
Medical School. She is passionate about
Optics & Photonics outreach and teach-
ing, as a way to strengthen the relationship
between Science and Society.
235

Sara Aissati Aissati Camilo Florian Baron
Predoctoral researcher at IO-CSIC, Researcher in the field of applied phys-
where she does her doctoral thesis at ics oriented to processing applications
the Laboratory of Visual Optics and of materials with ultrashort laser pulses.
Biophotonics. Her thesis work focuses on After receiving his Ph.D. in Nanosciences
new solutions for presbyopia, by evaluat- at the University of Barcelona, he has been
ing different multifocal corrections a postdoctoral researcher at the Spanish
with visual simulators. And also the National Research Council (CSIC), the
interaction between the chromatic and Spanish Center for Pulsed Lasers (CLPU)
monochromatic aberrations of the and the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung
human eye. und -prüfung (BAM). Currently he is a Marie
Skłodowska-Curie Fellow at the Princeton
Institute for the Science and technology of
Materials (PRISM) at Princeton University.
Part of his time is dedicated to dissemina-
tion activities with teaching purposes in
the field of optics to reduce the existing gap
between research and education.
Clara Benedí García

Since 2016, she has been doing her
doctoral thesis at the Optics Institute of
CSIC, specifically in the Visual Optics
and Biophotonics lab. She is especially
Francesca Gallazzi
interested in using optical simulators to
She completed her Ph.D. thesis in the
explore the basis of the visual process.
Nonlinear dynamics and Fiber optics group
of the Institute of Optics of the Spanish
National Research Council (IO-CSIC).
Currently she is a postdoctoral researcher
with the Ultrafast photonics group in the
Photonics Laboratory of Tampere University
(Finland). Her interests are focused on
nonlinear and ultrafast optics, especially on
dynamics in lasers and optical fibers and
ultrafast characterization systems.
236 About the Authors

Mario García Lechuga Rocío Gutiérrez Contreras
Researcher and lecturer at the Applied Predoctoral researcher at the Institute of
Physics Department of the Universidad Optics of the Spanish National Research
Autónoma de Madrid. He obtained his Council (CSIC). She is very interested in
Ph.D. in 2017 at the Institute of Optics translational science and is developing
at CSIC working in the field of material new techniques based on photochemistry
processing with ultrashort laser pulses. He to be applied in the anterior segment of the
later worked as a postdoctoral researcher eye. Rocío is interested in bringing science
at the Spanish Center for Pulsed Lasers to the general public through workshops
(CLPU) and the Laboratoire LP3-CNRS in in schools. You can see her on stage with
France. He is a Physics and Optics pas- the scientific theater group TeatrIEM
sionate and enjoys exploring new teaching
methodologies and participating in
outreach activities.
Juan Luis Méndez González

International Ph.D. candidate at a joint
research project between IO-CSIC and
Juan Luis García Pomar Universitäts Klinikum Bonn (UKB) for
Expert in Materials Science. His main applications of endoscopic hyperspectral
research topics are the study of metamate- imaging (HSI) in early diagnosis of chronic
rials, photonic crystals and photonic and malignant degenerative pathologies of
properties of 2D materials. During his the larynx. Former IOSA member for the
career he carried out several postdoctoral outspread of STEM and optical technolo-
stays at Fraunhofer Institute in Germany gies between 2016-2020.
or the Spanish National Research Council
(CSIC) among others. Currently he is a
postdoctoral researcher at International
Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory in
Portugal.
About the Authors 237

Roberta Morea Pablo Pérez Merino
She obtained her Ph.D. in Materials He completed his Ph.D. in the Visual
Physics in 2015 for her work developed Optics and Biophotonics group of
at the Optics Institute of the Spanish the Institute of Optics of the Spanish
National Research Council (CSIC) on light National Research Council (CSIC,
emitting materials. During this period, she Spain). Currently, he is a Marie
became interested in spreading her scien- Sklodowska-Curie Fellow at the Center
tific knowledge by popular science activi- for Microsystems Technology (CMST)
ties with the OSA Student Chapter at the at Ghent University and imec, where
Optics Institute. At the moment, she works he started to develop new diagnostic
as R&D Engineer in the field of optical tools and medical imaging technolo-
communications in the Italian company gies for ophthalmic applications. He
SM Optics. is co-founder of a spin-off company,
2EyesVision SL.
Javier Nuño del Campo

Researcher on nonlinear photonics and Daniel Puerto García
fibre optics with special focus on the He received a Ph.D. from Miguel
Raman amplification and polarization Hernández University. He completed his
control. He was working towards a Ph.D. Ph.D. thesis at the IO-CSIC in laser pro-
(2014) at the Optics Institute “Daza de cessing of materials. Later, he did postdoc-
Valdés” (CSIC, Spain) and, afterwards, toral stays at the Polytechnic University of
he joined the ICB (CNRS, France) for a Valencia and at the LP3-CNRS laboratory.
Postdoctoral stay. Currently, he is a post- He is currently a distinguished researcher
doctoral research fellow at the Photonics at the University of Alicante and founder
Engineering Group at the University of of the spin-off Ilice Photonics.
Alcalá, Spain.
238 About the Authors


Discovering Light - Fun Experiments With Optics

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Discovering

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Sara Aissati Rocío Gutiérrez Contreras

Coordinator: María Viñas Peña

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English translation of Descubriendo la luz: Experimentos divertidos de óptica

In cooperation with the OSA Foundation

Copyright © 2021 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE)

Cover image courtesy of Francesca Gallazzi

Printed in the United States of America

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Safety rules for the use of laser pointers xiii

2. Lights sources and detectors 37

4. The human eye: a biological camera 105

5. Light in nature 139

6. Light–based technologies 175

Review of what we have learned 209

About the Authors 235

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Class Description Maximum power

It is therefore very important to

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Figure 1.2 Representation of a wave at a specific point of travel, i.e., as if it is “frozen”.

2 Discovering Light: Fun Experiments with Optics

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Are there different types of light?

Chapter 1 What is light? 3

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4 Discovering Light: Fun Experiments with Optics

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How does light travel?

Chapter 1 What is light? 5

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6 Discovering Light: Fun Experiments with Optics

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Chapter 1 What is light? 7

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What is the refractive index?

8 Discovering Light: Fun Experiments with Optics

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Therefore, the refractive index of vacuum is 1.

Figure 1.8 Chromatic dispersion of a beam of white light passing through a prism.

Chapter 1 What is light? 9

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What are the wavelike properties of light?

10 Discovering Light: Fun Experiments with Optics

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Did you know…?

Chapter 1 What is light? 11

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12 Discovering Light: Fun Experiments with Optics

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Chapter 1 What is light? 13

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Did you know…?