MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 1
Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts

Dr Julien Cisonni

S CHOOL OF C IVIL AND M ECHANICAL E NGINEERING

 Main Concepts

Characterisation of fluid flows

Description of flow fields

Reynolds number

Law of viscosity

Mass conservation and momentum equation

Bernoulli equation

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts 2 / 24

 Fluids
Fluid Mechanics is the study of fluids either:
in motion à fluid dynamics
at rest à fluid statics
A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously when acted on by a shearing stress of
any magnitude
Liquids: Gases:
Relatively close-packed molecules Widely spaced molecules
Strong cohesive forces Negligible cohesive forces
Tends to retain its volume Free to expand
Will form a free surface Cannot form a free surface
free surface

LIQUID GAS

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Fluids 3 / 24
 Fluid as a Continuum

Fluids are aggregations of molecules that collide to each other

D
D
d

The distance D between the molecules is very large compared with their diameter d

The mean free path λ is the average distance travelled by a molecule between successive collisions

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Fluid as a Continuum 4 / 24
 Fluid as a Continuum

Most engineering problems are concerned with physical dimensions much larger than the molecular
spacing
à Fluid properties (pressure, velocity, density, etc.) can be thought of as varying continuously in
space
à Such a fluid is called continuum

B For gases at low pressures:

The molecular spacing is comparable or larger than the physical size of the system
In these situations, the continuum approach is not valid
à Statistical mechanics and molecular theory have to be applied instead of continuum mechan-
ics

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Fluid as a Continuum 5 / 24
 Flow Fields

Eulerian Description:
The fluid motion is given by the flow properties prescribed as functions of space and time
Flow properties are obtained at fixed points in space as the fluid flows past these points:
pressure field: p (x, y, z, t)
velocity field: u® (x, y, z, t)
density field: ρ (x, y, z, t)

Lagrangian Description:
Individual fluid particles are identified and followed as they move
The fluid properties associated with these “tagged” particles change with their location and
time:
pressure field: p ( x®i , t)
velocity field: u® ( x®i , t)
density field: ρ ( x®i , t)

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Flow Fields 6 / 24
 Flow Fields

Pressure and density are scalar quantities

Velocity is a vector quantity having magnitude and direction which can be decomposed into com-
ponents following the unit vectors of the reference coordinate system used

In a classic Cartesian coordinate system, the

u®
y v
velocity vector can be formally written as:
u
w
u®(x, y, z, t) = u(x, y, z, t)®i + v(x, y, z, t) ®j + w(x, y, z, t) k®

and the magnitude of the velocity vector, which ®j

represents the flow speed, can then be obtained as: ®i x
k®
p
k u®k = u2 + v 2 + w 2 z

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Flow Fields 7 / 24
 Streamlines

Streamlines provide a graphic representation of the instantaneous flow patterns in a 2-D field
A streamline is a line everywhere tangent to the velocity vector at a given instant
The streamline equation relates the slope of a streamline to the 2-D velocity components:

dy v
= (1)
dx u

y
x

0 In a steady flow, streamlines are equivalent to pathlines – lines along which fluid particles move

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Streamlines 8 / 24
 No-slip condition

When a fluid is bounded by a solid surface, the fluid particles near this boundary are more attracted
to the solid particles than the other fluid particles: adhesive forces >> cohesive forces
Momentum and Energy Equilibrium at the fluid-solid boundary
The fluid velocity and temperature at the fluid-solid interface are equal to that of the solid boundary
à no-slip condition: u®fluid ≡ u®solid

moving wall u = u∞ u®

no-slip
condition
y
x
solid wall u = 0

B the no-slip condition is not valid for rarefied gases

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts No-slip condition 9 / 24
 Reynolds Number

inertial force ρU L U L
Re = = = (2)
viscous force µ ν

U : characteristic velocity
µ : dynamic viscosity
L : characteristic length
ν : kinematic viscosity ( µ/ρ)
ρ : density

low Re: laminar flow high Re: turbulent flow

[“A Gallery of Fluid Motion”, Samimy et al.] [“A Gallery of Fluid Motion”, Samimy et al.]

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Reynolds Number 10 / 24
 Law of Viscosity

Viscosity is a quantitative measure of fluids’ resistance to flow

The shear stress τ is proportional to the rate of shear strain δθ/δt :

δθ du du
τ∝ àτ∝ or τ=µ (3)
δt dy dy

0 For Newtonian fluids: τ is linearly proportional to δθ/δt à µ is constant

δu δt u® moving wall
u = δu
δy
δθ τ du
dy
y
x
solid wall u = 0
MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Law of Viscosity 11 / 24
 Integral analysis of Fluid Flows

Fluid flows can be characterised using:

Integral Relations:
by obtaining an estimate of the gross effects (mass flow, induced force, energy change) over
a finite region or control volume

Differential Relations:
by analysing an infinitesimal region of the flow and seeking the point-by-point details of the
flow à Chapter 2

To carry out an integral analysis:

a system (or a part of it) can be isolated using a control volume (CV) and the flow can then be ex-
amined by characterising the changes in properties within the control volume and on its boundaries,
called the control surfaces (CS)

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Integral analysis of Fluid Flows 12 / 24
 Example

Analysis of an incompressible and inviscid fluid jet impinging on a moving flat plate:

Uout
CV
A B

Ain Aout
CS

y UP
Uin

x
Aout
D C

Uout

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Integral analysis of Fluid Flows 13 / 24
 Mass Conservation
For a fixed non-deforming control volume, the conservation of mass principle is stated as:
dmCV
time rate of change of mass in the control volume = 0 à =0
dt
The mass of fluid in the control volume is given by the integration of the density over the volume:
∫
mCV = ρ dV
CV

From the Reynolds transport theorem, the time rate of change of mass in the control volume can
be decomposed as:
∂
∫ ∫ ∫
d
ρ dV = ρ dV + u · n®ˆ dA
ρ®
dt CV ∂t CV CS

à the conservation of mass for a fixed non-deforming control volume can be expressed as:
∂
∫ ∫
ρ dV + u · n®ˆ dA = 0
ρ® (4)
∂t CV CS

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Integral analysis of Fluid Flows 14 / 24
 Mass Conservation
à Equation (4) shows that the rate of change of the instantaneous mass inside the control volume
must be balanced by the net mass flow rate through the control surface:

∂
∫ ∫
ρ dV = − u · n®ˆ dA
ρ® (5)
∂t CV CS

which can be more informally written as:

∂
 
mass
= mÛ in − mÛ out (6)
∂t inside CV

Û in and mÛ out are the net mass fluxes coming in and out of the control volume
where m

When a flow has a uniform velocity profile across the face of the control surface, the mass flux can
be evaluated simply as:
mÛ = ρU A
where U is the velocity component that is normal to the control surface area A
MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Integral analysis of Fluid Flows 15 / 24
 Momentum Equation

For a fixed non-deforming control volume, Newton’s second law of motion states that the net
force F®f applied onto the fluid is equal to the time-rate of change of fluid momentum:

d(mCV u®)
F®f =
dt
Using the Reynolds transport theorem, this leads to the momentum equation which can be
formally expressed as:
∂ ∫  ∫
F®f = ρ®
u dV + CS ρ®
u (®
u · n®) dA (7)
∂t CV
and more informally written as:

∂ momentum
   
Í Forces on fluid
= − MÛ in − MÛ out


(8)
inside CV ∂t inside CV

Û in and MÛ out are the net momentum fluxes coming in and out of the control volume
where M

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Integral analysis of Fluid Flows 16 / 24
 Momentum Equation

The velocity and force vectors can be decomposed into three components along the x -, y - and
z-directions:
u® = u®i + v ®j + w k® and F®f = Ffx ®i + Ffy ®j + Ffz k®
à the vector momentum equation (8) can be split into three scalar equations:
Õ  Forces on fluid  ∂ x -momentum
 
= − MÛ x,in − MÛ x,out


(9a)
inside CV along x ∂t inside CV
Õ  Forces on fluid  ∂ y -momentum
 
= − MÛ y,in − MÛ y,out


(9b)
inside CV along y ∂t inside CV
Õ  Forces on fluid  ∂ z -momentum
 
= − MÛ z,in − MÛ z,out


(9c)
inside CV along z ∂t inside CV

with
MÛ x = mu
Û MÛ y = mv
Û MÛ z = mw
Û

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Integral analysis of Fluid Flows 17 / 24
 Example – Steady Case: UP = 0

When the plate is stationary, the flow is steady and its properties are constant over time:

Mass Conservation: Uout

CV
A B
0 = mÛ in − mÛ out
Ain Aout
mÛ in = mÛ out = mÛ CS
mÛ AD = mÛ AB + mÛ CD y Uin
ρUin Ain = ρUout Aout + ρUout Aout
Uin Ain = 2Uout Aout x
Aout
à balance between the net mass fluxes D C
entering and leaving the CV Uout

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Integral analysis of Fluid Flows 18 / 24
 Example – Steady Case: UP = 0

When the plate is stationary, the flow is steady and its properties are constant over time:

Momentum Equation: Uout

CV
( A B
Ffx = 0 − MÛ x,in − MÛ x,out


Ain Aout
Ffy = 0 − MÛ y,in − MÛ y,out


F®P CS
( y
Ffx = MÛ x,out − MÛ x,in Uin
à
Ffy = MÛ y,out − MÛ y,in x
Aout
 Ffx = 0 − mU
Û in


  D C
à mÛ mÛ
 Ffy = 2 Uout + 2 (−Uout ) − 0
 Uout

( (
Ffx = −mUÛ in FP = ρAinUin2
à à
Ffy = 0 FP = 0

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Integral analysis of Fluid Flows 19 / 24
 Example – Unsteady Case: UP > 0

When the plate is moving to right, the mass of fluid inside the control volume increases over time:

Mass Conservation: at t
Ain
ρ(UP δt)Ain
= mÛ in − mÛ out
δt UP
ρUP Ain = ρUin Ain − 2ρUout Aout
UP Ain = Uin Ain − 2Uout Aout

à imbalance between the net mass

fluxes entering and leaving the CV at t + δt
UP × δt Ain

UP
additional mass of
fluid in CV over δt

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Integral analysis of Fluid Flows 20 / 24
 Example – Unsteady Case: UP > 0

When the plate is moving to right, the fluid momentum in the control volume increases over time:

Momentum Equation: at t
Ain
(ρ(UP δt)Ain ) Uin
Ffx = − ((ρUin Ain ) Uin − 0)
δt UP
Ffx = ρUP AinUin − ρUin2 Ain
Ffx = −ρUin Ain (Uin − UP )
Ffx = −mÛ in (Uin − UP )
and at t + δt
Ffy = 0 (same as steady case) UP × δt Ain
( F®P
FP = ρAinUin (Uin − UP )
à UP
FP = 0
additional mass of
fluid in CV over δt
à the force on the plate is lower than in
the steady case
MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Integral analysis of Fluid Flows 21 / 24
 Bernoulli Equation

1 2
p+ ρU + ρgz = constant along a streamline (10)
2

U : flow speed z : elevation

p : static pressure g : acceleration due to gravity

p ρU 2 /2 ρgz
static pressure dynamic pressure pressure due to elevation
(can be measured with a manometer) (equivalent to hydrostatic pressure)
internal pressure energy kinetic energy potential energy
(per unit volume) (per unit volume) (per unit volume)

B Bernoulli equation can only be used for steady, inviscid and incompressible flows

MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Bernoulli Equation 22 / 24
 Example
Inviscid and incompressible fluid flowing steadily in a curved pipe:

(4) (5)
u®4 u®5

u®3
(3)

z
(1) (2)
x
u®1 u®2

U1 < U2 (from mass conservation) and z1 = z2 → p1 > p2

U2 = U3 (velocity’s direction changes but not its magnitude) and z2 < z3 → p2 > p3
U3 = U4 (velocity’s direction changes but not its magnitude) and z3 < z4 → p3 > p4
U4 > U5 (from mass conservation) and z4 = z5 → p4 < p5
MCEN6022 Advanced Fluid Mechanics Introduction and Review of Fundamental Concepts Bernoulli Equation 23 / 24
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