CE469EIA/PRG/ModuleII

AIR POLLUTION: Primary and Secondary Types of Pollutants, sulfur dioxide- nitrogen dioxide,
carbon monoxide
WATER POLLUTION: Point and Non-point Source of Pollution, Major Pollutants of Water,
Impact of pollutants
Air Pollution is defined as presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance (including noise)
present in the atmosphere in such concentrations that may or tend to be injurious to human
beings or other living creatures or plants or property or enjoyment.
Air pollution is of public health concern and can occur as:
(i) Indoor Air Pollution - Micro scale (Local)
(ii) Ambient or Outdoor Air Pollution - Meso scale (Regional)
(iii) Air Pollution at Global scales - Macro scale (Global)
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
Type-I The sources of Air pollution are basically identified as natural and man-made

Type-II Sources of Air Pollution

i) Stationary sources. ii) Mobile sources.

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TYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS

Based on origin the air pollutants can be classified as;

(i) Primary air pollutants
Materials that when released pose health risks in their unmodified forms or those emitted directly
from identifiable sources.

e.g. Carbon compounds - CO, CO2, CH4, and VOCs

Nitrogen compounds - NO, N2O and NH3
Sulfur compounds - H2S, SO2
Particulate Matter – PM10, PM2.5

(ii) Secondary air pollutants

Are those formed in the atmosphere from primary pollutants by chemical reaction in the
presence of sunlight i.e., photochemical reaction or by hydrolysis or oxidation.

e.g. NO2 and HNO3 - from NO

Ozone (O3) - As a result of photochemical reactions of nitrogen oxides and VOCs
Acid droplets - Sulfuric acid from SO2 and nitric acid from NO
Organic aerosols - From VOCs in gas to particle reactions
PAN — Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate

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CRITERIA POLLUTANTS
Based on the studies carried out to investigate and describe the environmental effects of any air
pollutant emitted by stationary or mobile sources, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA-USA)
established the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for six major air pollutants to
protect human health and welfare. Because standards are developed based on human health
criteria they are known as criteria pollutants.
The criteria pollutants are:
(i) Particulate matter (PM) (PM10 and PM2.5)
(ii) Carbon monoxide (CO)
(iii) Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
(iv) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
(v) Ground level Ozone (O3)
(vi) Lead (Pb)
PM10 - Particles with an aerodynamic diameter ≤ 10 µm.
PM2.5 - Particles with an aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 µm.
These six criteria pollutants are regulated to ensure that a region meets the National Air Quality
Standards. The set of limits, based on human health, is called primary standards. Another set of
limits, intended to prevent environmental and property damage, is called secondary standards.

Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide has strong affinity for combining with the haemoglobin of the blood to form
carboxy haemoglobin, COHb. This reduces the capability of the blood to carry oxygen to the
body tissues. Since the affinity of haemoglobin for carbon monoxide is more than 200 times as
great as its affinity (close attraction) for O2, CO can seriously affect the transport of O2, (within
body), even when present at low concentrations.
Effects
(a) Health: Exposure to CO can cause headaches, fatigue, drowsiness, coma, respiratory
failure and even death. It also affects the central nervous system and is responsible for
heart attacks and a high mortality rate.
(b) Others: CO contributes to the formation of smog which can trigger serious respiratory
problems.

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Sulfur Oxides
The oxides of sulfur (SOx) are probably the most wide-spread and the most intensely (extreme)
studied of all human activity air pollutants. Although there are six different gaseous compounds
of 'S', the most prevalent SO2 and SO3 are of most interest as they form H 2SO3 (Sulfurous acid)
and H2SO4, (sulfuric acid) in the air. Important man - made sources are industries burning sulfur
containing fuels such as coal, crude oils, ore smelters, oil refineries. The natural sources include
marine plankton, sea water, bacteria, volcanic eruptions.
Effects
SO2 causes variety of health and environmental impacts because of the way it reacts with other
substances in the air.
(a) Health: Particularly sensitive groups include people with asthma who are active outdoors, and
children, the elderly, and people with heart or lung diseases. Long term exposures to high levels
of SO2 gas cause respiratory illness and aggravate (make more severe) existing heart disease.
(b) Others: Other effects of SO 2 are (i) visibility impairment (SO 2, particles are the major cause
of reduced visibility) (ii) acid rain, (iii) plant and water damage, (iv) aesthetic damage—cause
stains on structures.
SO2 accelerates the decay of building materials and paints including monuments, statues, and
sculptures—The brownish spots on the Taj Mahal is the example.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

The oxides of nitrogen (NO, N20) are the primary pollutants released by industrial and
automobile combustion. There are seven oxides of nitrogen (N2O, NO, NO2, NO3, N2O3, N2O4,
and N2O5 ) NOx represents the indeterminate mixture of nitric oxide (NO) and Nitrogen dioxide
(NO2).
Effects
(a) Health: NOx are responsible for formation of smog. Of the oxides of nitrogen existing in
ambient air, NO2 (Nitrogen dioxide) is the most toxic. Exposure to NO2 causes health
effects such as (i) mild inflammatory response to bronchitis (ii) broncho pneumonia (iii)
headaches (iv) acute pulmonary oedema (at high concentration) (v) burning of eyes etc.
(b) Others: It also reacts with atmospheric moisture and forms nitric acid resulting in what is
known acid rain. It is also responsible for producing ground level ozone in presence of

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Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). Other environmental effects of NOx include water
quality deterioration, produce toxic chemicals on reaction with organic compounds and
results in visibility impairment (diminish in quantity or value).

GENERAL HEALTH EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

The general health effects of air pollution are listed here under:
(i) Eye-irritation
(ii) Nose and throat irritation
(iii) irritation of the respiratory tract.
(iv) A variety of particulates, particularly pollens, initiate asthmatic attacks.
(v) Chronic pulmonary diseases like bronchitis and asthma are aggravated by a high
concentration of SO2, NO2, particulate matter and photo chemical smog.
(vi) Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin in the blood and as result of which it
increases the risk of cardio - vascular and pulmonary diseases.
(vii) Poly cyclic hydro carbons cause cancers.
(viii) Dust particles cause respiratory diseases. Diseases like silicosis, asbestosis etc. result
from specific dusts.
(ix) Lead causes lead poisoning and affects the central nervous system.

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CONTROL OF POLLUTANTS
Among the gaseous air pollutants, the sulphur oxides, the oxides of nitrogen, carbon-monoxide
and hydrocarbons have attracted major attention because of their common occurrence in the
atmosphere and their known harmful effects.
The most common methods for controlling gaseous pollutants are: (a) Absorption; (b)
Adsorption; (c) Condensation (d) Incineration; (e) Catalytic conversion; (f) Chemical reaction;
(g) Selective diffusion through a membrane; and (h) Bio filtration.
Control of sulphur dioxide emission
The greatest anthropogenic sources of SO2 emissions are the fossil-fuel-burning power plants.
Probably the most convenient method of solving the sulphur dioxide problem at the source is to
disperse the waste gases by stacks of sufficient height. This height can be determined by the
parameters of the source and the local geography. The pollutant is diluted through its spread in
the atmosphere and thereby its excessive ground level concentrations can be avoided. But this
practice is becoming increasingly unacceptable as people are becoming more and more aware of
the pollution problems and are showing greater concern about all forms of pollution.
There are three basic procedures for controlling sulphur dioxide emissions from stationary
combustion sources:
a. The extraction of sulphur from fuels
b. Sulphur reduction within the combustion chamber
c. The treatment of flue gases.
Extraction of Sulphur from Fuels
Removal of sulphur from fuel prior to combustion is theoretically an attractive route to low SO 2
concentrations in the atmosphere. Sulphur in coal is present in both inorganic and organic forms.
Practically, all inorganic sulphur exists in the coal as iron disulphide (FeS2), i.e., in the form of
pyrites and marcasites. Washing can reduce the pyritic sulphur content by about 30%, but such
methods result in a loss of combustible material and may add 20% or more to the cost of coal.
Organic sulphur, present in the form of cystin, thiols, sulphides and some cyclic compounds, is
intrinsically and almost uniformly bound with most of the carbonaceous material and can be
removed only by chemical processing.

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Sulphur Reduction During Combustion

In this method, which is applicable to conventional combustion chambers, finely ground
limestone (CaCO3) is injected directly into the combustion chamber. The limestone is calcined to
CaO by the heat of combustion and it reacts with SO 2 contained in the flue gas to form sulphites
and sulphates.
The solid reaction products, unreacted materials and fly ash are removed either by dry collectors
or by wet scrubbing. Due to the low SO2 removal efficiencies, the dry limestone injection
process, although relatively simple and easy to operate, is not very attractive from the point of
view of control technology.
Attempts to increase the desulphurization efficiencies have been fairly successful and one such
improved process is the fluidised bed combustion process in which limestone and crushed coal
together form the fluidised bed and air is used as the fluidizing medium.
Desulphurizatlon of Flue Gases
Flue gas desulphurisation has probably been the subject of more research than any other gas
purification operation. Nearly fifty flue gas desulphurization process have been proposed, some
have been tested on a large scale, but as such no ideal process exists. These processes, in general,
are classified in terms of whether they are wet or dry.

Emission Control of Nitrogen Oxides

Nitrogen is a common constituent of several fuels. Atmospheric nitrogen reacts with the oxygen
present in the air forming nitrogen oxides. Emissions of NOX generated during the combustion
process can be reduced, by treating the flue gases.
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) reduce post
combustion NOx by reacting the exhaust with urea or ammonia to produce nitrogen and water.
SCR is now being used in ships, diesel trucks and in some diesel cars.
The use of exhaust gas recirculation and catalytic converters in motor vehicle engines have
significantly reduced vehicular emissions.
Other technologies such as flameless oxidation (FLOX) and staged combustion significantly
reduce thermal NOx in industrial processes.

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Emission Control of Carbon Monoxide

The primary source of CO from vehicles is the incomplete combustion of gasoline in engine
cylinders. The fuel-oxidation process (combustion) is the conversion of the fuel to lower-
molecular-weight intermediate HCs (including olefins and aromatics) and their conversion to
aldehydes and ketones, then to CO, and finally to carbon dioxide (CO2).
CO is formed as an intermediate product of chemical reaction between fossil fuels and oxygen.
The formation is due to two reasons:
(1) in rich mixtures, CO is formed due to insufficient quantity of oxygen;
(2) in lean mixtures, CO is formed due to poor turbulence of the fuel and air in the reaction
chamber or due to dissociation of CO2 to CO in high temperature zones.
Hence, the effects of fuel-air ratio, degree of turbulence, and temperature may be significant for
CO formation in the hot combustion zone.
Carbon monoxide, unlike some other major gaseous pollutants, does not lend itself to removal by
exhaust gas techniques. Hence, the best approach is the control of its formation. However, this is
not easy because the control strategies for carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides are basically in
conflict. As a result, merits of each type of combustion equipment need to be analyzed such that
both the pollutants could be reduced simultaneously.
The most practical method of reducing the CO emissions from stationary combustion sources is
by proper design, installation, operation and maintenance of the combustion equipment.

Water Pollution is the presence of any foreign substance (organic, inorganic, radiological or
biological) in water which tends to degrade the quality so as to constitute a hazard or impairs the
usefulness of water.
SOURCES
i. Point sources
Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single,
identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch.
Specific discharges from: municipalities or industrial complexes
Example: organics or metals entering surface water as a result of wastewater discharge
from a manufacturing plant.

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ii. Nonpoint sources

Nonpoint source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a
single discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of
contaminants gathered from a large area.
Pollutants from: urban area, industrial area, rural runoff.
Examples: sediment, pesticides, or nitrates entering a surface water balance of runoff
from agricultural farms.
Some general characteristics of nonpoint source pollution are as follows (Novotny and Chesters,
1981):
1. Non-point source discharges enter surface waters in a diffuse manner and at intermittent
intervals that are related mostly to the occurrence of meteorological events.
2. Pollution arises over an extensive area of land and is in transit overland before it reaches
surface waters.
3. Nonpoint source discharges generally cannot be monitored at the point of origin, and the exact
source is difficult or impossible to trace.
4. Elimination or control of these pollutants must be directed at specific sites.
5. In general, the most effective and economical controls are land management techniques that
are conservation practices in rural zones and architectural or hydrologic control in urban zones.

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MAJOR WATER POLLUTANTS

The following are the common types of water pollutants:
Disease-causing agents: Bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and parasitic worms that enter water from
domestic sewage and animal wastes. In developing countries, they are the major cause of
sickness and death, prematurely killing an average of 13,700 people each day.
Oxygen-demanding wastes: Organic wastes, which can be decomposed by oxygen-consuming
bacteria. Large populations of bacteria supported by these wastes can deplete water of dissolved
oxygen gas. Without enough oxygen, fish and other oxygen-consuming forms of aquatic life die.
Water-soluble inorganic chemicals: Acids, salts, and compounds of toxic metals such as lead
and mercury. Such dissolved solids can make water unfit to drink, harm fish and other aquatic
life, decrease crop yields, and accelerate corrosion of equipment that uses of water.
Inorganic plant nutrients: Water-soluble nitrate and phosphate compounds that can cause
excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants, which then die and decay, depleting water of
dissolved oxygen and killing fish.
Organic chemicals: Oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergents, and many
other water soluble and insoluble chemicals that threaten human health and harm fish and other
aquatic life.
Sediment or suspended matter: Insoluble particles of soil and other solid inorganic and organic
materials that become suspended in water and that in turns of total mass are the largest source of

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water pollution. Suspended particulate matter clouds the water, reduces the ability of some
organisms to find food, reduces photosynthesis by aquatic plants, disrupts aquatic food webs, and
carries pesticides, bacteria, and other harmful substances. Bottom sediments destroys feeding and
spawning grounds of fish and clogs and fills lakes, artificial reservoirs, stream channels, and
harbors.
Radioactive substances: Radioisotopes that are water soluble or capable of being biologically
amplified to higher concentrations as they pass through food chains and webs. Ionizing radiation
from such isotopes can cause birth defects, cancer, and genetic damage.
Heat: Large quantity of water is heated when it is used in the cooling towers of thermal power
plants. When this hot water is discharged into the nearby water bodies, it causes an increase in its
temperature. This increase in water temperature lowers dissolved oxygen content and makes
aquatic organisms more vulnerable to disease, parasites, and toxic chemicals.

REFERENCES
a) Air Pollution, M N Rao, HVN Rao Tata McGraw-Hill
b) Environmental Impact Assessment, R R Barthwal. New Age Publication, New Delhi
c) Environmental Impact Assessment: Theory and Practice - Anji Reddy Mareddy, Anil
Shah, Naresh Davergave, BS Publishers.
d) Environmental Engineering, N. S Varandani, Pearson
e) Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, (2006) Ministry of Environment and
Forests (MoEF), Govt. of India.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the impact of air pollutants on human, vegetation and environment?
2. Discuss the sources, effects and control measures for carbon monoxide
3. Explain in detail control measures for three major air pollutants.
4. Differentiate point and non-point sources of pollution with examples.
5. Describe the impact of any two water pollutants.
6. Explain any five impacts of water pollution.
7. Differentiate between BOD and COD.

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