1ations Chap.
2
1 Figure 2-3 as aver-
ent of maximum, and
1 Figure 3-1. The let-
strains if umax for the
'tties are plotted to the
·ave shown in Figure
te a constrained mod-
6 g/cm3), or
nge in vertical effec-
ress, u', is defined in
lated from total unit
I Mg/m3 X 9.8 rn/s 2
2
1 or 9.8 k:Pa for each
:d. Since pounds are
e Chapter 13 for typ-
ries for the accelera-
nent and particle ve-
--r
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CONSTRUCTION VIBRATIONS
3
Typical Vibration Histories and
Elementary Analysis
Now that the relatively simple relations for plane-wave propagation and the associated
stress and strains have been presented, the more complex three-dimensional waves en-
countered in practice can be approached more easily. Construction activities such as pil-
ing and blasting produce a complex combination of wave types, whose character is made
more complex as they reflect and refract off the surface and other subsurface layer bound-
aries. As a result it is difficult and cumbersome to track each wave type as it refracts, de-
cays, and then interacts with other waves to produce the motions of interest at a specific
location.
Complexities of construction-generated motions have spawned an empirical ap-
proach to measurement and subsequent idealization of the vibrations. These idealized de-
scriptors and their relation to the complex waves are the focus of this chapter. Generally,
construction vibrations are recorded in their complete complexity in the form of a time
history 'of particle velocity. Particle velocity is the descriptor of choice rather than accel-
eration as in earthquake motions. This preference results from construction vibration's
close association with blast vibration monitoring, where particle velocity was found to
correlate with the appearance of cosmetic cracking. The three-dimensional complexity is
recorded by measuring time histories of the motions in three orthogonal directions. These
time histories are then described by their indices of peak particle velocity and dominant
frequency.
Construction-generated ground motions can ~ divided into three main wave types: com-
pressive, P, shear, S, and surface, R, as shown in Figure 3-la. To describe the motions
completely, three perpendicular components of motion must be measured, as shown in
19
20 Typical Vibration Histories and Elementary Analysis Chap.3 Ger

tivit
p R
gate
550ft __"""""...______..,_..,__ .... _____ laye
are
tran

wav
wav
I
E Max. strw
,g shm
bias
.i
'0 800ft and
fron
~ bias
~ Top z longitudinal
Reir
Middle s vertical
Bottom = transverse
R

1000 ft

0
I I I
0.2
I I I
0.4
I I
0.6
I I I I
0.8
I I I
1.0
I I I
1.2
I I
1.4
I I I
1.6
I I I
1.8
I
•
2.0 Time (s)

(a)

L (radial)

I
kf(
I
Source

(b)

Figure 3-1 General form of construction blast vibration time history records:
(a) relative magnitudes and arrival times; (b) P, compressive; S, shear; R, Rayleigh wave types.
0
Figure 3-1 b. The longitudinal component, L, is usually oriented along a horizontal radius
to the source. It follows, then, that the other two perpendicular components will be verti-
cal, V, and transverse, T, to the radial direction.
The three main wave types can be divided into two varieties: body waves, which
propagate through the body of the rock and soil, and surface waves, which are transmitted
along a surface (usually, the upper ground surface). The most important surface wave is
the Rayleigh, denoted R in Figure 3-la. Body waves can be further subdivided into com-
pressive (compression/tension) or soundlike waves, denoted as P, and distortional or
shear waves, denoted as S. Explosions and impacts from below ground construction ac-
 vsis Chap.3 General Characteristics of Construction Vibrations 21

tivities produce predominately body waves at small distances. These body waves propa-
gate outward in a spherical manner until they intersect at a boundary such as another
layer (rock or soil) or the ground surlace: At this intersection, shear and surlace waves
are produced, and the reflected surlace (Rayleigh) waves become important at larger
transmission distances.
At stnall distances, all three wave types will arrive together and greatly complicate
wave identification, whereas at large distances, the more slowly moving shear and surlace
waves begin to separate from the compressive wave and allow identification. Most con-
struction impacts produce a single dominant pulse with trailing subsidiary reflections, as
shown by the pile-drivirig motion in Figure 3-2. On the other hand, most construction
blasts are detonated as a series of smaller explosions that are delayed by milliseconds,
and differences in travel paths and delay times result in overlapping arrival of both wave-
fronts and wave types. This complicated arrival sequence has limited detailed study in
blasting seismology. Nevertheless, studies of single pulses from explosions (e.g.,
lgitudinal
Reinhart, 1975) have resulted in relationships that are useful in estimating the bounds of
rtical
tnsverse

I I I ..
8 2.0 Time (s)

Radial

wave types.
0
.. _..
•. 1 .. .. '-' .. ' 0.2
1orizontal radius
nts will be verti-
.I lime(sl-------

I
ly waves, which \ :
b. are transmitted ·. I
surface wave is \:
ivided into com-
i distortional or
48
~·'
mm/s
construction ac- Figure 3-2 Pile driving-induced motions that display single pulse shape. (From Selby, 1989.)
 Typical Vibration Histories and Elementary Analysis Chap.3 Gen
22
thee
ChaJ

parti
diffc:
Particle eartl
motion 3-3.
pres
the •
(a)
gati•
cate
proJ

3-4~
due•
The

Propagation
direction

Figure 3-3 Particle motion variation with

(c) wave type: (a) compressive; (b) shear;
(c) Rayleigh.
1alysis Chap.3 General Characteristics of Construction Vibrations 23

the effects of construction and blast-induced vibrations, some of which were described in
Chapter 2.
The three wave types produce radically different patterns of motion in soil and rock
particles as they pass. As a result, structures built on or in soil (or rock) will be deformed
differently by each type of wave. The varying particle motions and the deformation of the
earth (and consequently, structures) for each principal wave type are compared in Figure
3-3. In each case the wave is propagating or moving to the right. The longitudinal (com-
pressive) wave produces particle motions in the same direction as it is propagating. On
the other hand, the shear wave produces motions perpendicular to its direction of propa-
gation: either horizontal, as shown, or vertical. The Rayleigh wave (the most compli-
cated) produces motions both in the vertical direction and parallel to its direction of
propagation.
Most blasting and pile-driving problems involve the transducer position B in Figure
3-4a and result in relatively sinusoidal waves, B in Figure 3-4b. A close-in explosion pro-
duces the single-spiked pulse, A, by direct transmission to the transducer at position A.
The idealized waves shown in Figure 3-4b are typical for blasting where the close-in

(a)

/ 10 Time (ms)

(b)
1tion variation with
ive; (b) shear; Figure 3-4 Idealized waves for two construction geometries: (a) transducer location;
(b) idealized waves. D, direct; R, reflected/refracted.
 24 Typical Vibration Histories and Elementary Analysis Chap.3 Sin

blasting produces transient pulses that last I 000 to 2000 J.LS or 1 to 2 ms and 10 to 100 ms enc
at relatively large distances . Combinations of these single pulses produce the commonly doe
observed blast-induced sinusoidal wave trains, such as those shown in Figure 3-1a. On pro
the other hand, close-in pile-driving motions as shown in Figure 3-2 tend to produce wa1
waves with dominant single-pulse durations of 40 ms. a s1
gat

tim
SINUSOIDAL APPROXIMATION OF CONSTRUCTION VISRATIONS

Typical vibrations, no matter the wave type, can be approximated as sinusoidally varying wh
in either time or distance along the radial or longitudinal line, as shown in Figure 3-Sa oth
and b. The approximation is useful because it makes calculations for strain and accelera- of
tion from particle velocity much simpler than that for the unsymmetrical spike pulse, Fig
which was discussed in Chapter 2. The following development is similar to that in blast
vibration and soil dynamics texts (e.g., Bollinger, 1980, or Richart et al., 1970).
The sinusoidal nature of construction vibration is best introduced to lay personnel Ift
by comparison with a bobbing cork. The ground motion caused by a construction activity to:
is similar to the motion of a floating cork caused by a passing wave created by dropping a A.
stone in the water. Displacement of the cork from its at rest position is similar to the dis-
placement, u, of a particle in the ground from its at rest position. Similarly, the cork's ve- Va.I
u,
locity, is analogous to that of a particle in the ground, hence the term particle velocity.
The water wave that excites the cork can be described by its wavelength, A., or the
distance between wave crests, as shown in Figure 3-Sb; the speed, c, at which it travels Sir
outward from the stone's impact; and the frequency,/, or number of times the cork bobs the
up and down in I second. Propagation velocity, c, should not be confused with particle
u,
velocity, as c is the speed with which the water wave passes by the cork, whereas is u tirr
the speed at which the cork moves up and down while the wave passes by. (w
Construction vibration waves can also be described by their wavelength, propaga-
tion velocity, and frequency in the same fashion as the water wave. There is one differ-

Fn
fre
ph
+
u are

Time, t Distance, x

(a) (b)
Th
Figure 3-5 Sinusoidal approximations: (a) sinusoidal displacement at a fixed point tin
(x = constant); (b) sinusoidal displacement at one instant (t = constant). ele
•a lysis Chap.3 Sinusoidal Approximation of Construction Vibrations 25

sand 10 to 100 ms ence between a surface water wave and one that propagates along the ground; however, it
uce the commonly does not affect any of the foregoing relations. The particle motion for a water wave is
n Figure 3-1 a. On progressive, while the solid wave is retrogressive. In other words, at the top of a surface
2 tend to produce water wave the cork will moving in the direction of the propagation, whereas at the top of
a surface ground wave, soil particles will be moving in a direction opposite to the propa-
gation direction.
As was the case for the plane-wave, the general form for the sinusoidal approxima-
tion is best understood by beginning with the equation for displacement, u,
u = U sin(Kx + wt) (3-1)
msoidally varying where U is the maximum displacement, K is a constant called the wave number, w is an-
Nn in Figure 3-5a other constant called the circular natural frequency, and t is time. Consider the variation
rain and accelera- of displacement, u, with distance x when time and frequency are constant, as shown in
trical spike pulse, Figure 3-5b. Therefore,
lar to that in blast
., 1970). u = U sin(Kx + const.)
i to lay personnel If the distance at which the wave repeats is defined as the wavelength, A, K must be equal
nstruction activity to 27T/A to cause the sine function to repeat every timex increases by an amount equal to
.ted by dropping a A.
similar to the dis- Similarly, as shown in Figure 3-5a, if location and wavelength are constant, the
rly, the cork's ve- variation with time at a fixed point becomes
particle velocity.
elength, A., or the u = U sin(const. + wt)
.t which it travels
Since the wave repeats after a time called the period, T, w must be equal to 2TT!T to cause
rtes the cork bobs
the sine function to repeat when time advances by one period.
tsed with particle
Since the period, T, is the time between repetitions, the frequency, f, or number of
u
ork, whereas is
times the wave repeats itself each second is then liT and the circular natural frequency, w
)y.
(which has units of radians), is
~length, propaga-

= 27T (~) = 27Tf

ere is one differ-
w (3-2)

Frequency, f ( which has units of hertz or second·'), is not the same as the circular natural
frequency, w, and should not be confused when calculating peak accelerations and dis-
placements with sinusoidal approximations, as will be shown later in an example.
With sinusoidal approximations, the wavelength, A, and the propagation velocity, c,
are related through the period, T, as
1
A= cT = c- (3-3)
f
This relationship follows from the simple observation that peak 1 in Figure 3-5a takes
dpoint time T to move from position 1 to position 2, which is a distance A, and the distance trav-
eled when divided by the travel time is the propagation velocity, c.
26 Typical Vibration Histories and Elementary Analysis Chap.3 Calculations with the :

u,
The relationship between particle displacement, u, particle velocity, and acceler- CALCULATIONS WITH THE
ation, il, is also greatly simplified by the sinusoidal approximation and is found through
differentiation of Equation 2-1 with respect to time: The limitations of the
quency in Equations 3-
u = U sin(Kx + wt) real motions. Conside
du shown in Figure 3-6. l
it=-= Uw cos(Kx + wt) (3-4) particle displacement 1
dt
curve from the beginni
ii = dit = - Uw 2 sin(Kx + wt) tory is the slope of the
dt cally correct values of 1
compared to the result
In most circumstances only the absolute value of the maximum motion is of interest, and priate part of the time l
it will occur whenever the sine function is equal to 1. Therefore, Equations 3-4 simplify Theoretically, in
to would give the displa1
tween the velocity cur
time 1 and time 3 is 0.
ity between two timin~
(3-5)
Chapter 2, the entire '
true displacement. In t
iimax = Uw 2 = U47T2/ 2
= 27Tfitmax that occurs between tl:
Thus any of the maximum particle motion descriptors may be found easily from any Therefore, the zero-to-
other as long as the frequency,/, is known and the waveform is approximately sinusoidal.
Units for the motions are generally reported in two groups. In most of the world
and for the U.S. federal government they are reported as

u = mm (millimeters)
u= mm/s (millimeters per second)
ii = mm/s2 (millimeters per second per second)

and in some industries in the United States they are reported as

u =in. . (inches)
u= in./sec or ips (inches per second)
lllllllllllllll
ii = in./sec2 (inches per second per second)

Usually, acceleration is normalized with (divided by) the gravitational acceleration on the Figure 3-6 0
earth's surface, which is 9814 mm/s2 or 386.4 in./sec2 • Therefore, an acceleration of2000
mm/s 2 or 79 in./sec2 is

2000 79 The approxirnat

9814 = 386 = o. 2g is much simpler than
times 1 and 3 is 15 n:
or two-tenths that of gravity. tion is twice the half I
3 Calculations with the Sinusoidal Approximation 27

r- CALCULATIONS WITH THE SINUSOIDAL APPROXIMATION

;h
The limitations of the use of the simple relationships between particle motions and fre-
quency in Equations 3-5 are not obvious and are best explained through an example with
real motions. Consider the transverse particle velocity record, called a time history,
shown in Figure 3-6. It is not perfectly sinusoidal, and as shown in Chapter 2, the real
~)
particle displacement time history should be calculated as the area under the velocity
curve from the beginning of the motion to the time of interest. The acceleration time his-
tory is the slope of the velocity curve at any time. In the following example the theoreti-
cally correct values of displacement and acceleration will be calculated. Then they will be
compared to the results of the simplified sinusoidal approximation with the most appro-
d
priate part of the time history, with umax t:qual to 15 mm/s.
y
Theoretically, integration of the transverse particle velocity record in Figure 3-6
would give the displacement; such integration is accomplished by finding the area be-
tween the velocity curve and the horizontal zero baseline. For example, the area between
time 1 and time 3 is 0.54 mm and is found by summing the product of the average veloc-
ity between two timing lines and the interval between timing lines. However, as shown in
. ~-'
Chapter 2, the entire velocity time history must be integrated from time zero to find the
true displacement. In this case the local integrated value of 0.54 mm is the displacement
that occurs between the negative peak displacement and the positive peak displacement.
y Therefore, the zero-to-peak displacement is one-half this value, or 0.27 mm.
I.

11111111111111111111 1*111*111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
0.1 s

Figure 3-6 Constructions for sinusoidal approximation with a three-component record.

The approximation of the maximum displacement with the second of Equations 3-5
is much simpler than integration and is made as follows. The maximum velocity between
times 1 and 3 is 15 mm/s. The most appropriate period or T for the sinusoidal approxima-
tion is twice the half period, which is the time difference between times 1 and 3, or 0.06 sec.
 28 Typical Vibration Histories and Elementary Analysis Chap.3

Therefore,

15 mm/s~; 0.06 s) = 0. 286 mm

which is close to the value obtained by integration.

Theoretically, the acceleration is a maximum just after time 1, when the particle ve-
locity time history slope is a maximum, which is the slope of the line between points 1
and 2.

4\U = 12'5 mm/s = 1250 mmls2

L1t 0.01 s
The approximation of the maximum acceleration with the third of Equations 3-5 is
made as follows. The most appropriate T for the sinusoidal approximation would be four
times one-fourth of the period, often called the rise time of the pulse, which in this case is
the time between times 1 and 2. Therefore,
.. _ _ u2n _ (15mmls)21T _ 2
umax - Umax2nf- T - (4 X 0.02 s) - 1178 mm/s

This is again close to the theoretical value.

Despite this close agreement, acceleration calculated with the sinusoidal approxi-
mation is a lower bound because acceleration maximizes at sharp changes in the velocity
curve over short times. These sharp changes are difficult to record and even more difficult
to interpret visually. Thus even estimation or calculation of acceleration from velocity-
time histories should be avoided.
The sinusoidal displacement calculation from velocity records is more accurate
than that for acceleration because it involves an integration procedure that is not sensitive
to small changes in the records. This distinction is also important for the interpretation of
computer-digitized records. Accelerations calculated from velocity time histories are
likely to be inaccurate. However, the inherent accuracy of integration applies to integra-
tion of acceleration records to obtain velocities. Further discussion of the inaccuracies of
differentiation and integration can be found in texts devoted to the interpretation of time
histories (Hudson, 1979).

TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION VIBRATION RECORDS

Typical particle velocity time histories produced by pile driving and cqal mine blasting
are shown in Figures 3-7 and 3-8, respectively. The most important parameters that de-
scribe the time history are the peak amplitude, principal period(= 1/principal frequency),
and duration of the vibration. All these parameters are dependent on the energy source
 '" .. ~ . ;.'! ,}..::"',[~; <>i"l; ..

Response spectrum (damping =5%) Response spectrum (damping = 5%)

1.0 g. 0.1 in. 10.0
1.0 in. 1.0 g. 0.1 in. 10.0 g. 1.0 in.

:~: ls;;~~~,;;;:::::~::::::~::::. ::·~~.::::=::::::1L.,,~:;;~.:::::::~d=:;~;;;~;~~, 1

~;~§tg;~~---:-
. ...........··. ::::::~~:·::.t::::-,,.:,::;.~~;:::::~
,-.. . 100.0
........
~
::::······,...··"f' 50.0
~
..........w ..

.!e. _g
,g 1.00 .........:.::·::,-·.:<:' ,__::
10.0 -~
-~ 0.50 (.)
0
g

~!~~~i~F
5.0 CD
CD ········ >
0

-g~
"0

.."
~i~j3:i~~~~~~
0.10 CD
CD 1.0 a.
/f. .0.05
0.5

0.01
50. 100. 1. 5. 10. 50. 100.
1. 5. 10.
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)

41.84 .---------r~:----------

0.00~ ·:::l!\f\A}"!v'0
..!~---=----_:__~----
-19:58 ~
0.0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
-41.84 -!----.--~+---.----,------' lime(s)
0.0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
lime(s)

Figure 3-7 Typical pile-driving event time histories and dominant frequencies as shown by peaks
in response spectra. Left pair: impact; right pair: vibratory.

~
w
0

® o, I
-10
IJ I I I I I I I I I
-20
I -30
I -40
~----------------Dwuiool----------------~
-501 I I I I I I I I I I
I
0 20 40 60 80 100
I
1
0 I
I

~~
I ,
.,_
lXI

I
,...__v -~~
-m.e
a: a.
..
E

0 20 40 60 80 100

Peak 8
Peak A
o, I I I • I I I I I I I

Peak amplitude 20 40 60 80 100

A Frequency (Hz)
0 400
iii
Time(ms)

Figure 3-8 Typical coal mine blast vibration time histories and dominant frequencies as shown by
peaks in Fourier spectra. (From Stagg and Engler, 1980.)

..., ' ....... ·~ ,., . ~··~ " ,, ' ,, ,, _,.,. ,...,-..;.~,--' , '" ~~ . ., '

•; ";'{,·.~·· ,, ..
~ ,·;·"•·r.;
":ft ''·""
 Typical Construction Vibration Records 31

and transmission medium. In normal construction and blasting operations these parame-
ters vary in the ranges presented in Table 3-1. In special cases such as close-in blasting,
the range of ground motions should be extended to higher values. Unfortunately, typical
monitoring equipment is often not able to withstand the extreme environment of close-in
blasting, and these motions are difficult to measure.

TABLE 3-1 Range of Typical Construction

Parameters

""'~-.,
., Displacement lQ-4 to 10mm
Particle velocity 10-4 to 103 mm/s
Particle acceleration 10 to 105 mrnls2
Pulse duration 0.1 to 2s
Wavelength 30.0 to 1500 m
Frequency 0.5 to 200Hz
Strain 3.0 to 5000 J.Lin./in.
Source: After Cording et al. (1975).

Principal characteristics that distinguish construction vibrations from earthquakes

or nuclear explosions are evident in the comparison of time histories in Figure 3-9. First, ··
construction vibrations transmit energy at higher frequencies than do the ground motions
of either the earthquake or the nuclear explosion. Second, the construction vibration, by
virtue of its relatively miniscule duration and displacement, carries negligible energy
compared to nuclear or .earthquake motion. Of course, the second conclusion can also be
reached by comparing the detonation energies of the conventional blast and the nuclear
explosion: 7 kg (15 lb) of explosive for the blast vibration and 1 million kilograms or 1
megaton (2 million pounds) of explosive for the nuclear device. A third characteristic, the
range of principal frequencies, is greater for nuclear and earthquake motions, as dis-
cussed in the response spectrum section in Chapter 5.
This difference in source energy is even more dramatic when construction impacts
are compared with the energy released by detonation of a small amount of commercial
explosive during construction blasting. As Wiss (1980) showed, a &kg (llb) of dynamite
releases some 1.4 to 2.8 X 106 joules (or 1 to 2 X 106 ft-lb), whereas typical diesel pile
hammers deliver only 0.024 X 106 J (0.018 X 106 ft-lb of energy. This is 11100 the en-
ergy released by only &kg of dynamite. Large drop weights employed for dynamic com-
paction can transfer some 0.4 to 2.8 X 106 J (0.3 to 2 X 106 ft-lb) upon impact of their 7
to 14 metric ton (8 to 15 ton) drop weights.
 ...---...__ 0.19 in./sec
~

Nuclear explosion
ground motion
(18mi from a
1-megaton event)

Earthquake
---ground motion

N-S component, El Centro,

California, earthquake,
May 18,1949

Figure 3-9 Comparison of a construction blast vibration time history with those from earthquakes
and nuclear explosions.

1
' ' J, ·'~i· :'l!'il·(·:·•·l~ ·:;::WJrl·:ji~·'l'i;i't.·'liJ'f,·•t:'~C' !•t;·i~'.J :~.:"•:'r'~-·~~;;•:··=~· :·,··~:;;.,,,"'. ··:~" :··,.,, '"'i~·,···: -•;·:~ .· ···:"··>~:!.,•·:· ·•) ..... -.~-·~. . ,._,,.. ,.:·"''~•···> . ,. .•.:,., .. '~
,, , f•.::;t:
..... ~,1tt~~J~t{,i-"~"-1$14~~~~~~0!f,''!i'"'~~·iii~~~~~~~~JHi'M-~~.....-.~~~~M.,;.<.J>J,.;.,.,-'1..,~

.,
~
t~~
ff':;

.FF ~. Principal Frequency 33

fr PRINCIPAL FREQUENCY

A,s shown in Table 3-1, the principal frequency produced by the broad range of construc-
tion activity can vary between 0.5 and 200 Hz. However, when construction activities are
assessed by type, principal frequencies tend to be found in a more limited range. For ex-
ample, when the principal frequency is defined as that associated with the greatest ampli-
tude pulse, as shown in the inset in Figure 3-10, it varies by activity as shown. Detonation
of relatively large charges during surface coal mining, when measured at typically distant
structures, tend to produce vibrations with lower principal frequencies than those of con-
struction blasts. Construction blasts involve smaller charges, typically small distances be-
tween a structure and a construction blast, as well as rock-to-rock transmission paths,
which tend to produce the highest frequencies. As will be shown in Chapter 5, such high-
frequency motions associated with construction blasts are advantageous. These high-fre-
quency ground motions produce lower building strains than are produced by the
lower-frequency motions from surface mining and are thus less likely to produce cos-
metic cracking. Principal frequencies for blasting can be predicted by the method pre-
sente~ in Chapter 11.
While the dominant frequencies produced by construction blasting vary widely,
those produced by construction impacts and equipment vibration are lower and are clus-
tered by type source. For example, as shown in Figure 3-7 and discussed further in
Chapter 15, dominant frequencies for pile driving range between 15 and 30Hz. Alterna-
tively, the histogram of principal frequencies associated with dynamic compaction in
Figure 16-6 ranges between 5 and 15Hz. While this lower frequency range is typical of
motions produced by impacts of large weights with compliant soil, each construction ac-
tivity produces its own range of dominant frequencies, as shown in Chapter 16.
Principal frequencies of all construction vibrations depend to some extent on the
transmission medium. As will be shown later, high-frequency motions tend to be filtered
out or attenuated over shorter distances in soil than in rock. Furthermore, layers can prop-
agate certain frequencies further because of waveguide effects. For example, it can be
shown· that shear waves will selectively amplify within a soil layer or rock layer at a fre-
quency described as

!= .5...
4H
where c. is the propagation velocity of the shear wave and His the thickness of the layer.
As a result of these considerations, at typical distances principal frequency from blasting
ranges from 1 to 40 Hz when measured on soil profiles with thicknesses greater than 2 to
3 m and 10 to 100Hz on rock (Leet, 1960).
Use of frequency·based safe vibration control has caused many to ask what the cor-
rect frequency is. The answer, of course, depends on the characteristics of the time histo-
ries that describe the vibrations. This question is so important to the control of
construction vibration that an entire chapter (Chapter 10) is devoted to the subject.
 -- ·r r tn

34 Typical Vibration Histories and Elementary Analysis Chap.3

Surface
coal mine blasting
0.3

f =principal frequency

PEAK

Construction blasting

0 10 20 30 40 60. 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Principal frequency (Hz)

Figure 3-10 Comparison of dominant frequencies from construction blasting with those
produced by other segments of the blasting industry. (After Siskind, 1980B.)
3 Peak Component and True Vector Sum 35

However, the basis for the classification of construction vibration time histories by fre-
quency can be summarized by record type as follows.
Construction vibration time history records tend to fall into three main categories.
The easiest to interpret is the record with a single pulse like that associated with pile dri-
ving and shown in Figure 3-2. This dominant frequency can be determined through the
hand calculation shown in the insert in Figure 3-10 or by reference to a response spec-
trum like that for the pile motion in Figure 3-7. Hand calculation is more direct and as ac-
curate as calculating the response spectrum for such single-pulse motions.
A more difficult type of record to interpret is that which contains unequal peaks at
two dominant frequencies, such as that in Figure 3-8. As shown by the Fourier frequency
spectrum, the two dominant frequencies are the initial 30- to 40-Hz portion (peak A) and
the later 15- to 20-Hz portion (peak B). In this case the low-frequency portion of the
record dominates because it contains the largest peak.
The most difficult type of record to interpret is that which has equal peaks at differ-
ing frequencies. No hand calculation will replace either a response spectrum or Fourier
frequency analysis. The response spectrum is preferred because it can be related to struc-
tural strain and its calculation is described in Chapter 5. A comparison of Fourier andre-
sponse spectrum analysis is presented in Chapter 10.

PEAK COMPONENT AND TRUE VECTOR SUM

Passage of construction vibrations forces the ground to move in an elliptical manner in

three dimensions. A two-dimensional representation of displacements produced by pile
driving is shown in Figure 3-11. While the retrograde motion is symptomatic of a surface
wave, the radial motion dominates close-in and gives way to a vertical dominance at
greater distance. To define this motion, three mutually perpendicular components are
measured [transverse, longitudinal (radial), and vertical], as shown in Figure 3-1b.
Comparison of a typical three-component time history from the mining blast in
Figure 3-8 with others in this chapter shows that:
1. Many peaks are present in all cases, and especially for blasting.
2. The peak component varies (i.e., it is radial for one case and transverse for an-
other).
3. The peak amplitude in the longitudinal direction,(], does not occur at the same time
as in the transverse direction, CD.
4. Shear and compression waves are separated for the coal mine but not for construc-
tion blasts or pile-driving records.
The difference between the three components results from the presence of the various
wave types in the vibration wave trains, as indicated previously.
Variation of motion with each component has led to difficulty in determining which
component is most important. Is it the component with the greatest amplitude, or the peak
~.. vector sum of the components? Consider the particle velocity time history in Figure 3-8.
36 Typical Vibration Histories and Elementary Analysis Chap.3

Interaction
between reflected
P-wave and advancing
S-wave, resulting
in main surface motion

Energy
transfer
along
pile

PR4
10m 20m 30m

Direction 0 0.05 mm
of wave I I I I I

travel- Displacement scale

Figure 3-11 Principal wave types and particle displacement paths during passage of
surface waves produced by sheet pile driving. (From Attewell & Farmer (1973),
Attenuation of Ground Vibrations from Pile Driving, Vol. 3, No. 7, July, pp. 26-29.
Reprinted by permission of Ground Engineering.
p.3 Propagation Velocity 37

The peak component is 1 velocity unit in the transverse direction at time(!). The true vec-
tor sum of all the components at time <Dis
v'uf+u~+u; = v'o.t 2 +0.3 2 + t.o 2 (3-6)
= 1.05 unit
There may be another time when the peak true vector sum will be larger than that at the
peak component and several should be checked. However, it usually occurs at the same
time as the largest component peak. Peak motions should always be reported as either the
peak component or the peak trUe vector sum.
Another measure, the maximum vector sum, is frequently reported but is conserva-
tive and not directly related to a maximum velocity at a particular time. The maximum
vector sum is also calculated with Equation 3-8; however, the maximum of each compo-
nent is 11sed regardless of the time when it occurs. Thus for the same record in the exam-
ple above the maximum vector sum is
V0.7 2 + 0.9 2 + 1.02 = 1.5 units
However, the peaks occurred at times(1),<2), andQ), in Figure 3-8.
· In general, the empirical observations of cracking have been made with single-com-
ponent peaks; therefore, use of the maximum vector sum provides a large safety factor
that is not accounted for. This crucial point is often overlooked in regulatory matters.

PROPAGATION VELOCITY

Propagation velocity is an important factor because it is an indirect measure of rock/soil

properties that affect decay of peak particle velocities as well as wavelength. Because of
the wavelength effect, propagation velocity forms a principal component of Swedish safe
blasting practice. As discussed earlier, the propagation velocities· of compressive, shear,
and Rayleigh waves vary. An example of such a measured variation for nearly similar
sedimentary rocks is presented in Table 3-2. Propagation through rock and soil provides
an even greater propagation velocity contrast, as shown by the comparison in Table 3-3.
Rock values were modified from values for intact rocks to account for the effects of joint-
ing, which reduces propagation velocity. The range of velocities for a particular soil type
such as sand is greater for than for rock because of the great variation in stiffness caused
by density and overconsolidation ratio for sand and clay, respectively.

TABLE 3-2 Field Measurements of Propagation Velocities

for Two Sedimentary Rocks
Sandy Shale Shale
Compressive wave velocity (m/s) 2195 1829
Shear wave velocity (m/s) 1402 1189
Surface (Rayleigh) wave velocity (m/s) 762 671
Source: After Attewell and Farmer (1981).
 38 Typical Vibration Histories and Elementary Analysis Chap.3 Surf

TABLE 3-3 Estimated Propagation Velocities SURFACE \1

(Heavily Jointed-Nonjointed)

Wave Velocity (rnls) Con1

Compression Shear lead
Limestone 2000-5900 1000-3100 198~
Metamorphic rocks 2100-3500 1000-1700 from
Basalt 2300-4500 1100-2200
Granite 2400-5000 1200-2500 tanCI
Sand 500-2000 250-850 natic
Clay 400-1700 200-800 type
Dae1
ilar
3-11
Jointing and weathering of rock masses greatly affect propagation velocities.
frorr
Therefore, values for intact (nonjointed) rock should never be employed in calculations.
this
As shown in Table 3-3, the compressive (first arrival) propagation velocity varies greatly
for one rock type because of differences in jointing. Jointing changes rock stiffness,
which in turn changes the propagation velocity. Generally, with increasing depth, the
propagation velocity increases and the intensity of jointing decreases.
In soils the proper propagation velocities should be matched with the appropriate
wave type (e.g., compressive with compressive, shear with shear, etc.) to compute fre-
quency and strain. This correlation is important since the shear wave is much more sensi-
tive to changes in soil properties for propagation below the water table. This sensitivity is
a result of the inability of the shear wave to propagate through water. Thus it propagates
predominately through the soil matrix or soil structure. Below the water table the com-
pressive wave is much less influenced by the soil density or modulus, because it can
propagate through the water itself.

SPECIAL CHARACTER OF SURFACE WAVES

Unlike the body wave's unidirectional particle motions, Rayleigh surface-wave particle
motion is two-dimensional, as shown in Figure 3-2. The particles follow an elliptical path
in a vertical plane parallel to the direction of propagation while the surface wave passes
as shown in Figure 3-11. These waves are similar to those produced by dropping a stone
into a pool of water. As the water wave passes, the motion of a cork on water is described
by a forward circle, whereas in soil or rock a particle will follow a retrograde elliptical
path, with a ratio of horizontal to vertical displacements of 0.7 (Timoshenko and
Goodier, 1970). Because of this two-dimensionality, the Rayleigh surface wave can be
defined mathematically as a combination of compressive and shear waves. Surface waves
travel only on a surface, as indicated by their name. Thus their motions penetrate below
the ground surface only one to two wavelengths, as is evident from the decreasing ampli-
tude with depth in Figure 3-12.
). 3 Surface Waves and Ground Motion at Large Distances 39

SURFACE WAVES AND GROUND MOTION AT LARGE DISTANCES

Concern for controlling the duration of motion from blasting near surface coal mining has
lead to the development of a method for predicting the entire time history (Daeman et al.,
1983) from single-delay pulses. This method is based on adding Rayleigh wave pulses
from each delay in the blast. As shown by the time histories in Figure 3-18, at large dis-
tances from typical surface mine blasts the time histories are much longer than the deto-
nation time. This lengthening of the time history results from the separation of wave
types, with Rayleigh waves becoming increasingly dominant at large distances.
Daeman's technique can be useful for construction vibrations in soil, because of the sim-
ilar dominance of surface waves at relatively short distances. As shown in Figure
3-11, beyond 10m from pile driving, elliptically retrograde surface motions dominate.
Propagation velocities of different waves in the same material can be calculated
ies.
from the theory of elasticity (Timoshenko and Goodier, 1970). For instance, as shown in
IDS.
this and other chapters, the propagation velocity of the shear wave is one-half to two-
ttly
~ss,

the

ate
re- 0.2
tsi-
r is
.tes 0.4
>m-
~an Vertical
component

1.2

cle
ath 1.4
ses
me
>ed
cal ,,.,
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
md
be Amplitude at depth
Amplitude at surface
ves
ow Figure 3-12 Rayleigh wave amplitudes versus depth and v, Poisson's ratio. (From
>Ii- Richart et al., 1970, p. 89; reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.)
40 Typical Vibration Histories and Elementary Analysis Chap.3

thirds that of the compressive wave, and in tum the propagation velocity of the Rayleigh
surface wave, for the same material, is 0.9 to 0.95 that of the shear wave. Usually, the
surface waves travel even more slowly because they travel in surficial soils, which are
usually less dense than soils at depth, or in soil above rock instead of in the rock, as do
compressive and shear waves.
These considerations have led researchers (Daeman et al., 1983) to use Rayleigh
wave velocities of 244 m/s (800ft/sec) to model surface wave propagation through coal
deposits, where the compressive wave velocity was 1952 m/s (6400 ft/sec). This low
Rayleigh wave velocity was employed to model the movement of the surface wave
through the 4 to 6 m (13 to 20ft) of soil-like overburden.

PROBLEMS

3-1. Refer to the time history in Figure 3-6 to answer the following questions. Assume that the
velocity scale is such that the peak amplitude is 25 mm/s (1.0 in./sec).
(a) What is the maximum particle velocity for each component?
(b) What is the principal frequency for each component (in the high-frequency region and in
the lower-frequency region)?
(c) What is the vector sum of the maxima?
(d) What is the true vector sum, and at what time does it occur?
3-2. Calculate the maximum particle velocity and acceleration with the sinusoidal wave approxi-
mation for a transient wave with a maximum displacement of 1.27 mm (0.05 in.) and a pe-
riod, T, of 0.05 sec.
3-3. List and describe the types of ideal waves that make up transient ground motion. What are
their relative, theoretical propagation velocities, c?
3-4. For a transient motion with T = 0.08 s, a maximum acceleration of 0.05g, and a cP value of
3700 rnls (12,000 ft/sec), what are the wavelength and maximum particle velocity calculated
with the sinusoidal approximation?
3-S. Describe the phase relations (i.e., how many degrees the peaks are offset) for the three
components of the R wave at 305 m ( 1000 ft) in Figure 3-1. Which axes contain the greatest
motion?
3-6. A 10-Hz sinusoidal, plane, compressive wave produces a "max value of 0.1 mrn (0.004 in.),
and a 20-Hz plane shear wave produces a umaxvalue of 0.1 mm (0.004 in.) in soil with a con-
strained modulus of 56 MPa (8000 psi) and a density, p, of 1.76 Mg/m3 (1.76 g/cm3), or
(110 lb/ft3)(1 ft3!1728 in3)
(32.2 ft/sec2)(12 in./ft) = 0.00016 (lb-sec2)fin4 ATTE

Calculate the transient plane-wave compressive and shear stresses, respectively.

3-7. At what distance from a detonation 5 m below the surface would one expect full formation of
the surface wave (a) in soil; (b) in rock?