Modeling of Transport Phenomena

Spring 2022

Slide set 5

Newton’s Law of Viscosity describes the

basis for the diffusion of momentum

Bird, Stewart and Lightfoot- Chapter 1

Mainly sections 1.1, 1.3 and 1.7

3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 1

What is momentum
transfer in the context
of our general
transport processes?
DEFINITIONS OF THE TRANSFER PHENOMENA

3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 2

 Diffusional Transport
Processes—Mechanisms
The constitutive equations for energy, species and momentum transport assume that
variables such as the concentration of temperature, species, and velocity can be
regarded as continuous functions of position.
Momentum Heat (energy) Mass (species)
Amount of mass,
Product of mass times Amount of thermal
Definition moles or
velocity (p=m*v). energy flow
concentration
Velocity Concentration
Driving force Temperature gradient
gradient gradient
Flux Stress (Force per area) Heat flux Mass flux
Newton’s Law of Fourier’s Law of Fick’s Law of
Fundamental law
Viscosity Conduction Diffusion

3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 3

Momentum
transfer
HOW IS THE AMOUNT OF MOTION TRANSFERRED
INSIDE A FLUID?

3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 4

Momentum transfer describes
the transfer of kinetic energy
Momentum tells us how much motion an object carries, and it is transferred by collisions
and/or contact. In solids, collisions dominate, while in fluids momentum is said to be
transfer by friction, rubbing or dragging of adjacent fluid layers.
𝑝 = [𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚]
𝑝⃗ = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑣⃗ One plate is pulled one way
The rate of transfer of momentum is measured as a force. and the other not.

Solid (non-deformable) Fluid (deformable)

𝐹⃗ = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑎⃗

𝑚 ∗ 𝑣⃗
𝐹=
𝑡
In fluids we consider that momentum is transferred within
𝑑𝑝 equal-mass layers of the fluid as it deforms. This is called
𝐹=
𝑑𝑡 laminar flow assumption.
So when we balance momentum on a fluid C.V. we will use forces as rate of momentum!

3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 5

 Momentum transfer occurs in
all phases of matter
States of matter

1. Solid

2. Liquid Fluids

3. Gas Fluids

We focus on Asphalt flows

momentum
4. Plasma University of Queensland pitch
transport in
fluids.
drop long-term experiment

All states can be “flow”, but liquids and

5. Bose-Einstein condensates gases are the most relevant fluids.

3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 6

Stresses drive the
transport of
momentum in fluids
WE MUST DEFINE SHEAR STRESS AND EXPLAIN
HOW IT LEADS TO THE CREATION OF GRADIENTS
IN VELOCITY INSIDE A FLUID

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 Force is momentum flow rate,
while stress is momentum flux.
A stress is a tensor, can be
A stress is what we define as the flux of momentum. separated into its components.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴∗𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑑𝐹!
Types of stress:

1. Normal
𝑑𝐹! 𝑑𝐹
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑑𝐴
#$→& 𝑑𝐴
We will 2. Shear 𝑑𝐹"
focus on Area changes as the force deforms the fluid,
shear 𝑑𝐹"
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim so area is rigorously a vector too, but we will
stresses #$→& 𝑑𝐴 consider it constant.
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑𝐴 ∗ 𝑛
3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 8
What are the different types
of stresses?
Stresses in solids Stresses in fluids
Shear stress (dragging)

Direction of flow

Velocity profile

Fluid: A substance that deforms continuously and almost immediately after the
application of a stress (mainly in shearing mode). Shear: Deformation parallel to
the direction of deformation. Can you identify how the stresses applied on an
object can be split into multiple vectors?

3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 9

Viscous stresses may also be
utilized in solids

In a real collision, not all momentum is transferred perfectly as a change in

velocity. We sometimes engineer things to absorb energy as they deform.

3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 10

Shear rate as the
measure of the
deformation caused
by the stress
THE SHEAR RATE DESCRIBES THE RATE OF
DEFORMATION INDUCED BY THE APPLICATION OF
A STRESS

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 Shear rate as measure of the
fluid deformation during stress
Shear rate (rate of deformation) in ordered (laminar) fluid layers for the
two-plate model with a Couette type of flow induction.
y

Our C.V. is
the fluid! x

h is the thickness of the fluid

Remember that the fluid is our CV here and the liquid-solid interfaces
are the boundaries. What is happening at the boundaries here?

3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 12

We can also express the shear
rate equation as a differential
If instead of considering the velocities at the top and bottom layers, we
consider all the really thin layers of the fluid, we can rewrite the shear rate
equation in differential form.

Since the velocity changes continuously

𝜕𝑣
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = within the fluid, we know it will follow a
𝜕𝑖 continuous function.

So, we will be able to integrate

functions that contain the shear rate as
a differential.

' )'
In the two-plate model (Couette), the velocity profile is linear, so 𝛾̇ = = !
( )*
The slope is the same in all the fluid. This is not the case for Poiseuille flow.

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Newton’s Law of
Viscosity
CONNECTION BETWEEN STRESS AND SHEAR RATE:
VISCOSITY

3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 14

 Newton’s experiment with the
two-plate
𝐹 ∆𝑣 As the shear rate
=𝜇 defined in slide 12
𝐴 𝑌
If we use scalars, ∆v is the macroscopic
exact change in velocity as a function of
Transient
state thickness. If we use vectors, then it is the
delta in v as a function of position.

We want to estimate the change by using

the derivative, where the definition tells
us it can be + or -. Now, we change F/A
for 𝜏, where the direction is important
now as we consider vector differentials.
Steady-
state is 𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝐹⃑ 𝑑𝑣+
reached 𝜏 = lim = 𝜏*+ = 𝜇 −
#$→& 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑖

3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 15

Newton proposed the idea of viscosity
when looking at stress vs deformation
We will use the symbol 𝜏 stress. In this case, if we plot the shear stress versus
the shear rate, we get the following plot (for Newtonian fluids, MW<5000):

Newton’s Law of Viscosity 𝑑𝑣+ The greater the delta v is,

𝜏*+ 𝛼 the more we will stress
𝑑*
the fluid.
𝑑𝑣+
𝜏*+ = 𝜇 −
𝑑*
𝑑𝑣+
−
𝑑*

A rate process equation

Viscosity (µ): Resistance of a fluid to deform or the “momentum conductivity” of a

fluid. What is the driving force?
3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 16
 Newton’s Law Sign
Convention- It carries a - sign
If we position our coordinate system so Fluid dynamicists position their
that the higher velocity is at the lower coordinates so that the higher velocity is
axis values and we define tau as at the greater axis values, and they use
momentum flux, a negative sign is tau as a shear force by removing the
needed, Newton’s Law. Check vector dir. negative sign from Newton’s Law.
Convention for Transport Phenomena Convention from Mechanical Eng.
𝑣,-.
High to low Low to high
𝑣,*!
Depending on where
you place your origin, Tau: momentum flux Tau: magnitude of the shear force.
will give you + or –
momentum flux, but 𝑑𝑣+ 𝑑𝑣+
it always goes from 𝜏*+ = 𝜇 − 𝜏*+ = 𝜇 +
high v to low v.
𝑑* 𝑑*
In the Transport Phenomena approach, the higher the deformation rate, the
more momentum will be transferred. In both cases, viscosity is always positive.
3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 17
Shear stresses also form in
stationary pipes & conduits
When we have Poiseuille flow in a pipe or conduit the solid is stationary, but
we have a pressure drop that moves the fluid. But the fluid can’t move the
solid, so the solid will be stressing and deforming the fluid at the boundaries.
Note, that this happens in cases where the friction on the wall is not exceeded.

Laminar flow
profile inside
a pipe.

Newton’s Law will apply in cylindrical coordinates.

3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 18

Defining dynamic
viscosity from
Newton’s Law
DYNAMIC VISCOSITY IS THE PROPORTIONALITY
CONSTANT THAT DESCRIBES HOW MUCH
MOMENTUM WILL BE TRANSFERRED IN A FLUID

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Viscosity
• Viscosity is the resistance to deform/move (flow) or momentum
conductivity
𝐹 ℎ
• Units: Poise, cP, Pa-s, lbm/ft˙s 𝜇= ∗
𝐴 𝑣
• Types of viscosity
𝑑𝑣.
𝜏/. = −𝜇
• Absolute or dynamic (µ, 𝜂) 𝑑/

• Kinematic (Units: Stokes, cm2/s) 𝑑𝑣.

𝜇 = 𝜏/. −
𝑑/
𝜇
𝜈=
𝜌
Obtain the units of the stress based on the units of the deformation and the
dynamic viscosity.

3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 21

Common values and magnitudes
of viscosity for liquids
Newtonian fluids

Non-Newtonian
fluids

What is the molecular weight (MW) of each one of these

molecules?
Applications: Machine lubricants, cosmetics, food industry…

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Common values and magnitudes
of viscosity for gases

What happens to the viscosity

when temperature increases?

Gases have generally a lower

viscosity than liquids.
43/5
𝜇0 = 61.6 𝑀𝑇0 1/3 𝑉P0
3/5 41/6
𝜇0 = 7.70𝑀1/3 𝑃0 𝑇0
𝜇7 = 𝜇/𝜇0 Using charts

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Experimental
methods to calculate
the dynamic viscosity
VISCOMETERS AND RHEOMETERS

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Viscosity measurement demo-
Ceramic ball inside tube

Ball and cylinder viscometer

by Haake

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Instruments to study fluids
and their viscosity

Brookfield viscometer Dynamic Rheometer (TA Ares)

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Types of fluids
based on their
viscous behavior
THERE ARE FLUIDS THAT DO NOT BEHAVE LIKE THE
ONES NEWTON FIRST ANALYZED

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Types of fluids based on their
stress-shear rate curves
The slope 𝜇 in the stress versus deformation curve is not constant as a
function of the deformation rate in high MW and complex fluids.

𝑑𝑣+
𝜏*+ ≠ 𝜇 −
𝑑*

Not a constant 𝜇 in Non-

Newtonian fluids.
We will use Newtonian fluids in all our problems because we want the
viscosity 𝜇 to be considered constant for all deformation rates.

3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 28

Three-dimensional
description of
mechanical stress
STRESSES IN REALITY ARE TENSORS BECAUSE THEY
HAVE VECTOR COMPONENTS IN ALL 3
DIMENSIONS IN SPACE

3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 31

 Remember we define a stress
as force/area
A stress tensor can be separated
A stress is what we define as the flux of momentum. into its components.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴∗𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑑𝐹!
Types of stress:

1. Normal
𝑑𝐹! 𝑑𝐹
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim normal 𝑑𝐴
#$→& 𝑑𝐴
We will 2. Shear tangent 𝑑𝐹"
focus on Area changes as the force deforms the fluid,
shear 𝑑𝐹"
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim so area is rigorously a vector too, but we will
stresses #$→& 𝑑𝐴 consider it constant.
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑𝐴 ∗ 𝑛
3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 32
Full 3D description of stress
Remember that force is
momentum flow, so that area
is the area of momentum
y 𝑑𝐹. transfer, like for mass.
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝜏.. = lim 𝜕𝐹/
𝜕𝐹/ #$! →& 𝑑𝐴. y
𝑑𝐹/
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝜏./ = lim 𝜕𝐹.
𝜕𝐹. #$! →& 𝑑𝐴.
x
𝜕𝐹8
𝑑𝐹8 x
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝜏.8 = lim
#$! →& 𝑑𝐴. 𝜕𝐹8
z 𝑑𝐹.
𝜏8. = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim
z #$# →& 𝑑𝐴8
y
𝑑𝐹. 𝑑𝐹/
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝜏/. = lim 𝜏8/ = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim
#$"→& 𝑑𝐴/ #$# →& 𝑑𝐴8
𝜕𝐹/
𝑑𝐹/ 𝑑𝐹8
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝜏// = lim 𝜏88 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim
x #$"→& 𝑑𝐴/ #$# →& 𝑑𝐴8
𝜕𝐹.
𝑑𝐹8
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝜏/8 = lim
z #$"→& 𝑑𝐴/
𝜕𝐹8
3/10/22 BY PROF. ALAN AGUIRRE 33
 Viscous stress tensors
Viscous stress
needs a tenor.

A tensor is
bigger than a
vector.

A tensor contains
magnitude,
direction and plane.

In shear stress components of the viscous stress

tensor, the force is perpendicular to the axis
perpendicular to the plane, which means the force
is parallel to the plane.

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Introduction to tensors

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 Viscous stress tensor (matrix)
gives us the full picture
We should know that stress is represented by a 2nd order tensor (aka matrix),
where the diagonal contains the normal stress components.
Vector 𝐹⃗ = 𝐹. 𝚤⃗ +𝐹/ 𝚥⃗+𝐹8 𝑘
𝑑𝐹* Shear stress
𝜏*+ = lim
#$→& 𝑑𝐴 Deformation Vector 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣. 𝚤⃗ +𝑣/ 𝚥⃗+𝑣8 𝑘
parallel to area
of p transf.
Tensor 𝜏 = 𝜏.. 𝚤⃗𝚤⃗ +𝜏./ 𝑖𝑗+…
Viscous 𝜏.. 𝜏./ 𝜏.8
Need vectors because direction is
momentum 𝜏*+ = 𝜏/. 𝜏// 𝜏/8 Normal stress
(mechanical important now.
transfer 𝜏8. 𝜏8/ 𝜏88
compression and 𝑑𝐹* 𝑑𝑣+
tension) = 𝜏*+ = 𝜇 −
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑖
Deformation
Shear stress perpendicular to Area vector is always in the axis perpendicular
area of p transf. to the plane on which the force is acting.
For fluids, we focus on the shear stress components in the corners of the matrix. The 1st
subscript tells us direction of momentum transfer, the 2nd tells us direction of motion.
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Viscous versus
convective
momentum transfer
WE WILL FOCUS ON SOLVING PROBLEMS WHERE
VISCOUS MOMENTUM TRANSFER IS DOMINANT

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 Molecular momentum flux
composed of viscous 𝜏 & pressure

Internal
stresses
related to
internal
Not friction
mechanical
pressure

Thermodynamic pressure
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒\𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒\𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

In our problems, the thermodynamic pressure fluctuations do not contribute to the flow,
like in atmospheric simulations, because we focus on isothermal cases.

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 Momentum can be transferred by
viscous and convective mechanisms
𝜏.. 𝜏./ 𝜏.8
1. Viscous momentum transfer (flux of momentum 𝜏*+ = 𝜏/. 𝜏// 𝜏/8
inside fluid) 𝜏8. 𝜏8/ 𝜏88
• Molecular drag of resting molecules Flux of viscous
• Internal friction (viscosity) against deformation momentum transfer
Our focus • Driven by velocity gradient

1. Convective momentum transfer (e.g. car compresses or ejects) 𝜌𝑣⃗ 𝑣⃗

• Transported by the bulk flow of the system Flux of convective
• Momentum per unit volume (𝜌 ∗ 𝑣) momentum transfer
• Related to density gradients (compression of fluid)

Requires
integration
in 2D or 3D.

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 Application of momentum
transfer to industrial flow
We have found that experimental measurements for mass and volumetric flow rates
don’t match predictions for ideal flow. We can have very different velocity profiles!
Laminar

Deformation
creates velocity
Transitional
gradients, which
can be used to
obtain better
estimates of total
flow rate and Turbulent
pumping costs.
Effect of friction at
No effect of
the walls friction at
walls
Transport of momentum will give us the velocity profiles for any application so that
we can get better predictions of the real flow rates by calculating average velocities.
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Glossary of important terms
• Dynamic viscosity: phenomenological constant relating a stress to a
deformation rate.
• Kinematic viscosity: Dynamic viscosity divided by density of a fluid.
• Stress: Flux of momentum transfer given by Force/Area.
• Normal stress: A stress where the momentum propagates perpendicular to
the chosen reference plane, which is chosen given the direction of motion.
• Shear stress: A stress where the momentum propagates parallel to the
chosen reference plane, chosen depending on the direction of motion.
• Newtonian fluid: A fluid that shows a viscosity that remains constant as a
function of the deformation rate.
• Shear rate: The amount of deformation or the rate at which the deformation
is occurring.
• Viscous stress: Stresses that are associated with the deformation of a
substance.
• Thermodynamic pressure: The well-known pressure that is related to the
temperature of a substance that acquires the volume of its container.

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Conclusions
1. Dynamic viscosity is the proportionality constant that comes up when
correlating the viscous stresses to the velocity gradients.
2. Newton’s Law of Viscosity describes the diffusion of momentum.
3. Viscous stresses can be applied in Shear or Normal modes, depending on
the orientation of the force vectors relative to the area vector.
4. Stress comes in units of force/area, like pressure.
5. Fluids can be classified by their viscous behavior.

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