Conceptualising Globalisation: Issues and Implications

Author(s): Chandan Sengupta

Source: Economic and Political Weekly , Aug. 18-24, 2001, Vol. 36, No. 33 (Aug. 18-24,
2001), pp. 3137-3143
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4410994

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 Perspectives

Conceptualising
of cold war, the emergence of League of
Nations and the UN, and the emergence
of third world, and (v) the uncertainty

Globalisation
(1969-1992) phase of space exploration,
recognition of global environmental prob-
lem and global mass media, via space
technology [1992:58-59].
Issues and Implications The roots of newly emerging forces of
globalisation have been traced in specific
economic and political developments in
There is hardly any unanimity in the theoretical formulations on the late 1980s or early 1990s. These events
globalisation. While on one hand, the excessive use of the term asinclude
a the end of cold war, dismantling
of state socialism in the USSR and the
sociological concept has largely emptied it of any analytical and
collapse of the Berlin Wall - all that marked
explanatory value, most observations are based on a dominant the victory of the western liberal economic
economic framework. This paper argues that for an empirical study thoughts. "As a result" argues G Thomp-
of giobalisation to be strong, it requires to be grounded on clear son, "in the early 1990s, everyone wanted
measures of globalisation, those that are based on broader areas ofto imitate the west, adopt its institutions
and its philosophy, privatise state indus-
social implications as well as its impact on various aspects of
tries, deregulate and reduce government
human life. expenditures. In the 10 years from 1988
to 1998 almost all governments in the
CHANDAN SENGUPTA formulations of globalisation include world, regardless of ideology, downsized
several antithetical and mixed conceptstheir activities while private sector ex-
W'IThile millions of poor and illit- such as homogenisation, differentiation, panded theirs thus gradually replacing
erate Indians may not even know hybridisation, plurality, localism and rela-
governments as major economic players
what 'globalisation' is all about, tivism and also the mixed concept on the world scene" [1999:145]. All this
like
the term is now a catchword of both has created new markets (service, finan-
'-glocalisation'. The process of globalisa-
proponents and critics of the changing cial and consumer), new actors (MNCs,
tion has also been perceived as a corollary
global events. Globalisation, however, of hasadvanced moderisation, modem capi- WTOs and international NGOs, regional
not reached as high a level of philosophi- talism or imperialism. blocks and policy coordination groups such
cal sophistication in social science dis- as G-7, G- 10, G-22 and OECD), new rules
The exact periodisation of the process
course as 'postmodernity', another daz- of globalisation has also been a matterand ofnorms (individualised liberalism,
zling concept that preceded the concept democracy, human rights movements,
dispute. One opinion is that the concept
of globalisation by a few years. Yet, unlike consensus on global environment and
of globalisation dates back. to the voyage
postmodernity, globalisation seems to have peace and multilateral agreements such as
of discovery in the 15th century [Valaskakis
crossed its cognitive boundary soon 1999: and 153]. According to Imanuel Intellectual Property Rights) and new faster
its popularity spread fast enough to sur- and cheaper means of communication
Wallerstein, the capitalist economic foun-
pass postmodernity as it aroused rather dation
a of globalisation was laid as early
channels such as internet, cellular phones,
large number of deliberations not only as in 16th century [1990b: 165]. Ronaldfax, computer-aided design, etc [UNDP
among the intellectuals and professionals 1999].
Robertson traced the historical-temporal
but in the circles of media and the activists path of globalisation to the present com- Regardless of the problem of its con-
as well. plex structure of global system throughceptual construction and debates over its
What is globalisation? Is it merely a five phases: (i) the germinal (1400-1750) newness, globalisation is increasingly
buzzword or a meaningful concept of phase of dissolution of Christendom and viewed as the only explanatory tool for the
theoretical enquiry? What is new aboutemergence of nationalism in Europe; analysis of almost all the current social
globalisation? When one looks at the maze(ii) the incipient (1750-1875) phaseand of economic issues. While there are
of literature on globalisation, one findsnation state and the initial phase of inter- groups that are sharply divided over the
that the interpretative context of nationalism and universalism in Europe;banal and bounteous effects of globalisa-
globalisation has been the fast changing (iii) the take off (1875-1925) phase of tion, many are willing to recognise the
world events in the last one and half decades conceptualisation of the world as a single
strength and opportunities of globalisation
in terms of human advancement as well
pointing towards the globe as an inclusive international society, global calendar, first
single place. However, a close look at its world war, mass international migration as its threats to social disintegration and
various conceptual constructions reveals and inclusion of non-Europeans in the human insecurity [UNDP 1999]. What
follows is an attempt to bring together
that globalisation is beset with the prob- international club of nation states; (iv) the
lems of theoretical inadequacies. Current struggle for hegemony (1925-1969) phase various approaches to globalisation with

Economic and Political Weekly August 18, 2001 3137

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a view to highlight the problems of its Thompson, the economic process undersuggests that the current pace of move-
theorisation without adding any further globalisation would be activated by the ment of global capital has more to do with
conceptualisation. It is the contention of neo-liberal deregulation regime through political rather than technological changes
the paper that globalisation is presently weakening of sovereign state control over
marked by the political victory of impe-
abounding in conceptual constructions sans transnational economic transactions and rialism and demise of socialism in com-
refinement and adequate empirical inves- behaviour. munist countries of Europe and Asia and
tigation As far as the causal explanations of
"the conversion of the nationalist populist
economic globalisation are concerned, the
third world countries to the unregulated
Conceptual Constructions major arguments are organised around capital" [Petras 1999: 459].
capitalism and its various strands. Capi-The scope for the application of Marxist
Economic Perspective theory to the understanding of global
talism has a long history. In short, it was
capitalism
in the second half of 19th century, particu- has been widened by
The definition, causal explanation and Wallerstein's world system theory. Ac-
larly through the writings of Marx, that the
implications of a problem are important cording to Wallerstein, the existing inte-
theory of capitalism had its profound impact
ingredients of its conceptual construction. on social knowledge. However, from the grated world capitalist economy dates back
Globalisation has been defined in two broad period of few years prior to Marx's deathto the 16th century. Wallerstein observes,
contexts which are not very far from one to this date, the Marxist theory of capital-
The transition from feudalism to capital-
another. One is the economic context, the ism as an explanatory tool to understand
ism involves first of all (first logically and
other that of non-economic which broadly world's changing social reality, has been first temporally) the creation of a world
includes socio-cultural, historical and under constant critical scrutiny. The new economy. That is to say, a social division
political dimensions of globalisation. Such perspective of capitalism in the explana-of labour was brought into being through
a division of perspectives of globalisation tion of globalisation does not by any means the transformation of long-distance trade
into economic and cultural parts may in suggest rejection of capitalism. These from a trade in 'luxuries' to a trade in
reality appear false. Because, as we shall concerns are probably directed towards the 'essentials' or 'bulk goods', which tied
see, it is difficult to observe cultural di- realisation that capitalism has itself under- together processes that were widely dis-
mensions of globalisation totally indepen- gone many changes and globalisation is topersed into long commodity chains...Such
dent of its material aspects. The intention be explained in terms of some of the new commodity chains were already there in
of dealing with economic and social or forms of world capitalist development. the 16th century, and pre-dated anything
cultural perspectives of globalisation sepa- Thus, the economic explanation of that could meaningfully be called 'national
rately in the paper, is to serve merely the globalisation has been provided by a new economies' [Wallerstein 1990b: 165].
technical purpose of specifying the eco- dynamic of capitalism known as 'flexible The expansion of the boundaries of the
nomic and cultural aspects as is generally accumulation' which, according to the capitalist world economy is one of the
done in the existing literature on interpreters of this process, has consider- adjustments made to the cyclical fluctua-
globalisation. ably altered the structure of global finan- tions of capitalism. It has ultimately re-
Although the economic argument be- cial system and, with the development of sulted in the shift of capitalist world
hind globalisation appears more stronger computerisation and communic ition, the economy from its primary location in
and widespread than other arguments, there significance of"instantaneous international Europe to the entire globe [Wallerstein
is more than one economic interpretation. coordination of financial flows increased 1990a: 36]. Wallerstein's world system
The European Commission defined and intensified the reduction of spatial theory refers to the division of the world
globalisation "as the process by whichbarriers" [Harvey 1989:161]. into three economic categories of core,
markets and productions in different coun- Yet, many have argued that scant atten-semi-periphery and periphery. While the
tries are becoming increasingly inter-tion has been paid to Marx's originalcore of north-west Europe was clearly
dependent due to the dynamics of trade in
thinking, particularly to those observationsestablished around 1,600, the subsequent
goods and services and flows of capital which are still relevant to a causal expla- development was predicated on the trade
and technology" [quoted in Thompsonnation of globalisation. It has been ob- cycles, long means of growth and retrench-
1999: 139]. This, according to Thompson,served that, while the new-phases of glo-ment in the world economy. It is not possible
is not an appropriate definition of eco-bal capital expansion and accommodationfor a peripheral state to rise up to the level
nomic globalisation. The nature of thehave universalised and deepened on geo-of semi-periphery on its own as it has to
internationalised world economy wouldgraphical and individual levels, the essen- be ultimately shaped by the world eco-
be of a 'continued nationally embedded tial elements were present from the very nomic system. that has actually made the
beginning. In 1848, in The Communist division into these categories.
capital'. Here the principal private actors
are the multinational corporations having Manifesto Marx and Engles wrote, 'The A general criticism against Wallerstein's
a clear national base and working under need of a constantly expanding market for economic model of globalisation is that his
the control of the 'home country' authori-
its product chases the bourgeoisie over thetheory relies heavily on the economic forces
ties. In contrast, the globalised world whole surface of the globe. It must nestand the world system of capitalist economy
economy represents "a new structure of everywhere, settle everywhere, establish does not necessarily suggest global unifi-
disembedded economic relationships" connections everywhere" [quoted in Hershcation. As Waters argues, "Several world-
independent of national economies. Here and Brun 2000:106]. Another Marxist systems can coexist on the planet. The
the main private actors are transnationalposition sees imperialism as instrumental world-system argument can only truly be
corporations that are disembedded from to the present state of globalisation. Morea theory of globalisation if it can give an
any national territory (p 140). Followingimportantly, however, this perspective account both of the incorporation of all

3138 Economic and Political Weekly August 18, 2001

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states into a capitalist world-system and economy. "A global economy", for talist movements as a part of assertion of
of the integration of politics and cultures local culture [pp 4-5]. The observations
Castells, "is an economy with the capacity
by virtue of that expansion" [Waters made in the context of global cities in
to work as a unit in real time on a planetary
1995:25-26]. scale" (p 92). This global economy is also Europe and America revealed that inequali-
While accepting Wallerstein's position capitalist in nature short of, however, a and associated problems of violence
ties
on the capitalist structure of global capitalist class structure. Here Castells in cities have worsened under economic
economy, Sklair has gone further and differs from Sklair's identification of theglobalisation [Body-Gendrot 2000: 26].
explains globalisation by the globalising political agent of transactional practices, Globalisation has also led to
tendency of the 'transnational practices' the capitalist class. According to Castells,overexploitation of children of
manifested through their economic, politi- "there is not, sociologically and economi- world, social polarisation and
cal and cultural domains. According to cally, such a thing as a global capitalist all over, leading to what is called
Sklair, environmental processes can be class. But there is an integrated, global holes of informational capitalism
analysed not by interstate relations but by capital network, whose movements and 1998:149-165]. However, regar
transnational practices. Sklair defines variable logic ultimately determine econo- impact of globalisation on wome
transnational practices as those "that cross mies and influences societies" (p 474). in south-east Asia it has been observed that
state boundaries but do not necessarily The global capital is structured around thea impacts of globalisation are far more
originate at the level of the state" [1994: network of financial flows. The various complex than generally assumed. It was
206]. The transnational corporation, the networks within the global economy, found that feminisation of work and
transnational capitalist class and the cul- constitute the new morphology of theflexiblisation process caused by
ture-ideology of consumerism that together present societies that manifests itself in globalisation have contributed to women' s
constitute the 'transnational practices', are what Castells calls the 'network society'.emancipation and empowerment even as
the dominant institutions found in the The information technology paradigmthese processes have led to destitution and
economic, political and cultural domains provides the material basis of this societyclass polarisation between the native elite
respectively as the driving forces (p of469). women and domestics [Cheng 1999]. In
globalisation [Sklair 1991:38-42]. Al- Given that the debates about the defi- a study of the impact of globalisation on
though Sklair recognised the space for nitions and causal explanations of the housing market in Mumbai it was
national state as the 'spatial reference' globalisation remain inconclusive, it is hard observed that the relative importance of
point of interactions among the to find unanimity in the observations made global forces (NRIs) should be understood
transnational practices, the global capital-on the implications of globalisation. The in the context of wider local factors that
UNDP' s recent report on globalisation may also have strong influence on the real estate
ist system is the most influential force to
dictate and dominate these practicesbe quoted here to sum up the structural market in Mumbai [Nijman 2000]. In
[1994:206]. The 'global capitalist class', duality of the globalisation process: contrast, with respect to globalisation in
according to Sklair, is likely to operate Globalisation expands the opportunities Indian and third world contexts it has been
from a nation state of hegemonic type. for unprecedented human advance for some pointed out that globalisation as a policy
Sklair identifies US as the only hegemonic but shrinks those opportunities for others expression of neoliberal regime has failed
state in the 20th century to dominate the and erodes human security. It is integrating to improve macroeconomic management
transnational practices in all the spheres economy, culture and governance but frag- and capacity in the region [Bagchi 1999].
-economic, political and cultural [ 1991:7]. menting societies. Driven by commercial It has also been observed that globalisation
At the dawn of 21 st century the changing market forces, globalisation in this era driven by liberal economic policy in India,
nature of capitalism found another path to seeks to promote economic efficiency, has actually increased rural indebtedness,
cause globalisation: the information tech- generate growth and yield profits. But it landlessness, food insecurity, child labour,
nology revolution. In his multi-volume misses out on the goals of equity, poverty casualisation of work, wage gaps between
eradication and enhanced human security skilled and unskilled labour, and the in-
work on information age, Manual Castells
[UNDP 1999: 43-44].
has examined the dynamics of this new cidence of social pathologies such as
world of technological revolution. At its More specifically, the UNDP report violence and intimidation even as global
core, the information age is the age of newstates,"Gaps in income between the poor- culture has brought in its wake some
technologies of information, processingest and richest people and countries have changes in the lifestyles of the non-poor
and communication: "Information tech- continued to widen. In 1960 the 20 per cent [Shurmer-Smith 2000: 2; Acharya and
nology is to this revolution what newof the world's people in the richest coun- Marjit 2000: 3503-3510]. It has also been
sources of energy were to the successive tries had 30 times the income of the poorest argued that the overall impact of
industrial revolution..." [1996: 31]. "The20 per cent - in 1997, 74 times, as much" globalisation has been a global crisis of
technological innovations have been es-(p 36). Furthermore, the new rules of which India and many other Asian and
sentially market-driven (p 60). The eco- globalisation -privatisation, liberalisation Eastern European countries have been
nomic process that accompanied the infor- and intellectual property rights are shaping made victims [Chossudovsky 1999: 15].
mational technology revolution is boththe path of technology, creating new risks
informational and global because, under of marginalisation and vulnerability. Some Socio-cultural Perspective
new historical conditions, productivity isof the other negative impacts of
generated through and competition isglobalisation include global crime in terms The non-economic in general, and the
played out in a global network of inter- of illegal trafficking in weapon, cross- socio-cultural domain of globalisation in
action" (p 66). Castells' global economyborder terrorism, spread of HIV/AIDS, particular, appears more complex than its
is different from Wallerstein's world environmental degradation and fundamen- economic counterpart. Social analysis of

Economic and Political Weekly August 18, 2001 3139

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globalisation is obviously a complex ex- concept of 'global village'. The concept ofthe process of modernisation itself
ercise in that it includes all aspects of 'global village' draws parallel with the [1992:21]. Beck agrees with Giddens that
human life of which economy is only a tribal society based on interdependence.globalisation is the product of
part, regardless of how important or fun- Here the global consciousness of one world modernisation, but emphasises that it is the
damental this part maybe. This also makes matches the awareness of interdependence reflexive global reactions to risk under
the social aspects of globalisation less in a tribal society. McLuhan however modernisation that expands the process of
tangible and precise than its economic suggests that the structure of global space globalisation. However, Beck differs from
aspects in which the assessable units such Giddens on the latter's view on the expert
differs from that of a tribal setting in that
as money and goods are by nature largely in a global community the instant andsystem as one of the mechanisms of the
quantitative and more precise. Neverthe- continuous nature of shared concerns resultdisembedding of modem social system.
less, sociologists were among the few of from the implosive character of 'electricAs Lash points out, Giddens' reflexive
the social scientists who could first come circuitry' that has led to the compressionmodernity places trust in the expert sys-
out with a more precise definition of of time and space [1964: 93]. tem, while for Beck reflexivity in moder-
globalisation. While a number of social While the logic of economic globalisationnity entails freedom and critique of expert
theorists examined the social content of systems [quoted in Delanty 1997: 122]
follows the logic of capitalism, the main
globalisation, three sociologists, namely, lines of sociological explanations of One major issue often raised in both oral
Giddens, Robertson and Waters pioneered globalisation are drawn from the perspec-and written discourse on globalisation is
a specifically sociological definition of the tive of modernity and its various aspectsabout the influence of global culture.
concept notably at the time of its infancy. such as reflexivity, risks and culture. AsWithout showing adequate evidence as to
Giddens looked at globalisation as a con- we have seen earlier, Giddens defined how much it matters to the largest seg-
sequence of the distinct sociological theme ments of a country's population, global
globalisation as a dependent variable of
of modernity. Giddens has argued that the modernity. The time-space distanciationculture is often described in terms of
organisational clusters in terms of world process in Giddens' theory.of modernityprocesses such as 'westernisation',
capitalism, industrialisation and modern results in the disembedding of social sys-'Mcdonalisation' or 'Cocacolonisation'.
nation states universalise the global net- tem, "the 'lifting out' of social relationsThe intellectual discourse on global cul-
work and also produce 'time-space distan- from local contexts of interaction and theirture and globalisation is, however,
ciation' that makes local-global interface restructuring across indefinite span of time- organised around the westernisation para-
a complex problem. As Giddens says: space". This disembedding process isdigm. However, the positions taken on this
Globalisation can then be defined as the operated through two distinct types ofissue are also not free from ambiguities.
intensification of worldwide social rela- mechanisms of what Giddens calls, the At the conceptual level, Oommen has
tions which link distant localities in such symbolic tokens or the token of money as questioned the very concept of globalisation
a way that local happenings are shaped bythe medium of interchange and second, the and doubted its universal strength. To
events many miles away and vice versa.mechanism of expert systems as the system Oommen, the concept of globalisation
This is a dialectical process because suchof professional expertise. Money as a value represents one voice, the voice of the west
happenings may move in an obverse di-and the knowledge of the experts travel and thereby becomes the 'camouflage' of
rection from the very distanciated relationsbeyond local contexts and new forms of the term, 'westernisation'. Oommen sug-
that shape them. Local transformation issocial relationships emerge across time gests that the concept of globalisation needs
as much a part of globalisation as the lateraland
space. Much of this relationship is reconstruction looking into the realities of
extension of social connections across time
impersonal and both the disembedding the non-western regions [2000: 167-168].
and space [1990: 64]. mechanisms are dependent on trust. But At another level however, at the level of
Robertson emphasises the objectivein modern society trust is not blind but is the concept as given, Oommen, like many
process of the compression of the world accompanied by the general awareness of others, has expressed concerns about the
as well as the subjective element of con- both natural, man-made institutional con- market-driven logic of globalisation re-
sciousness of people about the world as tingencies. Apart from trust, modernity sulting in inequality and injustice and has
a single place: "Globalisation as a conceptalso involves risk and a 'reflexive moni- called for a new global ethic based on
refers both to the compression of world toring of action'. Thus, in all this, "Giddens'equality and justice [Oommen 1999]. It
and the intensification of consciousness of theme is the reflexive self-identity of could well be that Oommen's conceptual
the world as a whole" [1992:8]. Robertsonmodernity which occurs through the critique of globalisation is essentially based
points out that the term (globalisation)'double hermeneutic' in which the first on his critique of the empirical reality of
"has itself become part of 'global con-medium of interpretation (that of the social the globalisation process itself. One would,
sciousness', an aspect of the remarkable actor) is reinterpreted by'expert systems" however, need further clarity on this point.
proliferation of terms centred upon 'glo-[Delanty 1997: 122-23]. Coming to the issue of global-western
bal' (p 8). In a similar vein Waters defines The issue of risk has been extended equation, many have argued that the pro-
globalisation as "a social process in whichfurther by Ulrich Beck with such impor- cess of globalisation need not be seen as
the constraints of geography on social and tance that he finds that certain global a proxy for westernisation. The non-west-
cultural arrangements recede and in which processes of modernisation such asern theperspective of globalisation has been
people become increasingly aware that theyeffects of global environmental degrada- explained within the framework of a cri-
are receding" [1995: 3]. tion and nuclear war that have giventique rise of the homogenising influence of
A much earlier interpretation of theto a 'risk society'. Beck's concept of global risk culture. Regarding one-world west-
process of globalisation with sociological refers to the way modern society has dealt ern character of globalisation process, there
significance is found in McLuhan's with hazards and insecurities created arebydivergent views as to whether west can

3140 Economic and Political Weekly August 18, 2001

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be considered as one entity. The roots of illusory" (Sen 1996: 20). What is then new spectacles make the relationships free from
a critical appreciation of the oneness of about global culture per se? What is its spatial constraints as symbols are gene-
global culture can be found in the attempts foundation? Castells had proposed a model rated across time and space. These ex-
to link globalisation with postmodernity. of the new global culture based on "the changes tend to become universally sig-
The postmodern perspective of global network enterprise". But Castells also does nificant as they appeal to the human fun-
culture is not only about the fragmented not endorse the view that there is unity in damentals of values, preferences and tastes
global culture, but also about the global culture of such a network. The [pp 8-9]. The process of globalisation is
'relativisation' and 'pluralisation' ofnetworkthe society that develops out of the characterised by relationships that are
western culture. Citing numerous cases renewed
of capitalist competition, does not mediated through symbols of values, pref-
identity formations and 'counter have a uniform culture because of the erences and tastes, and not through eco-
ethnicities', Nash observes, "western cul- multi-dimensional nature of the network nomic materials and political power ex-
ture has been relativised by globalisation. system itself. The cultural foundation ofchanges. The : tin components of Waters'
The values once seen as unproblematically a network enterprise does not conformtheory of cultural globalisation include
universal, valid for everyone, at all timesto one common pattern of norms and val-increasing demate lalisation of commodi-
and in all places, are now in retreat. It is ues. The 'spirit of informationalism' de-ties (as evident probably from the spurt in
acknowledged that they were developed inmands a multiplicity of actors with theirfinancial services), consumer sovereignty,
particular ways, by particular groups ofmultiple functions and experiences: "It isminiaturised, personalised (personal com-
people, with particular historical and so-a multifaceted, virtual culture, as in the puter, laptop or palm top), integrated and
cial experiences" [2000: 71-72; 87]. visual experience created by computers indiffused technological advancement and,
At a more specific level, what has cyber space by rearranging reality" [1996:mass world tourism. Like Castells, Waters
emerged as an antidote to globalisation is 197-98]. however, does not see any specific pattern
the concept of 'glocalisation' which means The debates over cultural globalisation emerging out of cultural globalisation.
"a global outlook tailored to local condi-have not ended with the issue being dis- There is no law of cultural globalisation,
tions" [Nash 200:85], suggesting thatcussed about the cultural direction of global no 'meta narratives'. In this position Waters
globalisation is accommodative in matterschange. The most crucial issue relates to presents a postmodernist perspective of
of local cultures. The term is derived from the debate about the autonomy of 'culture' cultural globalisation. "A globalised
original Japanese term, 'dochakuka' mean-in the explanation of globalisation. The culture is chaotic rather than orderly - it
ing global localisation which the Japanesecentral argument of those who put stress is integrated and connected so that the
used in their marketing strategy " as Japan on culture more than anything else, is that meanings of its components are
became more concerned with and success- globalisation is primarily a cultural phe- "relativised" to one another but it is not
ful in the global economy" [Robertson nomenon. Waters appears more candid in unified or centralised" [pp 125-26].
1992:173]. While very little is known about holding such a view. For Waters, The cultural construction ofglobalisation
the social impact of globalisation in India, globalisation is almost akin to culturisation thus appears theoretically problematic in
some general observations suggest that of social life. It is the realm of culture that generalisations about cultural
globalisation has not been able to adversely rather than economics or politics thatglobalisation
is are going to be burdened
affect Indian customs, traditions and cul- potentially more powerful to define the with too many counter factual variables
tural values. As for instance, it has been modes of globalisation. This position iswhich
in often become harder to standardise
observed that the so-called McDonalisation sharp contrast or a radical alternative, than
as economic and technological factors
through wide food chain is yet to match Waters himself claims, to Wallerstein's [Holton 2000: 1400]. Moreover, the cul-
in competence with large Udipi chain influential thesis of world system of capi- ture-economy equation is complex. A study
selling dossa-idly, though McDonalds here talism. The theorem proposed by Waters on the impact of cultural globalisation in
use lamb and not beef in their hamburgers; is: "material exchanges localise; politicalterms of the flow of people in the form
also more tandoori chicken is served in the exchanges internationalise; and symbolic of mass tourism on the city of Amsterdam
restaurants in Britain and US than Ken- exchanges globalise"[1995:9]. Because
shows that, while mass tourism has created
tucky fries in India. There are many other globalisation is about the relationshipan artificial identity of the city, it is the
areas of Indian culture that are still un- between social arrangements and space, increasing commercialisastion of tourism
affected by the so-called global culture each of these types of exchanges is related
that has been "the driving force behind the
[Aiyar 1999]. to space in a distinct way. Thus, material
transformation of the city centre into a sex-
Plurality, relativity and localisation are exchanges of trade, tenancy, production and-drugs
of theme park" as its new identity
old features of cultural diversity of many goods and services and wage labour are[Nijman 1999: 155-61].
nations. Citing examples of mixture of bound by local space with face-to-face
traditions and the role of mixed heritage The Knowledge Aspect
interaction; political exchanges of secu-
in matters of food habits and intellectual rity, control, surveillance, authority, legiti-
development in the world, Amartya Sen macy and sovereignty occur within the A critical implication of globalisation of
observes, "Given the cultural and intellec- territorial boundaries of the nation states culture is globalisation of knowledge.
tual interconnections, the question what is and societies and the exchanges betweenWhile it is not exactly known how many
'western' and what is 'eastern' (or 'In- them are called "international relations"; branches of knowledge have come to terms
dian') is often hard to decide, and the issue symbolic exchanges through oral andwith globalisation, sociologists have ad-
can be discussed only in more dialectical written communications, rituals, display,dressed the issues involved in the develop-
terms. The diagnosis of a thought 'purely advertisements, demonstration, data docu-ment of sociology as a global discipline
western' or 'purely Indian' can be very mentation and transfer, exhibition and in early 1990s. Participating in the debate,

Economic and Political Weekly August 18, 2001 3141

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Martin Albrow, the founding editor of not consider his scheme of global socio-
of globalisation and its diversely obser
International Sociology, pleaded for a consequences. Despite its theoretical f
logy as the ultimate phase that the world
global sociology. Albrow argues that community of sociologists can foresee,gility,
his however, the concept of globalisat
sociology has developed through five stages seems to have been overplayed so mu
view of globalisation appears a bit ency-
in sequence as ideas developed in a dia- clopedic and may have to deal with the that it has already paved the way for a n
lectical process and in response to the discourse on "postglobalisation" [Wate
question as to how globalisation of knowl-
changing social conditions of the world. edge fits into the asymmetric process 1995:163].
of Although there is hardly a
A brief description of each of these stages globalisation itself. While addressing unanimity
the among authors about the co
is as follows: relationship between globalisation and ceptual
the construction of globalisation in
Universalism: In this classical phase,critical knowledge, Appadurai points direction
out of a scientific discourse,
sociology was to provide, on the basis ofthat under globalisation the objectsglobalisation
in has acquired a central place
verified laws, at any time and place, motion
a such as persons images and dis- in political and social discourse. As
science of human values. This phase was Marshall has observed, "the excessive use
courses, are relations of 'disjuncture' rather
than convergence. "Globalisation as of
marked by the influence of natural science an this term (globalisation) as a sociologi-
on sociology and was the phase of socio- uneven economic process creates a frag- cal buzzword had largely emptied it of
logy of Comte, Spencer and Lester Ward. mented distribution of those resources for analytical and explanatory value" [1998:
National sociologies: In this stage,learning, teaching and cultural criticism 259]. It is also observed that most formu-
sociology emerged as a professional dis- which are more vital for the formation of lations of globalisation are full of
democratic research communities which
cipline within the boundaries of the nation eschatological narratives and the problem
states mainly in the US and Europe, but could produce global view ofglobalisation"
calls for more empirically strong criticism
also in Japan. Here sociology was essen- [Appadurai 1999: 229]. of geopolitics and political economy (Lloyd
tially concerned with national culture 2000: 258-73). Moreover, although very
though universal values were not totally Conclusion little is empirically known about social
rejected. Weber and Durkheim belonged implications of globalisation, the economic
to this stage. The overview of the debates on logic and cultural interpretations of
Internationalism: This was the stage of globalisation presented in the paper points represent dichotomous modes
globalisation
cultural and political internationalism that to the problems of theoretical formulation
of understanding of the problem.1 Never-
developed in response to the disruption of
national sociologies and the calamities of
world wars. Two types of internationalism SAMEEKSHA TRUST BOOKS
set this stage: one was characterised by the
spread of western rationality all over the Selections of articles from Economic and Political Weekly
world through America's overarching
modernisation framework developed by
Talcott Persons. The other type was the
Ideals, Images and Real Lives
historical Marxist internationalism based
Women in Literature and History
on the proletarian movement. It was
against this backdrop that the International Edited by Alice Thorner and Maithreyi Krishnaraj
Sociological Association was founded
in 1949. 'Birds in a Cage': Changes in Bengali Social Life as Recorded in Autobiographies
Indigenisation: Beginning in 1970s in by Women Sarabashi Ghosh *: In Search of the 'Pure Heathen': Missionary Women
the third world and later extended to in Nineteenth Century India Geraldine H Forbes *. Sarojini Naidu: Romanticism
Canada, this was the stage of protest against
and Resistance Meena Alexander : Women, Emancipation and Equality: Pandita
sociology being seen through western eyes.Ramabai's Contribution to Women's Cause Meera Kosambi *. Outside the Norms:
This stage has also seen the reanimation Women Ascetics in Hindu Society Catherine Clementin-Ojha *: Nationalist Iconography:
of national sociologies within US and the Image of Women in 19th Century Bengali Literature Tanika Sarkar : Positivism
Europe. and Nationalism: Womanhood and Crisis in Nationalist Fiction - Bankimchandra's
Globalisation: This phase refers to "all Anandmath Jasodhara Bagchi *> Govardhanram's Women Sonal Shukla + How Equal?
those processes by which the peoples of Women in Premchand's Writings Geetanjali Pandey * Representing Devadasis: Dasigal
the world are incorporated into a single Mosavalai' as a Radical Text S Anandhi . The Virangana in North Indian History:
society, a global society" [Albrow, 1990: Myth and Popular Culture Kathryn Hansen : Construction and Reconstruction of
6] Here the sociologist of a particular nation Woman in Gandhi Sujata Patel : Feminine Identity and National Ethos in Indian
can freely work anywhere with any other Calendar Art Patricia Uberoi.
individuals in the world, apprises the global
processes and works on them. This envi- pp xiv + 354 Rs 350
ronment is best realised through the re-
search committees of the International Available from
Sociological Association. ORIENT LONGMAN LIMITED
According to Albrow, globalisation ofCalcutta Chennai Mumbai New Delhi Bangalore Bhubaneshw
sociology represents a new social realityEmakulam Guwahati Hyderabad Jaipur Lucknow Patna
the global society. Although Albrow does

3142 Economic and Political Weekly August 18, 2001

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theless, in most observations, based on the Holton, Robert (2000): 'Globalisation's Cultural
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to the imperialism paradigm, may serve as
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