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A QUICK GUIDE TO WELL LOGGING METHODS

ABI, OBI - Acoustic Borehole Imager, Optical Borehole Imager

Borehole imaging methods facilitate the oriented measurement of geological discontinuity planes in
boreholes. To calculate true dip and strike of planes additional information about borehole deviation
and caliper is needed. Borehole imaging tools provide an unrolled, oriented scan of the borehole
wall from which the sinusoidal traces of geological planes are manually picked. From the raw data
3D images of the borehole wall, tadpole- and polar-diagrams and frequency-plots of the planes can
be calculated. The datasets can be exported in ASCII format.
A plane intersecting the borehole gives an ellipse along the borehole wall. The angle between the
horizontal projection of the ellipses’ main axis and North determines the dip direction of the plane.
The vertical distance between the highest and lowest point of the axis together with the borehole
diameter define the dip angle of the plane.

Principle of oriented measurement of Acoustic Borehole Imager (left)

geological discontinuity planes Optical Borehole Imager (right)

The central part of the OBI tool is a fixed axial camera- and mirror-system which records a
sequence of horizontal rings of the borehole wall through a 360° optical window when going down
the hole. Lighting is achieved by white LEDs. The OBI gives an image of the borehole wall in true
colours and requires good visibility (air or clear water).
The heart of the ABI is an ultrasonic transmitter-receiver head that rotates with 10 rounds per
second and transmits a signal of approx. 1MHz. The tool records both amplitude and travel time of
the reflected signal. Changes in the amplitude represent differences in Acoustic Impedance of the
different formations and/or rock qualities (massive to highly fractured). The travel time shows
differences depending on signal velocity and borehole diameter. Going down the hole, the borehole
wall is scanned in a spiral which again is put together to an unrolled and oriented image by the
measuring software. The ABI tool only works in fluid filled boreholes but as it does not require any
visibility, it can also be operated in drilling mud. If the fluid velocity is known - or sperately
measured - a 360°-image of borehole caliper with high resolution and precision can be processed
and used for further stress field analysis.

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A QUICK GUIDE TO WELL LOGGING METHODS

CAL3, CAL4, CAL-ABI - Borehole Caliper

The borehole diameter can be measured by conventional mechanical tools or by acoustic caliper
tools. Most mechanical caliper instruments have 3 or 4 spring-loaded arms that read the shape of
the borehole wall when going uphole.
3-Arm-Caliper tools provide an average curve of the borehole diameter, in case of inclined
boreholes the 4-Arm-Caliper gives better results because all four arms are moving independent of
each other.
In case of a water filled borehole a 360° unrolled acoustic caliper can be calculated from the travel
time of the ÆAcoustic Borehole Imager.

4-Arm-Caliper Log 3D-caliper calculated from ÆABI

CBL - Cement Bond Log

Cement Bond logging is based on the same principle as ÆFull Wave Sonic tools. The processed
CBL-log gives an evaluation of the cement quality in the annular space between the (metal) casing
and the borehole wall.
The instrument has an acoustic transmitter that sends out a 15-20 kHz signal that travels along the
the casing, the cement and the formation and produces elementary waves back to the instrument at
each point. The incoming wavetrain is recorded at min. 2 receivers. In difference to the FWSON
where travel time of different types of waves is measured, the central parameter for CBL-
processing is the amplitude of the p-wave. If the casing is well attached to the borehole wall by
cementation, the incoming signal is weak and unsteady, strong and steady signals are typical for
free standing casing with no cementation (“ringing casing”). Between these two extremes a scale
can be defined for cementation quality (Bond Index).

Principle of CBL-measurement.
Left: good bond of casing to formation.
Right: No cement in annular space
[Courtesy of Atlas Wireline Services]

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A QUICK GUIDE TO WELL LOGGING METHODS

CLS - Cavity Laser Scanner, CSS - Cavity Sonar Scanner

Both scanning tools have rotating/tilting scanheads for 3D-survey of subsurface cavities. The laser
tool can be deployed in air filled cavities, the sonar sonde is for water- or brine-filled cavities.
The tool is run through a vertical or inclined borehole to the desired depth into the cavity where the
scan is started. The scanhead rotates/tilts automatically in steps of e.g. 1° and records a 3D-point
cloud of the cavity borders. Operation depth is 150 m (CLS) resp. 2500 m (CSS). Lateral survey
range is max. 150 m (CLS) or 200 m (CSS). Tool diameter is 50 mm (CLS) resp. 75 mm (CSS).
Both instruments are fully equipped with orientation sensors, the CLS additionally has a TV-camera
at the lower tip of the tool for rough optical orientation in the cavity.
The resulting point cloud is reduced during processing and can be displayed as slices, 3D-view or
animated video; x-, y-, z-data can be exported for further processing.

Cavity Laser Scanner in operation (schematic drawing).

DEV - Borehole Deviation Log

Deviation tools record direction and inclination of the borehole in different ways. The most
commonly applied instruments have 3-axial magnetic sensors for direction in combination with 3-
axial accelerometers for inclination. In magnetically disturbed environment (metal casing,
ferromagnetic minerals) direction can be measured by a gyro-compass or on an optical basis
(MAXIBOR).
Measurements with magnetic sensors have to be corrected for magnetic declination (i.e. difference
between Magnetic and Geographic North).

Borehole deviation of 3 boreholes, plan view. Borehole deviation of 3 boreholes, vertical

section.

DFS - Darkfield Sonde

The Darkfield Sonde is an optical device for the measurement of very slow horizontal groundwater
flows (<10m/day) in a single borehole. The darkfield technique visualizes small particles and

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A QUICK GUIDE TO WELL LOGGING METHODS

inhomogeneities in fluids which are invisible to the eye. Digital video technique records the
horizontal tracks of the moving particles, a statistical algorithm calculates flow direction. The
method does not require any tracer to be injected into the borehole.

Darkfiled Sonde for measurement of small

horizontal flows.

FTEMP - Fluid Temperature

In undisturbed formations without groundwater flow the temperature-depth relation follows the
regional geothermal gradient. Within an aquifer this vertical gradient is broken because of the
thermal transport capacity of groundwater, there is smaller, zero or negative gradient. Thus in open
boreholes with sufficient standby time (>12 hours) such breaks in the temperature curve give an
indicate for aquifers.
If existing water wells with their screen section(s) intersect aquifers with different pressure-heads,
the shortcut caused by the well will result in vertical flow between the screens. This again will show
a break of the thermal gradient. The FTEMP-Log is sensitive to very small flows that cannot be
read by ÆImpeller Flowmeters.
A special application of the FTEMP-Log is the vertical localisation of the cement head after casing
cementation. Cement produces heat while curing and so the top of the cement column behind the
pipe can be read by the FTEMP-Log if the logging is done 24 to 36 hours after cementation.

FCON - Fluid Conductivity, OXI - Oxygen Content, pH-Value

Qualitative water parameters give indications about borehole hydraulics and hydrogeology (ground
water quality, isolated aquifers, in- and outflow zones, vertical flow in the borehole).
In contrast to pumped water samples, which represent a water mixture from different depths, these
parameters show depth related profiles of changing water quality. Often these curves are used to
determine depths for water sampling.
In pumped wells discontinuities in these logs may indicate in- and outflows and small water
movements which cannot be read by ÆImpeller Flowmeters

Sensor part of multi-parameter tool (temperature, conductivity, pH-

value, oxygen content, redox).

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FLOW - Impeller Flowmeter

The Flowmeter tool has an impeller with a vertical axis of rotation which turns if the tool is moved
relatively to the water coulumn in the borehole. This is caused by vertical water flow or/and
movement of the tool itself. Flowmeters are usually run in unpumped and pumped mode, logs are
always recorded in both directions, down- and uphole.
If in the unpumped mode (FLOW) there is no vertical flow, the down- and the up-curve are
identical. In presence of vertical flow (shortcut between two aquifer sections), the two curves will
drift apart. Which curve is higher gives an indication if there is downflow or upflow, after calibration
the absolute value of vertical flow can be calculated.

Flowmeter without
pump

In the pumped mode (FLOW-Q) there is an underwater pump placed at the upper end of the water
column and downhole measurements are done at one or more production rates. At the upper end
of the water column a quantity of water according to 100% of the pumping rate plus rotation caused
by tool movement drives the impeller. When the sonde continuously goes down the borehole, it
passes inflow zones which results in a decrease of impeller rotation. Below the deepest inflow zone
the component of vertical flow is 0%, the impeller rotation is only caused by tool motion. In
dependence of the allocation of inflows this decreasing curve maybe continuous or stepwise, the
curve has slopes when there are inflows and it shows plateaus where no inflow is happening. After
calibration the inflow curve shows absolute quantities of inflow related to depth sections.

Flowmeter with pump

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To avoid the loss of measured length because of the underwater pump at the upper meters of the
water column, flowmeters can also be run when infiltrating water into the well; in this case
measurements with the sonde tripping uphole are executed.
A special Flowmeter application is the Flowmeter with Skirt (SFLOW). Encrustations usually
begin to grow in the annular space of a well and then extend through the screen-openings into the
casing. Borehole cameras can only see the inner part of these crusts. The SFLOW gives an
evaluation of the permeability of the screen + annular space under unpumped conditions. The
space between the flowmeter cage and the inner borehole wall is narrowed by a horizontal rubber
skirt attached to the tool, only a gap of a few millimeters is left open. If the tool is now vertically
moved in solid casing at a constant speed this assembly forces nearly 100% of the water to flow
through the instrument which results in high impeller rotation. If the tool passes a permeable screen
section, a part of the water can deviate into the annular space, the rotation of the impeller
decreases. The amount of this decrease represents the permeability of the screen + annular space.
Because this effect is dependent on flowmeter speed, diameter of skirt, diameter of pipe and kind of
screen openings, it differs between wells of different type. Within one well the curve in the solid
casing section serves as an absolute reference.

Flowmeter with Skirt -

SFLOW

FWSON – Full Wave Sonic Log

The sonic tool has a transmitter that sends out a signal of 15-20 kHz and generates a
compressional (p-) wave in the borehole fluid. The p-wave radiates away from the transmitter in all
directions and strikes the borehole wall. Some of the energy will propagate still as p-wave, some of
it is converted into a shear- (s-) wave along the borehole wall. These waves generate elementary
waves in each position radiating back at the critical angle of refraction and hit the receivers
(commonly between 2 and 4) located on the tool at defined distances. Simple sonic tools read only
the first breaks of the incoming p-waves, full wave tools record the whole wavetrains over a defined
period of time.
From the differences in traveltime at the receivers and the tool geometry p- and s-wave velocities of
the rock can be calculated. If the matrix velocity of the rock and the velocity of the pore fluid are
known, porosity can be calculated after the following equation, correction for shale content and
compaction can be applied:

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Δt Log − Δt Matrix
Φ=
Δt Fluid − Δt Matrix
Δt … Sonic Transit Time (slowness)[µs/m]
Φ… Porosity [1]
From p- and s-wave velocity together with formation density (ÆGGD Log) dynamic mechanical
properties of the rock can be calculated using the following formulas:
2
⎛Vp ⎞
⎜ ⎟ −1
⎜V ⎟
⎝ s ⎠ Poisson’s Ratio [1]
ν = 0,5 * 2
⎛Vp ⎞
⎜ ⎟ −1
⎜V ⎟
⎝ s ⎠

G = ρ * Vs
2
Shear Modulus [MPa]

E = 2 * ρ * Vs * (1 + ν )
2
Youngs Modulus [MPa]

Vp … Velocity of compressional wave [m/s]

Vs … Velocity of shear wave [m/s]
ρ ... Bulk density [kg/m³]

GGD - Gamma-Gamma-Density Log

The Gamma Gamma Density (=Formation Density) tool is an active logging method that uses a
137
Cs radioactive source which emits gammarays that are slowed down in the formation by the
Compton Process. This effect is proportional to the electron density of the material, which is again -
for most rock forming minerals - directly correlated to bulk density. To correct for borehole effects
and to press the tool to the borehole wall, it is equipped with two gamma detectors (short and long
spacing) and a 1-arm-caliper device.

Gamma-Gamma Density tool with 1-arm caliper. Bolt

for mounting of x-ray source can be seen on bottom of
sonde.

In open boreholes the tool provides information about bulk density of the formation which is a
function of matrix density, porosity and pore fluid. It also can be used for porosity calculation after
the following equation, correction for shale content in the pore space can be applied:
ρ Matrix − ρ Log
Φ=
ρ Matrix − ρ Fluid
ρ … Density [kg/m³]
Φ… Porosity [1]

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If additional logs (ÆResistivity, ÆSonic) are available, determination of lithology can be done. In
cased wells the tool usually does not give correct density readings of the material behind the
casing, but it can be used to locate sections with cement or clay sealing in the annular space.

MAL - Magnetic Log

The MAL reads the Susceptibilty κ of materials, which is dimensionless and describes the strength
of magnetism that can be induced by applying an external magnetic field. According to sign and
value of susceptibility materials are divided into three groups:
κ approx. -10 [SI]
-5
Diamagnetic
(e.g. quartz, calcite, dolomite)
Paramagnetic κ between 10-4 and 10-2 [SI]
(e.g. pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, muscovite, chlorite)
κ between 10 and 10 [SI]
-2 +1
Ferromagnetic
(z.B. magnetite, pyrrhotine, ulvospinell, titanomagnetite, hematite)
Ferromagnetic materials show remanence, which means, that after switching off the external field,
a magnetic field remains in the material. Nearly all natural rocks are built from para- or diamagnetic
minerals, there are only few ferromagnetic rocks.
In cased boreholes the MAL can be used for the check of annular sealings if special clay material
or cement slurry marked with magnetite powder is used.

NGR - Natural Gamma Ray

The NGR-Log is a passive method that reads the natural gamma radiation of the formation. The
40 232 238
most frequent sources of that radiation are K, Th, U. The NGR tool counts the gamma
radiation by a NaJ-Scintillation counter and a fotomultplier in counts per second (cps) and converts
this into calibrated API (American Petroleum Institute) units.
40
Clay and silt have relatively high NGR-values (up to 150 API or even more, resulting from K in the
clay-minerals) compared to sand and gravel (50 API and below). Therefore in sediments aquifers
can be distinguished from water tight formations by NGR-logging. Igneous and crystalline rocks
with a high content of K-Feldspar (granite, gneiss, etc.) can have NGR-values higher than
1000 API.

Application of NGR-Log for

detection of clay sealing in annular
space.

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NGR can be measured in open or cased holes, casing causes an attenuation of the curve but the
shape of the curve still gives an indication of lithology behind the casing. Therefore the method can
be used for lithological correlation between new boreholes and existing wells.
For special purposes the described integral NGR-signal can be split up into the components of
Uranium, Thorium and Potassium (Spectral Gamma Log).
If the annular space after completion of cased boreholes is filled with special clay or cement
enriched with certain minerals annular sealings can be identified with the NGR method. In this case
a differential measurement before - after completion is recommended.

NL - Neutron Log
The main application of the Neutron Log is - in combination with other logs - the evaluation of
porosity or the identification of lithology. The NL is an active radioactive method with a neutron
source (Pu, Po, Am/Be or a neutron generator) that emits neutrons of high energy and one or two
detectors at certain distances on the tool body. If the tool has two detectors, correction for borehole
diameter can be applied. The neutrons are slowed down in the formation to the thermal range and
afterwards are captured by hydrogen atoms; this capture produces gammarays. If the detector is
designed to measure the backscatterd neutrons we speak of a Neutron-Neutron tool, if the gamma
radiation is measured, of a Neutron-Gamma tool.
The capability of materials to capture neutrons is described by the Hydrogen Index HI. HI of fresh
water is normatively set equal to 1, mineralized water follows the equation HI = 1-0,4*CNaCl, C in
[ppm]. Water and fluid hydrocarbons have nearly the same HI, the neutron tool reads correct
porosity values. HI of gaseous hydrocarbons is significantly lower, therefore neutron porosity in
presence of natural gas is too low. Most of the rock forming minerals have very low HI-values as
well. Only minerals with crystal water (gypsum) or water attached to the structure (clay, HI=0,1 to
0,4) give too high neutron porosity readings and can thus be identified.
NL can be recorded in open and cased holes and it can be run in any type of borehole fluid. The NL
is a typical method for cased hydrocarbon production boreholes.

RES - Resistivity Logs

Resistivity logs determine lithology or porosity of (sedimentary) rocks and give information about
the salinity of the formation water.
Conventional Resistivity Logs (R1664) work on basis of electrolytic conductivity, which means
that they only can be run in uncased boreholes filled with an electrical conductive fluid. Two
electrodes (A, B) feed a defined electrical current into the formation, two potential electrodes at
defined distances (M, N) measure the resulting voltage of the signal. Knowing the configuration of
the electrodes and the original current one can calculate resistivity of the formation which is
depending on porosity, pore fluid and clay content. Most frequently used is the “Normal”
configuration with an electrode at a spacing of 16” (shallow depth of investigation, good vertical
resolution, more influence by flushed zone) and one at 64” (larger depth of investigation, poor
vertical resolution, less influence by flushed zone).
The R1664-configuration is used in low to moderate resistive formations (10s to 100s of Ohm*m).

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(Dual) Focused Electric Logs (DFEL, FEL) follow the same principle as conventional resistivity
logs but they have auxiliary electrodes on both sides of A and B that focus the current and force it
horizontally into the formation. This results in a better vertical resolution and in an extended
resistivity range of application (formation resistivities up to a few 1000 Ohm*m).
Besides that FEL can be used to locate open casing joints.
Induction Electric Logs (IEL) include electromagnetic transmitter and receiver coils. The
transmitter sends an AC signal with a magnetic field into the formation where a secondary EM field
circular to the borehole is induced. These induced currents have an alternating magnetic field that,
in turn, induces an electromagnetic field in the receiver coil. The signal in the receiver is
proportional to the conductivity of the formation.
This makes the tool applicable also in non conductive mud, in dry boreholes or in plastic cased
boreholes; it will not work in metal casing.
The vertical resolution of the IEL is poorer than that of the FEL or of the RES1664.

SP - Spontaneous-Potential Log
The SP-Log is a passive electrical method that reads the voltage between an electrode in the
borehole and a reference electrode on the ground surface. The SP is caused by natural electrical
phenomena (electrochemical and electrokinetic potential) that build between fluids of different
concentration (drilling mud and formation water).
SP logs can be used to distinguish shale from sand and to determine formation water salinity.
Because of the fact, that there has to be significant contrast in ion concentration between drilling
mud and formation fluid, SP-Logs are typically run in hydrocarbon boreholes. In fresh water the
contrast between the drilling mud and the water is not very high and the resulting SP-curves usually
are flat and featureless. Thus the SP has only limited application in drinking water boreholes.

SAM - Fluid Sampler

Fluid sampler tools commonly consist of a cylindrical tube with a volume between one and two liters
which is opened at the desired depth in the borehole allowing fluid to enter the sample chamber.
The valve is then closed again and the sample is recovered to the surface. This gives the possibility
to take depth related fluid- and gas-samples for hydrogeological reasons.

TRL - Tracerlog
Tracer Logging gives information about small horizontal and vertical water movements in the
borehole. The water in the well is marked with tracer material (dye, salt or brine) at certain points or
over the whole column, afterwards the movement of tracer points or dilution of the tracer column
under unpumped and pumped conditions are measured by a sequence of ÆFCON Logs (salt or
brine tracer) or Fotometric Logs (dye tracer). The tracer method is very sensitve and works down to
flow rates of a few liters per minute, where the ÆSpinner Flowmeter is not applicable.
Depending on kind of instrumentation the tracer method gives information about horizontal or
vertical flow in the borehole from which, after application of processing steps of different complexity,
hydrogeological parameters of the aquifer can be inferred. -o-o-

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