GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 NOTES

MODULE 1
 In altering DNA we change the bases

Sugar and phosphate are just the same on both sides

Can change in traits and manipulation leads to genetic modification of

organisms

Betacarotine is added to rice

Featherless chickens
 After World war 3

1950s- Disease resistant high yielding crops

-Noble Peace Prize 1970

 Genes from sea anemone

-keep the sea healthy from polutants

Allows to produce insecticidal protein which produces endotoxins only from

caterpillars

-Cattle and Pigs

 11th chromosome combine with yeast cell

-identify specific genes to combine to another organisms. Restriction

enzymes are used to isolate the gene of interest. -identifies the given
sequence and cuts only a particular site or gene of interest.
Cut vector and target genes
 6-8 base pairs of Dna which binds to a given restriction enzyme.

Natural function is activating invading viruses by cleaning the viral DNA.

serve as protection for bacteria

Sticky ends

EcoR-1 )Ecoli

Produces Sticky ends

Cohesive ends - bas pairs that pair up with complimentary base pair of vector

-allows two bases of vectors to be joined if they are produced by the same
restriction enzyme
For a Vector to be used:

Requirements:

1. Self-replicate
2. Promoter region

-region where Dna facilitates transcription or process where information

of DNa strand is copied by messenger RNA

3. Selectable marker-allows identification of bacteria with the gene of

interest

-makes it possible to distinguish bacteria to the nonrecombinant cells

Most used host - bacterial Ecoli
Microinjection-involves the use of glass needles or microcapillary pipet

Electroporation-electrical field is applied to increase permeability of the cell

membrane.
-expose the DNA to make it more permeable.

-identify which among the competent bacterial cells used in the transformation
took in the recombinant plasmid.
-competetent cells in the petridish are resistant to antibiotics

-aims to increase the production of the desired product.

-Increase production by gene expression

-Bioreactors are used for large scale production.
 MODULE 2

Explore

In the previous activity, you have made some modifications in your chosen
organism. Those changes are essential and responsive to what you believe will
help the organisms to adapt, survive and proliferate their species. For billions
of years earth has become the witness to various life forms that live in its every
conceivable corner. The first living thing that is believed to have existed on
earth are the unicellular prokaryotes 3.8 billion years ago. The multicellular
organisms are said to evolved in the last 540 million years ago. Terrestrial
plants appeared 475 million years ago, while mammals have only evolved
around 200 million years ago and the human ancestors Homo Sapiens
appeared 200,000 years ago which makes us only 0.004 percent old in the
Earth’s life history.

Mapping the earth’s history is a difficult job, thus geologists devised a time
scale to show Earth’s history. They called it geologic time scale a record of the
appearance of life forms as well as the phase of extinction. In doing this,
geologists studied the different rock layers and fossil records throughout the
word applying methods and techniques to determine their ages.

The geologic time scale is the extensive interval of time occupied by geologic
history of earth. It is divided into hierarchical chunks of time. This hierarchy
includes eons, eras, periods epochs and Age.

Eon- half a billion years or more

Era -several hundred million years

Period- one hundred million years

Epoch- tens of millions of years

Age- million of years

Here is the table that shows the geologic time scale

https://youtu.be/rWp5ZpJAIAE

The life forms that exist on this planet is the product of the evolutionary
process. Experts have relied on the scientific evidence that accepts the idea of
evolution to explain the existence of various life forms on earth.

Evolution is defined as the collective genetic change in a population of

organisms over a period of time. Population on the other hand refers to a group
of interbreeding organisms of the same species. It is believed that evolution
occurs within the population when some of the traits become common or less
common from one generation of population to the next. What are the
mechanisms that produce change in population from generation to generation?

The following are some of the mechanisms that produce change in population
from generation to generation.

A. Artificial selection

Artificial selection, also called "selective breeding”, is where humans

select for desirable traits in agricultural products or animals, rather than
leaving the species to evolve and change gradually without human
interference, like in natural selection.

B. Natural Selection
 It is a process by which the populations of organisms adapt and change.
Individuals in population are innately different in some ways. Some have better
traits suited to the environment compared to others. Organisms with adaptive
traits give them an advantage. They are the most likely to survive and
proliferate their species. This organism can pass the adaptive traits on to their
offspring. Over time, these advantageous traits become more common in the
population. Through this process of natural selection, favorable traits are
transmitted through generations. This process leads to speciation where one
species gives rise to a new and distinctly different species. It is one of the
processes that drives evolution and helps to explain the diversity of life on
Earth.

c. Genetic drift

It is an evolution mechanism in which allele frequencies of a population

change over generations due to chance. It may result to loss of some alleles.
This is observed in all population but its effect is strongest in small populations.
It may have major effects when a population is sharply reduced in size due to
natural disasters.

d. Mutation

A mutation is a change in DNA, the hereditary material of life. An

organism's DNA affects how it looks, how it behaves, and its physiology. So a
change in an organism's DNA can cause changes in all aspects of its life.
Mutations are essential to evolution; they are the raw material of genetic
variation.

e. Recombination:

Recombination is an event, occurring by the crossing-over of

chromosomes during meiosis, in which DNA is exchanged between a pair of
chromosomes. Thus two genes that were previously unlinked, being on
separate chromosomes, can become linked because of recombination; and vice
versa: linked genes may become unlinked. Like mutation, recombination is an
important source of new variation for natural selection to work upon. However,
also like mutation, recombination places a genetic load upon the population.
https://youtu.be/oLNp6xPgZ0s

MODULE 3
ENGAGE

Watch the video that introduces the concept of evolution and the evidences
gathered by scientists that supported this idea.

https://youtu.be/LFKnqB-OQcU

EXPLORE

Analyze the tree of life.

What does it show? What conclusion can you give based on the picture?
 This picture shows the idea of the Descent with Modification. This
suggest that each species has descended with changes from other species
over time. The idea implies that all living species are related to each other and
that all species, living and extinct, share a common ancestor.

The present knowledge about evolution is the product of the findings

contributed by the persistent works of naturalists. Their ardent work of
understanding how life came out on earth brought them to the
conceptualization that organisms in a population change through time. The
idea of evolution has always been attributed to Charles Darwin. His exemplary
work has gained attention and much deserved respect in the Scientific
community. However, apart from him there were many scientists who have
also shed light to the present-day understanding of how evolution occurs in
nature. But how exactly did they develop the concept of evolution?

Here are the Scientists that laid down the foundation on Evolution
among organisms.

The important ideas they have contributed in the knowledge of evolution

are products of their relentless efforts in finding out the evidences that
strengthen the theories that uphold evolution. What are the evidences of
evolution?

Fossil records- Fossils are important evidence of evolution because

they show that life on earth was once different from life found on earth today.
Paleontologists can determine the age of fossils using methods like radiometric
dating and categorize them to determine the evolutionary relationships
between organisms. Fossil records help reconstruct the evolutionary histories
of the present-day species. The picture below shows the fossils of horse
lineage. Using these help scientists recreate the family tree for horses and
their now-extinct relatives. Changes in the lineage leading to modern-day
horses, such as the reduction of toed feet to hooves, may reflect adaptation
to changes in the environment.

Image credit: "Equine evolution," by H. Zell, CC BY-SA 3.0.

Read more about it on page 255 in your textbook.

 Biogeography- the study of the geographical distribution of organisms,
provides information about how and when species may have evolved. Experts
have noticed that the geographic distribution of organisms on earth follows a
certain pattern. This pattern can be explained by evolution and tectonic plates
movement over geological time. The separation of massive land, known as
Pangaea millions of years distributed organisms worldwide and this explains
why closely related species ended up in completely different parts of the world.
Read pages 266-257 in your textbook.
 Homology- refers to the similarity of the structure, physiology, or
development of different species of organisms based upon their descent from
a common evolutionary ancestor. Evolution predicts that an organism’s body
parts are or likely to be modifications of ancestral body parts than they are to
be entirely new features.

Below is are images that show homologous or similar structures. It

shows mammals have basic bone structure in their forelimbs indicating that
they inherited it from a common ancestor. But these forelimbs may have
different functions.
 Analogous structures on the other hand, are structures that are
similar in unrelated species. The similarities in the structures are due to the
evolution or change brought by their function or job and not because they got
it from a common ancestor. The wings of the two animals below serve the
same function, but they came from different ancestors.
 Read pages 257-258 in your textbook.

Vestigial structures however are those that have lost through the
course of evolution. Evidences suggest that organisms change from using the
structure to not using the structures, or using it or a different purpose.
 Appendix

Wisdom Teeth

The appendix has no known function in humans. Evidence suggests that

our evolutionary ancestors used their appendixes to digest tough food like tree
bark, but we do not anymore use that organ for digestion.
 The third molars or wisdom teeth were once extremely a valuable asset
of our ancestors. These teeth fit easily in their large jaws which are absolutely
necessary because their diet consisted of chewy plants and raw meat.
Although wisdom teeth were incredibly advantageous for our ancestors, they
pose a bit of a problem for the modern mouth. Humans have evolved to have
smaller jaws, and so wisdom teeth are often either too big for the jaw or the
jaws themselves are just too small. Either way, third molars crowd the mouth.
Because of this lack of space, molars often grow sideways, only partially
emerging from the gums, or actually get trapped inside the gums and
jawbone.

Read page 258 in your textbook

Embryology

Embryology is an important basis of biological evolution. It can be used

to determine the resemblances and variances between various species.
Vertebrate embryos provide more glimpses into evolutionary relationship. An
embryo is an early pre-birth stage of an organism’s development. Scientists
have found that vertebrate embryos exhibit homologous structures during
certain phases of development but totally become different structures in the
adult forms. The embryos like all vertebrate embryos have a tail and paired
structures called pharyngeal pouches. In fish, the pouches develop into gills.
In reptiles, birds and mammals, these structures become parts of the ears,
jaws and throat. Although the adult forms differ, the shared features in the
embryos suggest that vertebrates evolved from shared ancestors.
 Read page 259 in your textbook.

DNA and proteins

The advancement in molecular genetics allowed scientists to reveal

similarities in the genetic level and out of these they have established
molecular family trees among organisms. This tree has revealed how certain
genes have diverged over time and establish close or far ancestry among
organisms. Because there are still fossils of some extinct organisms, DNA
could be extracted from them and analyze in the molecular level.
 MODULE 4

Explore

Taxonomy - is the science of naming, describing and classifying organisms.

Before we talk about how taxonomy, let us try to be familiar first with some
important terms:

Classification - The action or process of classifying something according to

shared qualities or characteristics.

Hierarchy - arrangement of items in which the items are represented as being

"above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another.

Nomenclature - devising or choosing of names for things.

Domain - refers to the largest of all groups in the classification of life.

Species - is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an

organism.

1. If you will be asked to classify these organisms, how are you going to
do it?

Perhaps your answers are the following;

• According to size
• According to how they eat
• According to what they eat etc.
 Taxonomy is a system of naming, and organizing living things into
groups based on shared similarities.

Aristole was one of the first person who tried to classify organisms. Take
a look at the picture below that shows how he grouped plants and animals.

Aristotle categorized plants based on the size of stem, while animal

classification was based on their habitat. Aside from him several scientists
tried to devise different systems to classify organisms. A scientist who had
great contribution in the field of taxonomy is no other than Carolus Linnaues,
making him the Father of Modern Taxonomy. One of his most important
contributions in this field is using Binomial nomenclature in naming organisms,
the genus and species. Apart from that, he also proposed the seven levels of
classification. See the illustration below.
• Kingdom - is the highest taxonomic rank. It is the most general taxon
used in classifying organisms.
• Phylum - (plural: phyla) is the next rank after kingdom; it is more
specific than kingdom, but less specific than class. Organisms are
grouped together based on similarities in basic body plan or
organization.
• Class - It is a taxonomic group consisting of one or more related
orders.
• Order - A taxonomic rank used in classifying organisms, generally
below the class, and comprised of families sharing a set of similar nature
or character
• Family - A taxonomic group of one or more genera, especially sharing
a common attribute.
• Genus - It is a taxonomic category ranking used in biological
classification that is below family and above species. Species exhibiting
similar characteristics comprise a genus.
• Species - It is the most basic level in a taxonomic hierarchy. Species
are a group of organisms with similar features (that are intrinsic only to
their species), identical chromosomes count (meaning they have similar
form and structure) and sometimes even similar habitat who produce
fertile offspring when they breed.
Below is an example of an illustration of the seven levels of classification.
 Historically, kingdom is the highest taxonomic rank, or the most general
taxon used in classifying organisms. However, in the new threedomain system
introduced by Carl Woese in 1990, the domain is the most general taxon, and
kingdom is only next.

His classification system also is known as the Six Kingdoms and Three
Domains Classification because it divides the life forms into three domains and
six kingdoms.

The three-domains of Carl Woese’s Classification system include

archaea, bacteria, eukaryote, and six kingdoms are Archaebacteria (ancient
bacteria), Eubacteria (true bacteria), Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia. This
classification system divides the life based on the differences in the 16S
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) structure and as well as the cell’s membrane lipid
structure and its sensitivity to antibiotics. The main difference from earlier
classification systems is the splitting of archaea from bacteria.
Process questions:

1. Are there shared characteristics of organisms in the three domains?

2. What is cellular structure separates animals from all the other
kingdoms?

Now, the modern approach used to classify organisms is called systematics.

See the illustration that explains what this concept is.

Taxonomist and phylogenist work together to produce a more accurate tree

of life.
 The previous classification focuses in physical similarities alone, with the
accumulation of findings over time, scientists no longer rely on physical
characteristics as basis for classification. Certain species need to be re
classified due to molecular reasons. Lets look at this example. Red panda and
giant panda were once placed in one group because of similarities like in the
ears and snout, paws and bamboo diet. But findings have shown that the great
similarities among the two animals are caused by convergent evolution.

Molecular biologists have found out the red panda is related to racoon and
giant panda is more related to grizzly bear.
Systematics: Tracing the Life’s History

The image below shows the evolutionary tree of life which was first
proposed by Charles Darwin in his book Origin of the Species. This illustration
demonstrate that all species originated from one to two species. It is also
called a phylogenetic tree. h

Pylogenic tree is an illustration or a diagram used to visually present the

evolutionary relationships or variability among groups of organisms.

The given picture shows an example of phylogenetic tree with its parts.
It is used to show the evolutionary history of the development of a species
or a taxonomic group of organisms.
These are the other ways to illustrate a phylogenetic tree.
Root - indicates that an ancestral lineage gave rise to all organisms on the
tree.

Branch - indicates evolutionary relationships

Basal Taxon - a lineage that evolved from the root and remains unbranched.

Sister Taxa - two lineages stem from the same point. These are any taxa
derived from a common ancestor.

Polytomy - A branch with more than two lineages.

In doing an evolutionary tree the method used is called cladistics. It is a

method which relies on common ancestry as a basis for establishing the
classification on how organisms descended from a common ancestor. The
assumptions of cladistics are:

1. Groups of related species descended from a common ancestor

2. Branching patterns symbolizes relationships among groups. With new
evolutionary groups arising from a common ancestor
3. Characteristics change over time

Cladistics analysis defined groups by distinguishing between ancestral and

derived characters. Ancestral characters are traits inherited from the
common ancestor of the group. Derived characters are features that are
different from those present in the group. For example, the presence of
backbone both in birds and mammals is an example of an ancestral characters.
The feathers of birds and the hair of mammals are exclusive to each of these
groups and thus are said to be derived characters. Derived traits are traits
that are shared by certain species different from others it is a newly inherited
change. In showing phylogenetic relationships, systematists use shared
derived character to make a diagram called cladogram. A cladogram is a
diagram used to represent a hypothetical relationship between groups of
animals, called a phylogeny. A cladogram is used by a scientist studying
phylogenetic systematics to visualize the groups of organisms being
compared, how they are related, and their most common ancestors. The
image below shows examples of clade.
 The branching points in a cladogram is called nodes, it represents how
organisms diverge into two or more species. Specific characters are also
placed after each node.

Due to the changes in evolutionary history, certain traits changed too in

some species within the clade whereas others stay the same. When organisms
changed distinctly and do not share a common trait anymore from the rest of
the group, it branches into a new clade and it is called an outgroup.
Example of a cladogram

Examine the sample cladogram, each letter on the diagram points to a

derived character, or something different (or newer) than what was seen in
previous groups.

Remember that when you make a cladogram, you must first look at the
top of the animals you are studying and establish characteristics that they
share and ones that are unique to each group. The table below show the list
of animals and the specific traits. The x marks indicate that the organism
possess the given trait. The order of the animals in the table is based from
simple to complex characteristics. Analyze how this information is used in
making a cladogram.
Cladogram based on the data in the table.

Let’s try!

For online learners, answers will be typed in the chat box during discussion
time. Homeschoolers will answer on the space provided.

Look at this cladogram and answer the following questions:

1. What separates primates/rabbits from the crocodiles?

2. What organism is most related to the rodents and rabbits in this
cladogram?
3. What traits do the birds and its closest relative share?
 MODULE 5

Explore

Process Questions:

What are those processes called?

Yes, they are examples of life processes.

What are life processes?

Life processes are series of actions done living things to sustain life.
These processes include movement, reproduction, sensitity, growth,
respiration, excretion and nutrition (MRS. GREN) these are the characteristics
that distinguish living things from non-living things.

How are these processes done by plants?

1. MOVEMENT AND RESPONSE TO STIMULI

A tropism is a biological phenomenon, indicating growth or turning

movement of a biological organism, usually a plant, in response to an
environmental stimulus.

Plants response to sunlight is called Phototropism.

When the plant parts move toward the light, it is called positive phototropism.

When the plants move away from the light, it is called negative
phototropism.

Gravitropism

It is also known as geotropism is a coordinated process of differential

growth by a plant in response to gravity pulling on it. Geotropism can be
positive or negative.

https://youtu.be/AEo5UsPeB5g
Hydrotropism

The growth or turning of plant roots toward or away from moisture.

https://youtu.be/J9D8a7lHZSQ

Thigmotropism

It is the tendency for a plant organ to bend in response to touch. For

example, the specialized touch-sensitive tendrils of many vining plants, such
as pea, will bend toward the side receiving a touch stimulus. Continual
stimulation can lead to the coiling of the tendril around an object, which
enables vining plants to grasp objects on which they can climb.
Nastic Movement

It is the fast response of plants to some stimuli without any directional

movement of growth.

Chemotropism

It is the growth or movement of a plant or plant part in response to a

chemical stimulus. An example is the growth of a pollen tube down the style
during fertilization in response to the presence of sugars in the style.

https://youtu.be/FLqhXymb4h8

Thermotropism

It is the form of a tropic movement in which a plant or a part of the

plant responds to the changing atmospheric temperature. For example, this
type of movement is usually seen in the plants of Rhododendron. Here leaves
start twisting or bending in response to cold temperatures.
2. REPRODUCTION:

A biological process in which different organisms have the ability to

produce another of their own kind. It can be sexual which uses gametes or
asexual which does not involve gametes.

Sexual reproduction

Sexually reproducing plants have their organs in the flower. Some

flowers are bisexual and others are unisexual. The female organ of the plant
is called pistil while the male is known as the stamen. These organs are used
in the pollination process.

Pollination is the act of transferring pollen grains from the male

anther of a flower to the female stigma. The goal of every living organism,
including plants, is to create offspring for the next generation.

Formation of fruits and seeds

https://youtu.be/4SCmfRZuj0A
Asexual Reproduction

Plants have two main types of asexual reproduction: vegetative

reproduction and apomixis. Vegetative reproduction results in new plant
individuals without the production of seeds or spores.

Examples of vegetative reproduction

Apomixis

It is an asexual reproduction that occurs without fertilization and not

involving meiosis. One example of apomixis is the apomictic parthenogenesis
(wherein the offspring develops from the egg or female gamete without the
prior fertilization from the male gamete). It its one in which the egg cell is
produced through mitosis. It then develops directly into an embryo without
the prior fertilization. The offspring from apomictic parthenogenesis would
therefore be full clones of the maternal parent.

https://youtu.be/XoPMy9rPhMo

C. GROWTH

Most plants continue to grow throughout their lives. Like other

multicellular organisms, plants grow through a combination of cell growth and
cell division. As plant cells grow, they become specialized into different cell
types through cellular differentiation. Once cells differentiate, they can no
longer divide.

Below are the examples of specialized cells and tissues in plants. Some
of them work for absorption, storage, support and transport of materials.
Parenchyma cells are the most common and store starches, water and oil
and are found throughout the plant.

Collenchyma cells- provide support for the plant and have thick or thin cell
walls.

Sclerenchyma cells- form rigid cells and they are very strong giving skeletal
support to the plant.

Transport vessels- xylem and phloem are specialized tissues that transport
water and nutrients within the plants body.

Root hairs- are small hair like structures that increase surface area which
increases the amount of water the plant absorbs.

Root cap- is a small cone that protects the growing part of the root.

The meristem- is the part of the plant that grows. The apical meristem is
responsible for growth at the top of the stem and bottom of the root and is
considered primary growth. The lateral meristem is responsible for widening
of the stem and is considered secondary growth. The cambium is a cellular
tissue which the contains xylem, phloem or cork and allows secondary growth.
 Plant hormones play a crucial role in controlling the way the plants grow
and develop. While metabolism provides the power and building blocks for
plant life it is the hormones that regulate the speed of growth of the individual
parts and integrate these parts to produce the form that we recognize as a
plant.
4. TRANSPORT AND REGULATION

Plants have low energy needs and use a relatively slow transport
system. This transport system is composed of the xylem and phloem vessels.

The xylem is specialized to transport water up the stem of a plant and

into the leaves. Xylem vessels are made up of a series of connected dead
xylem cells. The end walls of the dead cells are broken to allow water to move
through. A substance called lignin strengthens the cell walls of xylem cells.

The phloem is specialized to transport food products to parts of the plant

where they are needed. Phloem vessels are made up of columns of living cells.
The end walls of phloem cells contain small holes to allow food products to
move up and down the phloem vessels. The transport done by phloem to the
products of photosynthesis to various plant parts (sink) such as the roots,
fruits, seeds and other growing parts of the plant is called translocation.

The evaporation of water molecules from the cells of the leaf creates a
suction process, which pulls water from the xylem cells. The loss of water in
the form of vapor from the leaves is known as transpiration. This process
helps in the upward movement of water and dissolve minerals from the roots
to the leaves.

https://youtu.be/mo-GbgEe8Oo
E. RESPIRATION:

Unlike animals, plants do not possess any specialized structure for

exchange of gases, however, they possess stomata in the leaves and lenticels
in the stem. These two specialized parts are used in gas exchange.

Lenticels in the stem

G. PLANT DEFENSE

The lack of central nervous system doesn’t prevent the plants from
protecting themselves. Some species are equipped with structures that ward
off slavering herbivores. Below are examples of structural defenses.

Structural Defenses:
Other defenses:

Some plants contain specialized cells that contain defensive compound.

Defensive compounds and poison

Dieffenbachia, a common houseplant, contains idioblasts that fire

barbed calcium oxalate crystals into the mouths of predators and then release
an enzyme analogous to reptilian venom. This can cause paralysis—and thus
loss of speech—hence the common name “dumb cane.”

Poisonous Plants
Chemical Signaling

When plants are attacked by insect pests or subjected to stressful

conditions such as drought or microbial infection may warn other plants of the
impending crises by releasing volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which
precipitate physiological reactions in nearby plants. They may increase
concentrations of toxic compounds to ward off the enemy, or they may release
compounds of their own that attract the enemy’s predators. Some recent
experiments have shown that plants also communicate through chemicals
signals.

https://youtu.be/Hja0SLs2kus

Plant communication

https://youtu.be/yWOqeyPIVRo
 LIFE PROCESSES IN ANIMALS

LIFE PROCESSES IN ANIMALS

LESSON 2:

Life processes in animals

Focus: Reproduction, Development and Nutrition

Kingdom Animalia is the biggest kingdom in the living world, with at

least four million species named and identified. It is estimated that 9-10
million species are inhabiting the Earth. Animals range in size, from less than
an inch, such as insects or organisms weighing many tons, such as the blue
whales and giant squids. Most animals inhabit the seas, with fewer organisms
on freshwater and even fewer on land. With the help of the following life
processes, we will be able to know the distinctive characteristics of animals.

Animal Reproduction:

Reproduction is a fundamental biological process in which new individual

organisms ("offspring") are produced from their "parents". It ensures
the continuity of the species.

Most animals reproduce through merging of the reproductive cells or

gametes in the process of fertilization. Gametes carry genetic information that
provide the unique and distinctive characteristics of their off springs. Some
animals proliferate their species through asexual means. A type of
reproduction that does not involve gametes.

What are the common types of asexual reproduction?

1. Budding

Results from the outgrowth of a part of the body leading to a separation

of the “bud” from the original organism and the formation of two individuals,
one smaller than the other. Budding occurs commonly in some
invertebrate animals such as hydras and corals.
https://youtu.be/d5-hPkcQDrU

https://youtu.be/jnD_YitEk5M
2. Fragmentation

Also known as splitting, is a form of asexual reproduction in which an

organism splits into fragments. Each fragment develops into a mature clone
genetically and morphologically identical to its parent.

https://youtu.be/AaN6uRvfPLY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m12xsf5g3Bo
3. Parthenogenesis

It is a form of reproduction in which an egg can develop into an embryo

without being fertilized by a sperm. Parthenogenesis is derived from the Greek
words for “virgin birth,” and several insect species including aphids, bees, and
ants are known to reproduce by parthenogenesis.

https://youtu.be/aTfXaqN24Bc

Sexual reproduction

1. A. Ovuliparity

External fertilization (egg cells released into the environment and

fertilised by males)

Mollusks, arthropods, fishes and most frogs.

Frogs - https://youtu.be/q50Yphp1gzI

Mollusks - https://youtu.be/CRKr2DpXbwk

Fish - https://youtu.be/HAZZH5bNwjU

2. Oviparity

Internal fertilization. Expulsion of undeveloped eggs rather than live

young. The eggs may have been fertilized before release, as in birds and some
reptiles, or are to be fertilized externally, as in amphibians and many lower
forms.

3.1. Ovoviviparity

Internal fertilization, embryos develop in eggs and hatch within parent.

The organism give birth to live young. This type of reproduction is observed
in some fishes, amphibians and reptiles.

3.2. Viviparity

The embryo develops inside the body of the parent. This is opposed to
oviparity which is a reproductive mode in which females lay developing eggs
that complete their development and hatch externally from the mother.
3.3. Histotrophic viviparity

Embryos acquire nutrients from:

1. other tissues (skin/glands)

2. oophagy (feeding on eggs
3. adelphophagy (fetus feeds on sibling embryos); e.g. marine snails and
worms, some sharks

3.4. Hemotrophic viviparity

Nutrients are provided by the female, often through a placenta, as in

mammals except for marsupials and monotremes.

4. Hermaphrodism

Organism can have both male and female reproductive organs.

A Sequential hermaphrodites

Individual born as one sex but can later change into the opposite
sex. Observed primarily in certain fish and gastropods. Clownfish does
sequential hermaphrodism.

B. Simultaneous hermaphrodites

Individual has both male and female sexual organs at the same
time. Observed primarily in earthworm.
Earthworm mating

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KbhjqMngGz4

Earthworm hatching

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JPk8Gc8eDwA

Here are some additional video showing group of organisms that can perform
various modes of sexual reproduction.

Sharks and snakes various ways of reproduction

https://youtu.be/BWI60arRyG4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KFCfL99rHpw

How do animals choose their mate?

These are the characters that influence reproductive behavior.

1. Color Display
2. Sexual selection
3. Dances
4. Giving gifts
5. Fighting over territories
6. Elaborate tails
Which is more advantageous, sexual or asexual reproduction?

Asexual Reproduction

Advantages

1. does not require special cells or a lot of energy

2. can produce offspring quickly
3. in a stable environment creates large, thriving population

Disadvantages

1. limited ability to adapt

2. face massive die-off if environment changes

Sexual Reproduction

Advantages

1. lots of variation within a species

2. able to live in a variety of environmental settings
3. able to adapt to changes in the environment

Disadvantages

1. needs time & energy

2. produce small populations

How do animals develop?

Animals development is highly regulated by genes. They have distinct

body parts made up of specialized cells that continuously increase in numbers.
Below are illustrations of highly specialized cells in a human body.

Animals Nutrition

Animals are not equipped with cellular structure that will allow them to
manufacture their own food, thus they depend on others for nutrition. They
are known as heterotrophic organisms and they can be classified into the
following:

1. Saprophytic

In saprophytic nutrition the organisms obtain their food from dead and
decaying organic matter of dead plants, dead animals and other decomposing
organic matter. ( example; earthworm)

2. Parasitic

Parasitic nutrition is a mode of heterotrophic nutrition where an

organism lives on the body surface or inside the body of another type of
organism. The parasite obtains nutrition directly from the body of the host.
 Ectoparasite- lives outside the body of the host ( flea, tick, louse)

Endoparasite- Lives inside the body of the host. ( ascaris, pin worm, hook
worm and tape worm
 3. Holozoic

It is a type of heterotrophic nutrition that is characterized by the

internalization (ingestion) and internal processing of gaseous, liquids or solid
food particles.

The animal’s system for digesting food to acquire nutrients can be

saclike or tube like.

Tube like digestive system

In a tube-like digestive system, there are two openings. The food enters
through one, gets digested and moves out of the other one in the form of
excreta, after the digestion process. This is observed in higher forms of
animals.
Sac-like

A sac-like digestive system has a single opening. Food and excreta pass
through the same openings. This is observed in lower forms of animals.
 LIFE PROCESSES IN ANIMALS LESSON 3

LIFE PROCESSES IN ANIMALS LESSON 3

LESSON 3:

Respiration, Circulation and Excretion

1. Engage:

Riddle 1: Anyone can hold me, even without their hands, yet no one can do it
for long. What am I?

Answer: Breath

Riddle No.2: It is mine that only you can have?

Answer: heart

Riddle 3: I am a solution that can give you a clue to your health problem.

Answer: Urine

Riddle 4: I am like a food panda, a Shopee or Lazada, a garbage track or a

gondola.

Answer: Blood

1. Explain:

The class will be asked to watch this video

Check your lungs and oxygen level

https://youtu.be/w9lO1PwGgZE
Process questions:

1. Were you able to hold your breath from point A to B?

2. How did you feel when you were trying to hold your breath?
3. Why is it we cannot hold our breath for a long period of time?
4. What is respiration? How important is this process?

The function of the respiratory system is the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the atmosphere and the blood and the body’s cells.

Your body’s cells require oxygen . Recall that oxygen and glucose are used
by cells to produce energy -rich ATP molecules needed to maintain cellular
metabolism. This process is called cellular respiration. In addition to releasing
energy, cellular respiration releases carbon dioxide and water.

The respiratory system can be divided into two processes: breathing and
respiration. First, the air must enter the body through breathing. Breathing is
a mechanical movement of air into and out of your lungs. Second, gases are
exchanged in the body. External respiration is the exchange of gases between
the atmosphere and the blood, which occurs in the lungs. Internal respiration
is the exchange of gases between the blood and the body’s cells, Let us see
the path of the air in the man’s respiratory system.
 The respiratory system is made up of the nasal passages, pharynx,
larynx or voice box, epiglottis, trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
and diaphragm. Air travels from the outside environment to the lungs, where
it passes through the alveoli.

Air enters in the mouth or nose, Hair in the nose filter out dust and other
large particles in the air. Hair like structures called cilia line the nasal passages
as well as other respiratory tubes, Cilia trap foreign particles from the air and
sweep them toward the throat so that they do not enter the lungs. The mucous
membrane beneath the cilia warm and moisten the air while trapping the
foreign materials.

The filtered air then passes through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles and to the air sacs or alveoli surrounded by capillaries where
exchange of gases takes place.

How about the other forms of animals? Below are the images of the major
respiratory organs of animals.
Simpler animals use the cell membrane to exchange gases through diffusion.
Some animals are using skin or body surface, tracheal system and gills.

How about in fish? Watch the video and see how fish respires under the
water using their gills.
Respiration in fish

https://youtu.be/C9VdFamfi1c

Respiration in insects

https://youtu.be/HV60yTvy3Mk

Circulatory system of animals

The circulatory system is composed of a circulatory fluid, a set of

interconnecting vessels and a muscular pump called heart. This system
connects the fluid that surrounds cells with the organs that exchange gases,
absorb nutrients and dispose wastes. It can be open or closed and vary in the
number of circuits in the body.

Insects, arthropods and most mollusks, blood bathes the organ directly
in an open circulatory system. In an open circulatory system, there is no
distinction between blood and interstitial fluid and this general body fluid is
called hemolymph.

Hemolymph is mostly water, but it also contains ions, carbohydrates,

lipids, glycerol, amino acids, hormones, some cells and pigments. The
pigments, however, are usually rather bland, and thus insect blood is clear
or tinged with yellow or green. The image below shows hemolymph.
The images below show the open circulatory system of insects.

In a closed circulatory system, blood is confined to vessels and is distinct

from the interstitial fluid. Closed systems are more efficient at transporting
circulatory fluids to tissues and cells. Annelids, cephalopods, and vertebrates
have closed circulatory systems.
 Humans and other vertebrates have a closed circulatory system called
the cardiovascular system.
Blood vessels

Circulate blood throughout the body and help keep the blood flowing to
and from the heart.

 The three main types of blood vessels are arteries, veins, and
capillaries
 Arteries - The arteries are the blood vessels that deliver oxygen-rich
blood from the heart to the tissues of the body. These are strong, thick-walled,
elastic and durable vessels. They are capable of withstanding high pressure
exerted by blood as it is pumped by the heart.

Capillaries - Arteries branch into smaller vessels called arterioles which

become smaller in diameter. The smallest branches are capillaries. Capillaries
are microscopic blood vessels where the exchange of important substances
and wastes occurs.

Veins - Carry oxygen poor blood back to the heart. The endothelial walls
of veins are much thinner than the walls of the arteries. The pressure of the
blood decreases when the blood flows through capillaries before it enters the
veins.

The Heart

It is a muscular hallow organ that pumps blood throughout the body.

The heart performs two pumping functions at the same time. The heart pumps
oxygenated blood to the body, and it pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
How do animal hearts differ?

Insects have tubular heart

The picture below shows the amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammal’s
heart.

On the other hand, simpler organisms like the invertebrates below do

not have circulatory system. The movement of gases, nutrients and wastes
are only done through diffusion.
The excretory system

The Excretory system is responsible for the elimination of wastes

produced by metabolic processes. Waste elimination is done to maintain
homeostasis or internal balance. Animals’ excretory wastes include carbon
dioxide, ammonia, urea and uric acid.

Most aquatic animals eliminate their nitrogenous wastes

as ammonia (NH3). Ammonia is highly toxic but also very water soluble and
hence can be effectively flushed by animals in aquatic habitats.

Terrestrial animals have less access to water and hence must package
nitrogenous waste in less toxic forms.

How do the following organisms excrete wastes?

Sponges

Elimination in these aquatic animals proceeds by diffusion of gaseous

wastes into the surrounding water and by the ejection of solid wastes and
indigestible material from the digestive cells into the streams of water that
constantly flow through the animal.
Cnidarians

The jellyfishes, coral animals, ctenophores, and comb jellies have

a rudimentary canal like cavity in their two-layered bodies for the
ingestion, digestion, and egestion of food and wastes. Gaseous wastes are
eliminated by diffusion, and solid wastes in dissolved or undissolved form pass
out through an opening in the body wall that serves the dual purposes of food
intake and waste elimination.
Roundworms

Earthworms have excretory canals located on both sides of the

intestine which facilitate waste disposal by carriage of material to an excretory
pore in the body wall.

Other invertebrates

In invertebrates, increasing structural complexity is accompanied by

more efficient waste-disposal mechanisms. In the phylum Mollusca (clams,
snails, oysters, mollusks, octopuses, and squids), gills add another more
efficient channel for waste disposal. A heart increases the rate of flow in the
circulatory system and speeds the transport of wastes to the gills. An
excretory, kidneylike organ called nephridium removes metabolic wastes from
the circulation and body fluid prior to excretion.
Vertebrates

Though the wastes produced by vertebrates differ little qualitatively

from those of higher invertebrates, increased structural complexity and body
size, in combination with environmental adaptations, require more specific
waste-disposal mechanisms in order to maintain a constant internal
environment. The presence of highly efficient, water-retaining kidneys, for
example, permits vertebrates to inhabit arid, hot regions of the earth.

Here are the excretory organs of some invertebrates.

Excretion in fish

In fishes some excretion also takes place in the digestive tract, skin,
and especially the gills

Excretory organs of fishes

How do fish maintain an internal balance of salt and water?

Osmoregulation is a process that helps maintain the internal balance

of salt and water in a fish’s body. There is always a difference between the
salinity of a fish’s environment and the inside of its body, whether the fish is
freshwater or marine. Since the fish’s skin is so thin, especially around places
like the gills, external water constantly tries to invade the fish’s body by
osmosis and diffusion. Look at it this way: the two sides (inside and out) of a
fish’s membrane skin have different concentrations of salt and water. Nature
always tries to maintain a balance on both sides, so salt ions will move through
the semi-permeable membrane towards the weaker salt solution (by
diffusion), while the water molecules take the opposite route (by osmosis) and
try to dilute the stronger salt solution.

Regardless of the salinity of their external environment, fish use

osmoregulation to fight the processes of diffusion and osmosis and maintain
the internal balance of salt and water essential to their efficiency and survival.

Freshwater Fish

In fresh water, the inside of a fish’s body has a higher concentration of

salt than the external environment. Consequently, there is a tendency to lose
salt and absorb water.

To combat this, freshwater fish have very efficient kidneys that excrete
water quickly. They also reabsorb salt from their urine before it is ejected to
minimize losses and actively take salt from their environment using special
cells in the gills.

Marine Fish

In marine environments, fishes face the opposite problem -- there’s

relatively more salt and less water outside their bodies. Consequently, there
is a tendency to take on salt and lose water.

To combat this, marine fishes drink vast amounts of water and urinate
little. Salt is a more complicated problem: special cells in the gills actively
eliminate salt at the cost of extra energy and these fishes do not absorb any
salt from the water they drink.

Amphibians (Frogs)

The excretory system in frogs includes the urinary system along with
respiratory, digestive and integumentary systems, same as humans. The
kidney’s, ureters, bladder and cloaca make up the urinary system. Liquid
wastes are filtered from the blood and stored as urine.
Reptiles

Excretion is performed mainly by two small kidneys. In crocodilians,

snakes, lizards, and tuatara, uric acid is the main nitrogen-containing waste
product. Turtles, like mammals, mainly excrete urea.
Birds

The most important organs of the excretory system of birds are

the kidneys. These are two reddish brown organs, each generally consisting
of three lobes. They are found behind the lungs and on each side of the spine
of the birds. The kidneys have two thin, straight tubes connected in their mid-
lateral part known as ureters bird kidneys convert nitrogenous wastes into uric
acid. White uric acid mixes with the feces before being excreted, giving bird
scat (bodily waste) its characteristic color. Because they eliminate using uric
acid instead of urea, birds require forty times less water than mammals
require!

Birds must be as lightweight as possible to fly. Because waste (in the

form of uric acid and feces) adds unnecessary weight, birds eliminate
frequently. They normally eliminate just before taking off in order to be as
light as possible.

Mammals

Mammals’ excretory organs include the kidneys, lungs, skin, anus and
lungs. The kidneys release urine, the lungs release the carbon dioxide, food
wastes go out from the anus, metabolic wastes such as urea and lactic acid
are removed in the sweat glands and excess water are expelled out from the
lungs.

The main excretory system in animals is the urinary system. The urinary
system is composed of the kidneys, in which urine is
produced, ureters, urinary bladder, and the urethra. An initial filtration of
the blood is produced in the kidneys.
 Water levels within an organism are constantly changing as a result of
metabolic activity

 Water is produced via condensation reactions (anabolism) and is

consumed during hydrolysis reactions (catabolism)
 The concentration of water within cells (osmolarity) will impact tissue
viability (i.e. governs osmotic pressure within cells)

Animals may be either osmoconformers or osmoregulators according to

how they manage their internal osmotic conditions:

 Osmoconformers maintain internal conditions that are equal to the

osmolarity of their environment
 Osmoregulators keep their body’s osmolarity constant, regardless of
environmental conditions

By matching internal osmotic conditions to the environment, osmoconformers

minimize water movement in and out of cells

 Less energy is used to maintain internal osmotic conditions within an

osmoconformer

While osmoregulation is a more energy-intensive process, it ensures internal

osmotic conditions are always tightly controlled

 Osmoregulators can maintain optimal internal conditions whereas

osmoconformers are affected by environmental conditions