Princess Farah P.

Hussin
BSN 1 F
Questions:
1) How are carbohydrates defined?
The most prevalent and widely distributed organic substance in nature, carbohydrates are
a necessary component of all living things. During the process of photosynthesis, green
plants convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates. In addition to providing
energy for organisms, carbohydrates are crucial structural elements in living things. They
also make up a portion of the nucleic acids, which carry genetic information.

2) What are the three major functions of carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates serve as the body's primary source of fuel, supplying the energy required
for physical activity, brain function, and organ function. Carbohydrates are necessary for
the health of your intestinal tract and the removal of waste from all of the cells and tissues
in your body.

3) Define the following terms:

Saccharide- Sugar
Ketose- Monosaccharides, which are essential fuel molecules and the building blocks of
nucleic acids, include ketoses. Dihydroxyacetone is the most basic kind of ketose.
Pyranose- Pyranose is the catchall term for saccharides that have a six-membered ring
made up of five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom in their chemical makeup.
Monosaccharide- Monosaccharides are sugar molecules that are incapable of being
hydrolyzed2 into simpler (smaller) sugar molecules.
Aldose- A simple sugar called an aldose is a monosaccharide with a carbon backbone
chain, an aldehyde group on the last carbon atom, and hydroxyl groups attached to every
other carbon atom.
Furanose- Carbohydrates with a chemical structure that includes a five-membered ring
system made up of four carbon atoms and one oxygen atom are collectively referred to
as furanoses.

4) How are carbohydrates produced in nature?

During the process of photosynthesis, green plants convert carbon dioxide and water into
carbohydrates. In addition to providing energy for organisms, carbohydrates are crucial
structural elements in living things. They also make up a portion of the nucleic acids, which
carry genetic information.

5) What gas is produced by plants during photosynthesis? By animals during metabolism?

The process of photosynthesis is how plants convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar
(glucose) using the power of sunlight. Animals use respiration to use oxygen to convert
food into energy. Animals and plants both absorb oxygen from the air and produce carbon
dioxide as a result.
6) How are carbohydrates classified?
Monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides are the three different categories
of carbohydrates.

7) What is the bond that joins together the monosaccharide units to form a more complex
polysaccharide?
Animals and plants build them from simpler monosaccharide molecules by fusing a large
number of the smaller molecules together using glycosidic bonds (-O-). In some of the
largest polysaccharide structures, 10,000 separate units may be connected.

8) Explain the meaning of the designations D and L as used to specify the configuration of
carbohydrates.
In front of the names of sugars and amino acids, the letters D- and L- are frequently used.
What are they saying? The (R,S) CIP system predates D- and L- as a description of the
absolute configuration of molecules. A dated but still useful abbreviation for expressing
that molecules are enantiomers is D- and L-.

9) Which carbon determines whether the sugar has a d or L configuration?

The molecule is a D-sugar if the hydroxyl group on the fifth carbon is to the right of the
molecule. L-sugar is the molecule if the hydroxyl group on the fifth carbon is to the left of
the molecule.

10) Explain the conventions for using and to designate the configuration of cyclic
forms of monosaccharides.
-used when the terminal -CH2OH is on the same side of the ring as the -OH on the
anomeric Carbon (up)
-used when the terminal -CH2OH is on the opposite side of the -OH on the anometric
carbon (down)

11) In what form do plants store carbohydrates? Animals?

Animals store carbohydrates as the molecule glycogen, whereas plants store
carbohydrates in the form of lengthy polysaccharide chains known as starch. These
massive polysaccharides store a lot of chemical energy due to their numerous chemical
bonds.

12) What are the elements found in all carbohydrates?

The only elements found in carbohydrates are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and when
they are burned, they produce carbon dioxide and one or more molecules of water.

13) What structural feature does a reducing sugar possesses?

The presence of an aldehyde group (CHO) like that found in glucose, mannose, galactose,
etc. or an a-ketol group (COCH2OH) like that found in fructose is the primary structural
characteristic of reducing sugars.
14) What is the difference in meaning between the terms glycosidic bond and glucosidic
bond?
By nature and the type of reaction they undergo, pyranoses and furanoses are
hemiacetals, which are structures created by the nucleophilic addition of an alcohol to a
carbonyl group that is then converted to OH.

15) Compare the structure of cellulose to that of amylose? Glycogen?

The two types of starch are amylopectin, a long, branched chain, and amylose, an
unbranched, coiled chain. Cellulose is a long, unbranched, straight chain that joins with
nearby chains to form hydrogen bonds, or H-bonds. Glycogen is made up of short,
numerously branched chains, some of which are coil-like.

16) What is the structural difference between amylose and amylopectin

The polysaccharides amylose and amylopectin can be found in starch granules. They are
distinct from one another in terms of both structure and chemistry. Amylose and
amylopectin differ primarily in that amylose is a straight-chain polymer and amylopectin is
a branched-chain polymer.

17) Write ring and opened-chained structure of ribose, deoxyribose, glucose, galactose,
fructose?
18) What is the most important monosaccharide in the human body?
Glucose, which serves as the body's main source of cell fuel and is abundant and
important nutritionally, can be found unbound in body tissues and fluids. Several
polysaccharides can be formed from glucose. Additionally used as cell fuel are galactose
and fructose.

19) Draw the structure of the following hexoses in the Haworth and Fischer projection:

a) Mannose

Fischer Projection Haworth Projection

b) Galactose

Fischer Projection Haworth Projection

20) Draw the Fischer projection of the following and then encircle the penultimate carbon.

a) Glucose b) Fructose

21) List the functions of hyaluronic acid.

Hyaluronic acid lessens wrinkles and lines while assisting skin in stretching and flexing.
Additionally demonstrated to promote wound healing and lessen scarring is hyaluronic
acid.

22) Explain mutarotation in reference to glucose. By what means it is detected?

The observed change in the optical rotation of the - and - anomers of glucose upon solvent
dissolution is referred to as "mutarotation" (literally, "change in rotation"). The - and - forms
gradually interconvert until equilibrium is reached as a result of ring-chain tautomerism.