1.

3 Analysis of the Structure

1.3.1 Concept of load combinations

(1) Load combinations for the ultimate limit state

The arrangement of loads should be such as to cause the most severe

effects, i.e. the most severe stresses. The design ultimate load should be

obtained as follows:

1. Dead load + imposed load

1.4 Gk + 1.6 Qk

Load combination 1 should also be associated with a minimum

design dead load of 1.0Gk applied to such parts of the structure as

will give the most unfavourable condition.

2. Dead load + wind load

1.0 Gk + 1.4 Wk or 1.4 Gk + 1.4 Wk

3. Dead load + imposed load + wind load

1.2 Gk + 1.2 Qk + 1.2 Wk

 For Load Combination 1, a three-span continuous beam would have

the loading arrangement shown in Fig. 1.3-1, in order to cause the

maximum sagging moment in the outer spans and the maximum

possible hogging moment in the centre span. A study of the

deflected shape of the beam would confirm this to be the case.

20
 Fig. 1.3--1 Three-sppan beam

 Fig. 1..3-2 show

ws the arran
ngements of verticaal loadingg on a mullti-span

continuuous beam
m to causee: (i) maxiimum sagging mom
ments in allternate

spans and maxim

mum posssible hoggging momeents in adjjacent spanns, and

(ii) maaximum hoogging mooments at support A.

A

code

Fig. 1.3--2 Load arrrangementss of a multti-span beaam

21
  Load arrangement to be considered for stability of a structure

Fig. 1.3-3 Load combination:

dead plus wind loads

The combination shown in the figure gives a critical condition.

(2) Load combination for the serviceability limit state

A partial factor of safety f = 1.0 is usually applied to all load

combinations at the serviceability limit state.

1.3.2 Analysis of beams

(1) Non-continuous beams: For the ultimate limit state, it only needs to

consider the maximum load of 1.4Gk +1.6Qk on the span.

■ Example 1.3-1: Analysis of simply-supported beam

The one-span simply supported beam shown in Fig. 1.3-4 carries a distributed

dead load including self-weight of 25 kN/m, a permanent concentrated partition

load of 30 kN at mid-span, and a distributed imposed load of 10 kN/m. Fig.

1.3-4 shows the values of the ultimate load required in calculations of the

bending moments and shear forces:

22
 (a) Ultimaate load

(bb) Bendingg moment

(b) Shearr force

Fig. 1.3-4 Analysis
A of one-span simply
s suppported beaam

42  4 204  4
Maxim
mum bendding momeent =  = 144
4 kNm
4 8
42 204
Maxim
mum shearr force =  = 123 kN
N
2 2

The anallysis is completed by drrawing thhe bendin

ng-momennt and

shear-forcce diagram
ms, whichh would later be used in the desiggn and

detailing of
o the bennding and shear reinnforcement.

(2) Continuouus beams

A continu
uous beam
m should be
b analyseed for critiical loadinng arrangeements,

as shownn in Fig. 1.3-2, which

w givve the maaximum stresses
s aat each

cross-secttion.

23
■ Exaample 1.3-2: Analyssis of conttinuous beeam

The coontinuous beam (Fiig. 1.3-5) has a connstant crooss-sectionn and suppports a

uniform
mly distributed deaad load inccluding its self-weiight of Gk = 25 kN//m and

an impposed load
d Qk = 10 kN/m.
k

Fig. 1.3-55 Continuoous beam looading arraangement

The crritical loaad arrangeements forr the ultim

mate limit state aree shown in Fig.

where thee ‘stars’ inndicate thhe region of maxim

1.3-5 w mum mom
ments, saggging or

possible hoggingg.

Bendinng momen
nts:

Fiig. 1.3-6 Bending mooment diagrrams for diifferent loaad arrangem

ments (kNm
m)

24
Shear forces:

Fig. 1.3-77 Shear forrce diagram

ms for diffferent load
d arrangem
ments (kN)

Bendinng momen
nt and shear force ennvelopes:

Fig. 1.3-8 Envvelopes off bending moment and

a shear force
f

25
 Bendinng momennts and shear forcees of unifformly-loaaded conttinuous

beams with apprroximatelyy equal sppans:

The ulltimate beending mo

oments andd shear foorces in co
ontinuous beams

with thhree or more

m approoximately equal spaans can be
b obtained from

de of pracctice, provided that

the cod

i. Varriations inn span lenggth are nott exceed 15% of thee longest one;
o

ii. Loaads shouldd be subsstantially uniformly

u y distributeed over thhree or

more spans; and

iii. Impposed loadd Qk may not exceed dead loaad Gk.

Table 1.33-1 Designn ultimate bending

b mo
oments andd shear forces
(HKConccrete2013: cclause 6.1.2.3: Table 6.1)

 Valuess in Table 1.3-1 can be shownn in diagraammatic foorm in Figg. 1.3-9

Fiig. 1.3-9 Beending-mooment and shear-force

s e coefficiennts for beam
ms

26
 Ch
hapter T
Two
_____________
________________________________________
__________
______________

An
nalysis of Sectiions of Reinfor
R rced Co
oncrete Membeers

2.1 Design Sttress-Straiin Curves

The shhort-term design

d stress-strain curves inn BS 8110 and HKC
Concrete20004 for

concreete and steeel are preesented in Figs 2.1-1 to 2.1-33. These curves arre in an

idealissed form and

a are useed in the analysis
a off RC mem
mber sectioons.

2.1.1 Concrete

 BS 8110

Fig. 2.1--1 BS 81100 design strress-strain curve for normal-we

n eight concreete in
2
comp pression (ffcu
c in N/mm
m )

mum stresss = 0.67 f cu /  m . W

o Maxim When m = 1.5,
1 0.67 f cu /  m = 0.45
0 fcu ,

where the factor 0.67 takkes accounnt of the relation

r between thhe cube

strengtth and thee bending strength

s o concretee (not a saafety factorr).
of

o Ultimaate strain cu = 0.00335 (Concrete is asssumed to fail at cu ).

27
  HKConcrrete2013

For fcu ≤ 60 N/mm2, cu = 0.0035; For

F fcu > 60 N/mm
N 2
, cu = 0.0035
0 – 0.000006( fcu – 60)

Fig. 2.1-2 HKC

Concrete20004 design stress-straain curve fo
or normal-w
weight conncrete

The differrences as compared

c d with the BS
B 8110 design
d currve are:

1. Valuess of Ec are generallyy smaller than

t those of BS 8110;

2. When fcu > 60 N/mm

N 2
(higgh-strengtth concretee), cu < 0.0035.

2.1.2 Reinforccing steel

(E
Es )
y 

F
Fig. 2.1-3 HKConcre
H ete2013 dessign stress--strain curv
ve for steell reinforcem
ment
fy fy
 Maximum
m stress =   0.87 f y
m 1.155
f y /  m 5000 / 1.15
 Design yiield strain y    0.00217
Ec 2000  103

28
2.2 General Behaviour
B of RC Beeams in Beending

2.2.1 Types of cross

c sectiions
Three com
mmon types of RC beam
b secttions are shhown in Fig.
F 2.2-1:
(a) Rectaangular seection with
h tension steel
s only;
(b) Rectaangular seection with
h both tennsion and compressi
c on steel;
(c) Flang
ged sectioons of T orr L shapes.

(c)

Fig. 22.2-1 Comm mon RC beeam sectionns. (a) Recctangular beam and sllab, tensionn steel
onnly; (b) rectangular beeam, tensioon and com
mpression steel;
s (c) fllanged beam
ms

2.2.2 A generall theory foor ultimatee flexural sstrength

 Basic assuumptions
(1) Plan
ne sectionss remain plane.
p
(2) The ultimate limit
l statee of collappse is reacched whenn concretee strain
reachhes cu = 0.0035
0 (for fcu  60 N/mm
N 2
).
[Refe
ferring to Fig. mm2, cu
F 2.1-2:: In HKCooncrete20113, for fcu > 60 N/m
= 0.0
0035 – 0.000006√( fcuu – 60)]
(3) Tensile strengtth of concrete is ignnored.
 Strain andd stress disstributionss of cross--section att failure

Fig. 2.22-2 Strain and

a stress distribution
d ns at failure

29
 As  tension reinforcement; As  compression reinforcement;

cu  ultimate strain of concrete;

s  strain in tension steel; s  strain in compression steel

d  effective depth (h  overall depth); x  neutral axis depth.

 From Assumption (1), the strain distribution in a beam cross-action is

linear.

Form Assumption (2), the maximum concrete compressive strain has a

specified value cu at the instant of collapse. The corresponding values

of s and s are

dx x  d
s   cu and  s   cu (2.1)
x x

From Assumption (c), the forces on the beam section are

Concrete tension: Fct = 0, Concrete compression: Fcc = k1 fcubx

Steel tension: Fst = Asfs, Steel compression: Fsc = As f s

For the condition of equilibrium,

k1 f cu bx  As f s  As f s (2.2)

Taking moments about the level of tension steel,

M u  ( k1 f cu bx )( d  k 2 x)  As f s( d  d ) (2.3)

Or taking moments about the centroid of the concrete stress block,

M u  As f s (d  k 2 x)  As f (k 2 x  d ) (2.4)

where Mu is the ultimate flexural strength or maximum moment of

resistance.

30
2.2.3 Stress blocks

(1) Hognestad et al.’s block

Fig. 2.2-3 Characteristics of the stress block by Hognestad et al.

(2) Whitney’s equivalent rectangular block

Fcc = Acc fcu

Fst = As fs

Fig. 2.2-4 Whitney’s equivalent rectangular stress block

HKConcrete2013, EC2 and ACI-318 make use of the concept of an

equivalent rectangular stress block, which was pioneered by Whitney.

31
 (3) Design stress blocks for concrete at ultimate limit state

o Simplified stress block (Clause 6.1.2.4)

cu ≤ 0.0035 0.67fcu/m (= 0.45fcu )

x ≤ 0.9x

Neutral axis

(a) Strain (b) Stress

Fig. 2.2-5 HKConcrete2013 simplified rectangular stress block

o In HKConcrete2013, a rectangular stress block for concrete shown in

Fig. 2.2-5 is adopted, while the depth of the block is modified

according to the concrete strength fcu.

0.0035 for f cu  60 N/mm2

(i)  cu 
0.0035  0.00006 f cu  60 for f cu  60 N/mm2

(ii) The depth of the stress block

 0.9x for fcu ≤ 45 N/mm2

 0.8x for 45 < fcu ≤ 70 N/mm2

 0.72x for 70 < fcu ≤ 100 N/mm2

2.3 Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending

2.3.1 Design formulae

The design formulae are derived using the rectangular stress block for concrete.

32