Solar Energy

Er.N.
Kurinchimurugan
Contact No: 7094788583
Solar Energy
Solar energy has the greatest potential of all the sources of renewable
energy and if only a small amount of this form of energy could be used, it will be
one of the most important supplied of energy specially when other sources in the
country have depleted.
Energy comes to the earth from the sun. this energy keeps the
temperature of the earth above that in colder space, causes current in the
atmosphere and in ocean, causes the water cycle and generate photosynthesis
in plants.
The solar power where sun hits atmosphere is 1017 watts, whereas the
solar power on earth’s surface is 1016 watts. The total world – wide power
demand of all needs of civilization is 1013 watts. Therefore, the sun gives us 1000
times more power than we need. If we can use 5% of this energy, it will be 50
times what the world will require. The energy radiated by the sun on a bright
sunny day is approximately 1 kW/m2, attempts have been made to make use of
this energy in raising steam which may be used in driving the prime movers for
the purpose of generation of electrical energy. However on account of large
space required, uncertainty of availability of energy at constant rate, due to
clouds, winds haze etc., there is limited application of this source in the
generation of electric power. Now – a – days the drawbacks as pointed out that
energy cannot be stored and it is a dilute form of energy, are out dated
arguments, since the energy can be stored by producing hydrogen, or by storing
in other mechanical or electrical devices, or it can be stored in containers of
chemicals called eutectic or phase changing salts. These salts which store large
quantities of heat in a relatively small volume, melt when they are heated and
release heat later as they cool and crystallize. The energy can be concentrated in
solar furnaces, for example which can achieve temperatures in the region of
50000C. the facts speak in favour of solar energy, as we have seen in analysis of
commercial energy sources, that world’s reserves of coal, oil and gas will be
exhausted within a few decades. Nuclear energy involve considerable hazards
and nuclear fusion has not yet overcome all the problems of even fundamental
research, compared with these technologies, the feasibility of which is still
uncertain and contested, the technical utilization of solar energy can prove very
useful. Utilization of solar energy is of great importance to India since it lies in a
temperature climate of the region of the world where sun light is abundant for a
major part of the year.
The basic research in solar energy is being carried in universities and

educational and research institutions, public sector institution, Bharat Heavy
Electricals Limited and Central Electronic Limited are carrying out a co-ordinated
programme of research in solar energy.
The applications of solar energy which are enjoying most success to-day
are:
1. Heating and cooling of residential building.

2. Solar water heating.
3. Solar drying of agricultural and animal products.
4. Solar distillation on a small community scale.
5. Salt production by evaporation of seawater or inland brines.
6. Solar cookers.
7. Solar engines for water pumping.
8. Food refrigeration.
9. Bio conversion and wind energy, which are indirect source of solar energy.
10. Solar furnaces.
11. Solar electric power generation by
i. Solar ponds.
ii. Steam generators heated by rotating reflectors (heliostat
mirrors), or by tower concept.
iii. Reflectors with lenses and pipes for fluid circulation (cylindrical
parabolic reflectors).
12. Solar photovoltaic cells, which can be used for conversion of solar energy
directly into electricity or for water pumping in rural agricultural purposes.
Er.N.Kurinchimurugan
DIFFERENT SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS
The heat from solar collector is directly used for warming the living spaces of
a building in conventional ways e.g., through radiators and hot air registers.
When the building does not require heat, the warmed air or liquid from the
collector can be moved to a heat storage container. In the case of air, the storage
is often a pile of rocks or some other heat – holding material, in the case of liquid,
it is usually a large, well insulated tank of water, which has considerable heat
capacity. Heat is also stored in containers of chemicals called eutectic or phase
changing salts. These salts, which store large quantities of heat in a relatively
small volume, melt when they are heated and release heat later as they cool and
crystallize. When the building needs, heat, the air or water from its heating
system passes through the storage is warmed, and is then fed through the
conventional heaters to warm the space. For sunless days or cloudy days, an
auxiliary system as a back – up, is always required. The same is true for solar
cooling systems.
The heat from solar energy can be used to cool buildings, using the
absorption cooling principle operative in gas – fired refrigerators. Presently
available equipments, however usually requires extremely high operating
temperatures for above those for efficient solar collection. A great deal of current
research is being devoted to developing systems requiring lower operating
temperatures, but it will probably be several years before solar collectors will be
commercially viable.
Solar energy units for heating domestic water are commercially available and
are used by millions of people in various parts of the world, for example in
Australia, Israel, Japan etc. A solar water heater commonly comprises a
blackened flat plate metal collector with an associated metal tubing, facing the
general direction of the sun. the collector is provided with a transparent glass
cover and a layer of thermal insulation beneath tank plate. The collector tubing is
connected by a pipe to an insulated tank that stores hot water during non –
sunny periods. The collector absorbs solar radiation and by transparent glass
cover and a layer of thermal insulation beneath the plate. The collector tubing is
connected by a pipe to an insulated tank that stores hot water during non –
sunny periods. The collector absorbs solar radiation and by transfer of resulting
heat to the water circulating through the tubing by gravity ofr by a pump, hot
water is supplied to the storage tank.
Solar water heating systems for domestic, industrial and commercial

applications are at present available. In commercial establishments, there is
great potential especially in hotels, hospitals, guest houses, tourist bungalows,
canteen etc. for industrial applications solar water heating system can meet the
low and medium temperature process heat requirements hot water upto 900C,
hot air upto 1100C and low pressure steam upto 1400C. these are specially useful
in engineering, textile, chemicals, pharmaceutical food processing, sugar, dairy
and other industries. Hot water system have relevance for many agricultural and
village industries, such as for handloom fabrics, seri – culture, leather tanning
and hand made paper.
The basic method of solar distillation is to admit solar radiation through a

transparent cover to a shallow, covered brine basin; water evaporates from the
brine and the vapour condenses on the covered which are so arranged that the
condensate flows there – from into collection troughs and hence into a product –
water storage tank. In arid, semi arid, or coastal areas, there is abundant sun
light that can be used for converting brackish or saline water into potable distilled
water.
A traditional and wide – spread use of solar energy is for drying particularly of
agricultural products. This is a process of substantial economic significance in
many areas. The process is of special interest in the case of soft fruits; these are
particularly vulnerable to attack by insects, as the sugar concentration increases
during drying. Fruits dryer in which fruit is placed, in carefully designed racks to
provide controlled exposure to solar radiation often improves product quality and
saves considerable time. A simple cabinet dryer consists of a box, insulated at
the base, painted black on the inside and covered with an inclined transparent
sheet of glass. Ventilation holes are provided at the base and at the top of the
sides of the box to facilitate a flow of air over the drying material, which is placed
on perforated trays in the interior of the cabinet base.
Large drying system like grain, paddy, maize, cash crops like ginger, cashew,
pepper, etc., spray drying of milk; timber and veneer drying; tobacco curing; fish
and fruit drying, etc. have also been developed.
Solar refrigeration is intended for food preservation (or storage of biological

and medical materials) and deserves top – priority in country like India. Solar air
conditioning can be utilized for space cooling. Solar assisted heat pumps would
provide both cooling and heating.
Cold storages are very important for preservation and conservation of food
articles.
There are two methods of solar refrigeration.
a. Vapour absorption refrigeration system that utilizes low grade thermal

energy obtained from flat plate collectors with a little modification.
b. Concentrating (focusing) collectors to supply heat at a higher temperature
to a heat engine which then drive the compressor of a conventional
refrigerator.
Solar refrigeration with an absorption system is a better way of direct

utilization of energy. The vapour absorption system replacing the compressor
by a generator absorber assembly can work with wide range of absorbents
and refrigerants. In absorption system motive power required is very small,
but still C.O.P. of the system is low.
Electricity from Solar Energy
Electricity can be produced from the solar energy by photo voltaic solar
cells, which convert the solar energy directly to electricity. The most significant
applications photo voltaic cell in India, are the energisation of pump sets for
irrigation, drinking water supply and rural electrification covering street lights,
community TV sets, medical refrigerators and other small power loads.
Electricity is directly generated by utilizing solar energy by the photo voltaic

process. When photons from the sun are absorbed in a semi – conductor, they
create free electrons with higher energies than the electrons which provide the
bounding in the base crystal. Once these free electrons are created, there must
be an electric field to induce these higher energy electrons to flow out of the
semiconductor to do useful work. The electric field in most solar cells is provided
by a junction of materials which have different electrical properties. The
photovoltaic effect can be described easily for p-n junction in semi – conductor
materials of solar cells which are silicon, cadmium, sulphide / copper sulphide,
Gallium Arsenite etc.
In a solar thermal power production system the energy is first collected by

using a solar pond, a flat plate collector, focusing collector or heliostats (turntable
mirrors). This energy is used to increase the internal energy or temperature of a
fluid. This fluid may be directly used in any of the common or known cycles such
as Rankine, or through a heat exchanger to heat a secondary fluid (working fluid)
which is being used in the cycle to produce mechanical power from which
electrical power can be produced easily.
Solar thermal power cycles can be broadly classified as low medium and high
temperature cycles. Low temperature cycles generally use flat plate collectors or
solar pond, maximum temperatures are limited to above 90 to 1000C. medium
temperature cycles work at maximum temperatures ranging from 150 to 3000C,
using concentrating or focusing collector. High temperature cycles work at
maximum temperatures above 3000C.
In solar tower concentration system (Tower power concept), the incoming

solar radiation is focused to a central receiver or a boiler mounted on a tall tower
using thousands of plane reflectors which are steerable about two axes and are
called heliostats.
Results to-date show solar energy to be quite competitive with other sources
of energy, if the solar tower plant size is about 100-200 Mwe, with 3-6 hours
thermal storage.
Over the last few years, few experiment power plants have been build or
under construction in U.S.A., France, Italy and Japan.
Solar Radiation and its Measurement
The major drawbacks to the extensive application of solar energy are:
1. The intermittent and variable manner in which it arrives the earth’s

surface and
2. The large area required to collect the energy at a useful rate.
Experiments are underway to use this energy for power production, house
heating, air conditioning, cooking and high temperature melting of metals.
Energy is radiated by the sun as electromagnetic waves of which 99 per

cent have wave lengths in the range of 0.2 to 4.0 micrometers (1,icrimeter =10-6
meter). Solar energy reaching the top of the earth’s atmosphere consists of
about 8 per cent ultraviolet radiation (short wave length, less than 0.39
micrometer), and 46 per cent infrared radiation (long wave length more than 0.78
micrometer).
Solar constant
The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by
various kinds of fusion reactions. Its diameter is 1.39 x 106 16’6km. While that of
the earth is 1.27 x 104 km. The mean distance between the two is 1.50-x108 km.
Although the sun is large, it subtend an angle of only 32 minutes at the earth’s
surface. This is because it is also at a very large distance. Thus the beam
radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel. The brightness of
the sun varies.
The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is
called the solar constant Isc . This is the amount of energy received in unit time on
a unit area perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the mean distance of the earth
from the sun. Because of the sun’s distance and activity vary throughout the
year, the rate of arrival of solar radiation varies accordingly. The so called solar
constant in thus an average from which the actual values vary upto 3 per cent in
either direction. This variation is not important however, for Administration’s
(NASA) standard value for the solar constant, expressed in three common units,
is as follows:
1.353 kiowatts per square metre or 1353 watt per square metre. 116.5
langleys (calories per sq.cm) per hour, or 1165 kcal per sq. m per hour (1 langley
being equal to 1cal/cm2 of solar radiation received in one day).
Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface
From the point of view of utilization of solar energy we are more interested
in the energy received at the earth’s surface than in the extra – terrestial energy.
Solar radiation received at the surface of the earth is entirely different due to the
various reasons. Before studying this it is important to know the following terms.
Beam and Diffuse Solar Radiation
The solar radiation that penetrates the earth’s atmosphere and aches the
surface differs in both amount and character from the radiation at the top of the
atmosphere. In the first place, part of the radiation is reflected back into the
space, especially by clouds. Further more, the radiation entering the atmosphere
is partly absorbed by molecules in the air. Oxygen and ozone (O3), formed from
oxygen, absorb nearly all the ultraviolet radiation, and water vapour and carbon
dioxide absorb some of the energy in the infrared range. In addition, part of the
solar radiation is scattered (i.e., its direction has been changed) by droplets in
clouds by atmospheric molecules, and by dust particles.
Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the
ground directly from the sun is called “direct ration” or Beam radiation. It is the
radiation which produces a shadow when interrupted by an opaque object.
Diffuse radiation is that solar radiation received from the sun after its direction
has been changed by reflection and scattering by the atmosphere. Because of
the solar radiation is scatted in all directions in the atmosphere, diffuse radiation
comes to the earth from all parts of the sky. Fig.2.3.1. The total solar radiation
received at any point on the earth’s surface is the sum of the direct and diffuse
radiation. This is referred to in a general sense as the insolation at that point.
More specifically, the insolation is defined as the solar radiation energy received
on a horizontal surface of unit area (e.g., 1 sq. m) on the ground in unit time (e.g.,
1 day).
The insolation at a given location on the earth’s surface depends, among

other factors, on the altitude of the sun in the sly. (The altitude is the angle
between the sun’s direction and the horizontal). Since the sun’s altitude changes
with the date and time of the day and with the geographic ;attitude at which the
observations are made, the rate of arrival of solar radiation on the ground is a
variable quantity even in the time.
Sun at Zenith. Position of the sun directly over head.

Air mass (m). It is the path length of radiation through the atmosphere,
considering the vertical path at sea level as unity.
The air mass m is the ratio of the path of the sun’s rays through the
atmosphere to the length of path when the sun is at the zenith. Except for very
low solar altitude angles, the air mass is equal to the cosecant of the altitude
angle. Thus angles, the air mass is equal to the cosecant of the altitude angle.
Thus at sea level m = 1.
m = 1 when the sun is at zenith, i.e., directly over head.
m = 2 when zenith angle is 600 (θz, the angle subtended by the
zenith and the line of sight to the sun).
m = sec θz when m > 3.

m = 0 just above the earths atmosphere.
Ozone absorbs mainly in the ultraviolet band. It absorbs almost completely the
short wave radiation below 0.29 µ m, the extra terrestrial solar radiation by H2O
and CO2 in atmosphere, is strong. Hence for terrestrial application of solar
energy, only wavelengths between 0.29 and 2.5 µm need be considered.
Solar Radiation Geometry

In solar radiation analysis, the following angles are useful:
φl = latitude of location
δ = declination
ω = hour angle
γs = solar Azimuth angle
s = slope
α = altitude angle
θz = zenith angle.
Fig. Diagram Illustrating the Angle of Incidence q, the Zenith Angle qzthe Solar
Altitude Angle aa, the Slope b and the Surface Azimuth Angle
If θ is the angle between an incident beam radiation I and the normal to
the plane surface, then the equivalent flux or radiation intensity falling normal to
the surface is given by I cos θ. θ is called incident angle.
Let us first define the above angles. The altitude φl of a point or location is
the angle made by the radial line joining the location to the center of the earth
with projection of the line on the equatorial plane. It is the angular distance north
or south of the equator measured from center of earth. As shown in Fig2.4.1, it is
the angle between the line OP and the projection OP on the equatorial plane.
Point P represents the location on the earth surface and O represents the center
of the earth. By convention the latitude will be measured as positive for the
northern hemisphere. The declination δ is the angular distance of the sun’s rays
north (or south) of the equator. It is the angle between a line extending from the
center of the sun to the center of the earth and the projection of this line upon the
earth’s equatorial plane.
This is the direct consequence of the tilt and it would vary between 23.50
on December 22. At the time of winter solstice.
The hour angles ω is the angle through which the earth must turn to bring
the meridian of a point directly in line with the sun’s rays. The hour angle ω is
equivalent to 150 per hour. It is measured from noon based on the local solar
time (LST) or local apparent time, being positive in the morning and negative un
the afternoon. (The term LST will be defined a little later). It is the angle
measured in the earth’s equatorial plane, between the projection of OP and the
projection of a line from the center of the sun to the centre of the earth.
Altitude angle α (solar altitude)
It is vertical angle between the projection of the sun’s rays on the
horizontal plane and the direction of sun’s rays (passing through the point).
(Refer Fig.2.4.3).
Zenith angle θz
It is complementary angle of sun’s altitude angle. it is a vertical angle

between the sun’s rays and a line perpendicular to the horizontal plane through
the point i.e. the angle between the beam from the sun and the vertical.
π
θz = --------- - a
2
Solar Azimuth Angle γs.

It is the solar angle in degrees along the horizon east or west of north or it is a
horizontal angle measured from north to the horizontal projection of the sun’s
rays. This angle is positive when measured west wise.
Example
Determine the Local Solar time and declination at a location latitude 230
15’N, longitude 770 30’E at 12.30 IST on June 19. Equation of time correction is
given from standard table or chart = - (1’ 01”).
Solution
The local solar time

= IST – (standard time longitude – longitude of location) +
Equation of
time correction
= 12h 30’ – 4 (820 30’ – 77030’) – 1’ 01”
Indian Standard Time (IST) is the local civil time corresponding to 82.50 E
longitude
= 12h 30’ – 4 x 5 – 1’ 01”
= 12h 8’ 59’. Ans.
Declination δ can be obtained by Cooper’s equation i.e.,
360
δ = 23.45 sin ----------- (284 +n)
365
360
= 23.45 sin ----------- (284 + 170)
365
(n is the day of the here = 170 on June 19)

= 23.45 sin 860
= 23.430.Ans.
= 230 25’ 56”.
TRANSMISSIVITY OF COVER SYSTEM
Transmissivity like reflectivity and absorptivity, is a function of the

wavelength and the angle of incidence of the incoming solar radiation. Other
variables which effect the transmissivity are the refractive index n and the
extinction coefficient k of the medium but strictly specking both n and k are also
functions of the wavelength λ/
A surface with transmissivity τ = 0 is known as an opaque surface. For

such surfaces the sum of the absorptivity (α) and reflectivity (ρ) must be equal to
unity (∴τ + α + ρ = 0). If however, τ = 1, the medium is perfectly transparent.
Most real materials are only partially transparent 0 > τ > 1.
Transmissivity in partially transparent (i.e., translucent) materials is

dependent both upon the reflection and absorption of ration. The problem is
usually tacked in two stages.
i. The transmissivity τρ is first calculated considering reflection alone.

ii. The transmissivity τα is then calculated considering absorption alone.
The transmissivity τ, allowing for both reflection and absorption is then given
by
τ = τρ, τα
Since in the most applications there will be a slab of materials involving two
faces, reflection at both faces shall have to be considered. Furthermore, the
problem is complicated by the fact that the radiation undergoes multiple reflection
at both these faces.
Reflection at interfaces
Fresnel has given the relationship for the reflection of non – polarized
radition on passing from one medium to another (fig.3.4.1).
Transmittance – Absorptance Product
For solar collector analysis, it is necessary to evaluate the transmittance –

absorptance product (τ.α). Of the radiation passing through the cover system and
striking the plate, some is reflected back to the cover system. However, all this
radiation is not lost since some is reflected back to the plate.
The transmissivity – absorptivity product is defined as the ratio of the

radiation absorbed in the absorber plate to the radiation incident on the cover
system and is denoted by the symbol (τ.α), an appropriated subscript b or d
being added to indicate the type of incident radiation (i.e. beam or diffuse.) As
illustrated in Fig.3.4.3, τ is the transmittance of the cover system as can be know
from equation (3.4.1) and α is the angular absorptance of the absorber plate, τ. α
is absorbed by the absorber plate and (1-α) τ, is reflected back to the cover plate
is diffuse radiation and (1-α) τ.ρd is reflected back to the absorber plate. The
quantity ρd refers to reflection of the cover plate for incident diffuse radiation that
may be partially polarized due to reflections at it is passed through the cover
system.
Energy Balance Equation and Collector Efficiency
The performance of solar collector is described by an energy balance that

indicates the distribution of incident solar radiation into the useful energy fain and
various losses. The thermal losses can be separated into three components:
i. Conductivel Losses
An overall heat transfer coefficient value of less than 0.69 W/m2 0K is

suggested to minimize back losses.
ii. Convectivel Losses
Sizing the air gap between the collector cover at 1.25 to 2.5 cm reduces
internal convective losses to the minimum possible level. Convection losses
between glass plates can also be inhibited if a honey comb type, cellular
structure is placed between the absorber and the outer window plate. Evacuation
of the space between the absorber and the outer cover has been proposed to
reduce internal convection and conduction, but the cost of added supports and
maintenance of a vacuum are excessive.
iii. Radiative losses
Radiative losses from the absorber can be reduced by the sue of

spectrally selective absorber coatings. Such coatings have a high absorptance of
about 0.9 in the solar spectrum and a low emittance, usually of the order of 0.1,
in the infra – red spectrum in which the absorber radiates to the environment.
Selective absorber coating, therefore decrease heat losses and increase
collector efficiency.
Under steady conditions, the useful heat delivered by a solar collector is

equal to the energy absorbed in the metal surface minus the heat losses from the
surface directly and indirectly to the surroundings. This principle can be stated in
the relationship
Qu = Ac [HR (.J& )e – UL (tp-ta) ] ….(3.5.1)

Where Qu is the energy delivered by collector, Watts or kcal/hr.
Ac is the collector area, m2

Solar Energy Collectors
Introduction
A solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and transfer

the energy to a fluid passing in contact with it. Utilization of solar energy
requires solar collectors. These are general of two types:
i. Non concentrating or flat plate type solar collector.

ii. Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector.
The solar energy collector, with its associated absorber, is the essential
component of any system for the conversion of solar radiation energy into
more usable form (e.g. heat or electricity). In the non – con – centration
type, the collector area (i.e. the area that intercepts the solar radiation) is
the same as the absorber area (i.e. the area absorbing the radiation). On
the other hand, in concentrating collectors, the area intercepting the solar
radiation is greater, sometimes hundred of times greater than the absorber
area. By means of concentrating collectors, much higher temperatures can
be obtained than with the non – con – centrating type. Concentrating
collectors may be used to generate medium pressure steam. They use
many different arrangements of mirrors and lenses to concentrate the sun’s
rays on the boiler. This type shows better efficiency than the flat plate type.
For best efficiency, collectors should be mounted to face the sun as it
moves through the sky.
Physical Principles of the Conversion of Solar Radiation into Heat
The fundamental process now in general use for heat conversion is the
green house effect. The name come from its first use in green houses, in
which it is possible to grow exotic plants in cold climates through better
utilization of the available sunlight.
Glass easily transmits short – wave radiation, which means that it

poses little interference to incoming solar energy, but it is a very poor
transmitter of long – wave radiation. Once the sun’s energy has passed
through the glass windows and has been absorbed by some material
inside, the heat will not be reradiated back outside. Glass therefore, act as
a heat trap, a phenomenon which has been recognized for sometime in the
construction of green houses, which can get quite warm on sunny days,
even in the middle of winter; this has come to known in fact, as the ‘green
house effect’. Solar collectors for home heating usually called flat plate
collectors, almost have one or more glass covers, although various plastic
and other transparent materials are often used instead of glass.
In fig.3.2.2 a black – painted plate absorbs the incoming sunlight. About

it, is fixed a plate of ordinary windows glass. When the temperature of the
black plate increases, its emits and increment of thermal heat in the form of
infra – red light. The black absorber has the properties of a black body;
ideal black bodies have not only the highest absorption rate but also the
highest emission coefficient for all wavelengths of light. Emission increases
with temperature, following T4 law. The re – emitted light if so progressively
shorter wavelength and greater energy as the temperature of the black
body increase. This is expressed by Wien’s law, which may be written as:
Flat – Plate Collectors
Where temperatures below about 900C are adequate, as they are for
space and service water heating flat plate collectors, which are of the non –
concentrating type, are particularly convenient. They are made in
rectangular panels, from about 1.7 to 2.9 sq. m, in area, and are relatively
simple to construct and erect. Flat plates can collect and absorb both direct
and diffuse solar radiation, they are consequently partially effective even on
cloudy days when there is no direct radiation.
Flat – plate solar electors may be divided into two main classifications
based on the type of heat transfer fluid used.
Liquid heating collectors are used for heating water and non – freezing
aqueous solutions and occasionally for non – aqueous heat transfer fluids.
Air or gas heating collectors are employed as solar air heaters.
The principal difference between the two types is the design of the
passage for the heat for the transfer fluid.
The majority of the flat – plate collector have five main components as
follows:
i. A transparent cover which may be one or more sheets of glass or
radiation transmitting plastic film or sheet.
ii. Tubes, fins, passage or channels are integral with the collector
absorber plate or connected to it, which carry the water, air or other fluid.
iii. The absorber plate, normally metallic or with a black, surface,
although a wide variety of other materials can be used with air heaters.
iv. Insulation, which should be provided at the back and sides to
minimize the heat losses. Standard insulating materials such as fibre glass
or styro – foam are used for the this purpose.
v. The casing or container which enclose the other components and
protects them from the weather.
(A) A Typical Liquid Collector
There are many flat – plate collector design, but most are based on the
principle shown in Fig below. It is the plate and tube type collector. It
basically consists of a flat surface with high absorptivity for solar radiation,
called the absorbing surface. Typically a metal plate, usually of copper,
steel or aluminium material with tubing of copper in thermal contact with the
plates, are the most commonly used materials. The absorber plate is
usually made from a metal sheet 1 to 2 mm in thickness, while the tubes,
which are also of metal, range in diameter from 1 to 1.5 cm. They are
soldered, brazed or clamped to the bottom ( in some cases, to the top) of
the absorber plate corrugated galvanized sheet is a material widely
available throughout the world.
Heat is transferred from the absorber plate to point of use by
circulation of fluid (usually water) across the solar heated surface. Thermal
insulation of 5 to 10 cm thickness is usually placed behind the absorber
plate to prevent the heat losses from the rear surface. Insulation materials
is generally mineral wool or glass or fiberglass as stated above.
e front covers are generally glass (may be one or more) that is
transparent to in – coming solar radiation and opaque to the infra – red re –
radiation from the absorber. The glass covers act as a convention shield to
reduce losses from the absorber plate beneath. Glass is generally used for
the transparent covers but certain plastic films may be satisfactory. Glass is
the most favourable material. Thickness of 3 and 4 mm are commonly
used. The usual practice is to have 1 or 2 covers with a specific ranging
from 1.5 to 3 cm.
Advantage of second glass which is added above the first one are:
1. Losses due to air convection are further reduced. This is important in
windy areas.
2. Radiation losses in the infra – red spectrum are reduced by a further
25%, because half of the 50% which is emitted outwards from the first glass
plate is back radiated. It is not worthwhile to use more than two glass
plates. This is due to the fact that each plate reflects about 15% of the
incoming sunlight.
Heat Transport System
The heat generated in the absorber is removed by continuous flow of a

heat – transport ( or heat transfer) medium, either water or air. It is mainly in
the design of the heat transfer system that flat plate collectors differ.
Water is a very effective heat – transport medium, but it suffers from

certain drawbacks, one is the possibility of freezing in the collector tubes in
cold climates during cold night. As stated earlier ethylene glycol is added to
prevent freezing, but this generally adds to the complexity of the heating
system. Furthermore, the antifreeze solution is less effective than water for
heat removed from the absorber. In some cases, the water is drained from
the collector tubes if freezing is expected, but difficulties have been
experienced in refilling all the tubes in the morning.
Another problem arises from corrosion of the metal tubes by the water;
this aggravated if the water is drained at night thus allowing air to enter. The
oxygen in air increase the rate of corrosion of most metals. Corrosion can
be minimized by using copper tubing. Aluminium is a less expensive
alternative, although periodic chemical treatment of water is desirable.
Finally, leaks in a water (or anti freeze) circulation system require
immediate attention.
Fig .above shows a schematic flat – plate collector where an air stream is
heated by the back side of the collector plate. Fins attached to the plate
increase the contact surface. The back side of the collector is heavily
insulated with mineral wool or some other material. The most favourable
orientation, of a collector, for heating only is facing due south at an
inclination angle to the horizontal equal to the latitude plus 150.
Air has been used far to a lesser extent as the heat – transport medium in
solar collectors, but it may have some advantages over water. To decrease
the power required to pump the necessary volume of air through tubes,
wider flow channels are used.
Basically air heaters are classified in the following two categories.
1. The first type has a non – porous absorber in which the air stream does
not flow through the absorber plate. Air may glow above and or behind the
absorber plate, as shown in fig.3.3.6.
2. The second type has a porous absorber that includes slit and expanded
metal, transpired honey comb and over – lapped glass plate absorber, as
shown in Fig.3.3.7.
1. Non – porous absorber plate type collectors.
A non – porous absorber may be cooled by the air steam flowing over
both sides of the plate as shown in Fig.3.3.6 (a). In most common design
the air flows behind the absorbing surface. Air flow above the upper surface
increase the convention losses from the cover plate and therefore is not
recommended if the air inlet temperature rise at the collector are large, it is
shown in Fig.3.3.6(b).
Transmission of the solar radiation through the transparent cover
system and its absorption is identical to that of a liquid type flat – plate
collector. To improve collection efficiency selective coating may be applies
provided there is no much cost. Due to low heat transfer rates, efficiencies
are lower than liquid solar heaters under the same radiation intensity and
temperature conditions.
Performance of air heaters is improved by:
a. Roughning the rear of the plate to promote turbulence and improve the
convective heat transfer coefficient, or
b. Adding fins to increase the heat transfer surface. Usually turbulence is
also increased which enhances the convective heat transfer.
2. Collectors with porous absorbers
The main drawback of the non – porous absorber plate is the necessity
of absorbing all incoming radiation over the projected area from a thin layer
over the surface, which is in the order of a few microns. Unless selective
coatings are used, radiative losses from the absorber plate are excessive,
therefore the collection efficiency can not be improved. The pressure drop
along the duct formed between the absorber plate and the rear insulation
may also be prohibitive especially in the case of added fins to increase the
heat transfer surface and turbulence rate. The difficulty with turbulence is
the pressure drop across the collector. Too many surfaces and too much
restriction to air flow will required a larger fan and a larger amount to energy
to push the air through. The energy required for this cancels out saving
from using solar energy, particularly if fan is electrical and the amount of
energy which is burned at the power plant to produce the electrical energy
is included.
These defects are eliminated in a porous absorber type collectors in

two ways.
a. The solar radiation penetrates to greater depths and is absorbed
gradually depending on the matrix density.
Applications of Solar Air Heaters
The solar air heaters, which supply hot air that could be mainly used for
the following processes:
i. Heating buildings.
ii. Drying agricultural produce and lumber.
iii. Heating green houses.
iv. Air conditioning buildings utilizing desiccant beds or a absorption
refrigeration process.
v. Using air heaters as the heat sources for a heat engine such as a
Brayton or Striling cycle.
Advantages of Flat – plate collectors
i. They have the advantages of using both beam and diffuse solar
radiation.
ii. They do not require orientation towards the sun.
iii. They required little maintenance.
iv. They are mechanically simpler than the concentrating reflectors,
absorbing surface and orientation devices of focusing collectors.
SOLAR AIR HEATERS
Introduction
A conventional solar air heater generally consists of an absorber plate with a parallel
plate below forming a passages of high aspect ratio through which the air to be heated flows. As
in the case of the liquid flat-plate collector, a transparent cover system is provided above the
absorber plate, while a sheet metal container filled with insulation is provided on the bottom and
sides. The arrangement is sketched in Fig (A)
In the arrangement shown in Fig. (B), the air to be heated flows between the cover and
the absorber plate itself instead of through a separate passage.
Like a liquid flat-plate collector, a solar air heater in simple in design and requires little
maintenance. In addition, since the fluid does not freeze, the solar air heater has the advantage of
not requiring any special attention at temperatures below 0oC. Corrosion and leakage problems
are also less severe. However, the value of the heat transfer coefficient between the absorber
plate and the air is low and this results in a lower efficiency. For this reason, the surfaces are
sometimes roughened or longitudinal fins are provided in the air-flow passage. Another
variation is to use a V-shaped or corrugated absorber plate. A further disadvantage associated
with the use of a solar air heater is that large volumes of fluid have to be handled. As a result,
the electrical power required to blow the air through a system can be significant if the pressure
drop is not kept within prescribed limits.
The face areas of solar air heaters range from1 to 2 m2. Materials of construction and
sizes are similar to those used with liquid flat-plate collectors. Thus, the absorber plate is a metal
sheet about 1 mm in thickness, usually made of GI or steel. Glass of thickness 4 to 5 mm is the
most commonly used cover material. However, plastics are being used in increasing numbers.
Mineral wool or glass wool of thickness 5 to 8 cm is used for the bottom and side insulation.
The whole assembly is contained in a sheet metal box and inclined at a suitable angle.
Compared to liquid flat-plate collectors, the pace of commercialization for the production
of solar air heaters has been slow all over the world. This is true in India as well, where they
have been used primarily in systems for forced convection drying of various kinds of agricultural
products. Only about 100 such systems have been installed so far. The reason for the slow pace
is the fact that drying of agricultural products is a seasonal activity, requiring energy for only a
few months. As a result, the drying systems remain idle for a large part of the year and the
economics in terms of the payback period is poor. It seems essential to pursue other applications
like drying for industrial purposes and space heating in the northern parts of the country if the
market for solar air heaters is to increase.
Applications of soilar Air Heaters

1.Solar Cooker
2. Natural Convection Solar Step type Dryer for drying fruits and vegetables
3.Forced Convection Solar dryer for Fuits and Vegetables

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF A CONVENTIONAL AIR HEATER
We now consider the performance analysis of the conventional air heater. The heater has an
absorber plate of length L1 and width L2. The air flows in a parallel plate passage below the
absorber plate.
The analysis is due to Whillier* and proceeds along lines identical to those adopted for
the liquid flat-plate collector for the calculation of ( (τα )b , (τα )d , Ut and Ub. Considering a slice
of width L2 and thickness dx at a distance x from the inlet, we weite down energy balances for
the absorber plate, the plate below it, and the air flowing in between. We assume that (i) the bulk
mean temperature of the air changes from T f to(T f + dT f ) as it flows through the distance dx, (ii)
the air mass flow rate is m, (iii) the mean temperatures of the absorber plate and the plate below
are Tpm and Tbm respectively and their variation may be neglected, and (iv) side losses can be
neglected. The following equations are obtained:)
For Air Stream

mC p dT f = h fp L2 dx(T pm − T f ) + h fb L2 dx(Tbm − T f )
where
Ut = top loss coefficient based on the temperature difference (T pm − Tα ) ,
Ub = bottom loss coefficient based on the temperature difference (Tb , m − Tα ) ,
hfp = convective that transfer coefficient between the absorber plate and the air
stream,
hfb = convective that transfer coefficient between the bottom plate and the air
stream,
εp = emissivity of the absorber plate surface,
εb = emissivity of the bottom plate surface and
S = flux absorbed in the absorber plate.
While writing the energy balance Equations, we distinguish between hfp, the convective
heat transfer coefficient for the absorber plate and the air, and hfb, the convective heat transfer
coefficient for the bottom plate and the air. However this distinction is usually not made in the
correlations available for calculating the convective heat transfer coefficients. Thus while using
these correlations, we will have to assume
hfp = hfb.
We introduce an equivalent radiative heat transfer coefficient hr defined in this case by

σ
hr (T pm − Tbm ) =
1 1
(T 4
pm − Tbm4 )
+ −1
p b
The useful heat gain rate for the collector is given by
[
q u = FR A p S − U 1 (T fi − Tα ) ]
where FR = collector heat-removal factor
mC p F 'U 1 A p
= 1 − exp −
U 1 Ap mC p
and Ap = area of the absorber plate = L1L2.
It is worth nothing that if the simplifying assumption of deleting Ub, we would obtain
the following differential equation.
mC p dT f
L2 dx
{
= F ' S − U l"" (T f − Tα ) }
where U l" is an equivalent overall loss coefficient.

F’ and U l" are defined as follows:
−1
U'
F'= 1+ l
he
1 U b h fb
U l" = U l' +
F ' (hr + h fb + U b )
where
hr U b
U l' = U t' +
(hr + h fb + U b )
hr h fb
and he = h fp +
(h r + h fb + U b )
The useful heat gain rate for the collector is then given by
[
q u = FR A p S − U l" (T fi − Tα ) ]
where FR = collector heat-removal factor
mC p − F 'U l" A p
1 − exp
U l" A p mC p
Tesing Procedures
The testing arrangement consists of a blower, and an apparatus for reconditioning the air which
ensures that air enters the air heater at the desired temperature Tfi. Provision is made for
measuring the same quantities such as
Fig.Testing of Solar Air Heaters - Arrangement of Different components and measuring devices
Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop in a Parallel Plate
In order to calculate the performance based on the above equations, we need to know
the values of the convective heat transfer coefficient to the heated air. The situation corresponds
to one of turbulent flow with one of the long sides heated and the other insulated. It can be
considered to be fully developed if the length-to-equivalent diameter ratio exceeds a valued of
about 30. The following two correlations are then appropriate if the surfaces are smooth,
Nu = 0.0158 Re0.8
0.01344 Re 0.75
Nu =
1 − 1.586 Re − 0.125
The above first equation for Nusselt numbber is based on the data of Kays,* while the
second equation has been suggested by Malik and Buelow. In the above equations, the
characteristic dimension is the equivalent diameter de given by
4 × Cross − sec tional area of duct

de =
Wetted perimeter
Properties are evaluated at the arithmetic mean of the fluid inlet and outlet
temperature, and the values of hfp and hfb are taken to be equal. Nusselt numbers calculated from
the above two equations agree within 10 per cent for Reynolds numbers ranging from 10 000 to
20 000. These values are normally obtained in solar air heater applications.
The dimensionless pressure drop in the duct can be calculated from the well-known
Blasius equation which is valid for smooth surfaces.
F = 0.079 Re-0.25
Where f is the friction factor and the characteristic dimension is again the equivalent diameter de.
Concentrating Collector : Focusing Type
Introduction
Focusing collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity of

solar radiation on the energy absorbing surface. Such collectors generally use
optical system in the form of reflectors or refractors. A focusing collector is a
special form of flat – plate collector modified by introducing a reflecting (or
refracting ) surface (concentrator) between the solar radiations and the absorber.
These type of collector s can have radiation increase from low value of 1.5 –2 to
high values of the order of 10,000. In theses collectors radiation (or absorber) of
considerably smaller area. As a result of the energy concentration, fluids can be
heated to temperatures of 5000 C or more.
Line Focusing Collectors: Trough Reflector.
The principle of the parabolic trough collector, which is often used in

concentration collectors, is shown by the cross- section in Fig. 3.7.1, solar
radiation coming from the particular direction is collected over the area of the
reflecting surface and is concentrated at the focus of the parabola, if the reflector
is in the form of a through with parabolic cross- section, the solar radiation is
focused alone a line. Mostly cylindrical parabolic concentrators are used, in
which absorber is placed along focus axis. The collector pipe, preferably with a
selective absorber coating, is used as an absorber.
Point Focusing Collector (Paraboloidal Type)
A paraboloidal dish collector brings solar radiation to a focus at a point

actually a small central volume. (Fig.3.7.7). A dish 6.6 m in, diameter has been
made from about 200 curved mirror segments forming a paraboloidal surface.
The absorber, located at the focus, is a cavity made of a zirconium – copper alloy
with a black chrome selective coating. The heat – transport fluid flows into and
out of the absorber cavity through pipes bonded to the interior. The dish can be
turned automatically about two axes (up – down and left – right) so that the sun is
always kept in a line with the focus and the base (vertex) of the paraboloidal dish.
Thus, the sun can be fully tracked at essentially all times.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Concentrating Collectors over Flat –
Plate Type Collectors
Advantages. The man advantages of concentrator systems over flat – plate

type collectors are:
1. Reflecting surfaces required less material and are structurally
simpler than flat-plate collectors. For a concentrator system the
cost per unit area of solar collecting surface is therefore potentially
less than that for flat-plate collectors.
2. The absorber area of a concentrator system is smaller than that of
flat-plate system for same solar energy collection and therefore the
insolation intensity is greater.
3. Because of the area from which heat is lost to the surroundings per
unit of the solar energy collecting area is less than that for flat-plate
collector and because the insulation on the absorber is more
concentrated, the working fluid can attain higher temperatures in a
concentrating system than in flat-plate collector of the same solar
energy collecting surface.
4. Owing to the small area of absorber per unit of solar energy
collecting area, selective surface treatment and/or vacuum
insulation to reduce heat losses and improve collector efficiency are
economically feasible.
5. Focusing or concentrating systems can be used for electric power
generation when not used for heating or cooling. The total useful
operating time per year can therefore be lager for a concentrator
system than for a flat-plate collector and the initial installation cost
of the system can be regained by saving in energy in a shorter
period of time.
6. Because the temperature attainable with concentrating collector
system is higher, the amount of heat which can be stored per unit
volume is large and consequently the heat storage costs are less
for concentrator systems than for flat-plate collectors.
7. In solar heating and cooling applications, the higher temperature of
the working fluid attainable with a concentrating system makes it
possible to attain higher efficiencies, in the cooling cycle and lower
cost for air conditioning with concentrator systems than with flat-
plate collectors.
8. Little or no anti-freeze is required to protect the absorber in a
concentrator system whereas the entire solar energy collection
surface requires anti-freeze protection in a flat-plate collector.
Disadvantages
1. Out of the beam and diffuse solar radiation components, only beam
component is collected in case of focusing collectors because diffuse
component can not be reflected and is thus lost.
2. In some stationary reflecting systems it is necessary to have a small

absorber to
track the sun image; in others the reflector may have to be adjustable
more than
one position if year round operation is desired; in other words costly
orienting
systems have to be used to track the sun.
3. Additional requirements of maintenance particular to retain the quality of

reflecting surface against dirt, weather, oxidation etc.
4. Non – uniform flux on the absorber whereas flux in flat – plate collectors is
uniform.
5. Additional optical losses such as reflectance loss and the intercept loss,
so they introduce additional factors in energy balances.
6. High initial cost.
Selective Absorber Coatings
An efficient way to reduce thermal losses from the absorber plate of a

solar heating panel is by using selective absorber coatings. An ideal selective
coating is one that is a perfect absorber of solar radiation while being a perfect
reflector of thermal radiation. Such a coating will make a surface, a poor emitter
of thermal radiation. Hence a selective coating increases the temperature of an
absorbing surface. If back losses of an absorbing surface are absent, the steady
– state conditions give:
Solar flux absorbed = Thermal flux emitted.
The aborptance and emittance of radiation of at a given wavelength are equal.

However, at different wavelengths, they can vary from near zero to near unity.
Since 96% of the sun’s radiation is concentrated in wavelength ranges of less
than 2.5 µm, it is possible to have a surface that will absorb all of the solar
radiation while emitting very little.
A selective surface is a surface that has a high absorptance for short wave
radiation (less than 2.5 µm). although a large number of experimental selective
surface treatments and coatings have been tested, only a few have survived the
laboratory.
A large number of non – selective coatings are available and are in

widespread use as flat – plate collector coatings. These are primarily organic
coatings such as flat black paints. Most of these coatings have absorptances
exceeding 0.95 and emittances of 0.90 – 0.95. Although the emittances are high,
use of these coating may be justified economically in some applications where
high collector temperatures are not required, used as hot water systems or
swimming pool heaters. Table 3.10.1 lists properties of some selective coatings.
Table 3.10.1. Selective coating properties
Coating Type Absorptance Emittance

& Ep
Black chrome Electroplated 0.96 0.10
Black nickel Electroplated 0.90 0.10
Black copper Copper oxide 0.87-0.92 0.07-0.35
Black anodize Aluminium oxide 0.94 0.07
Solar foil Black chrome
Over copper 0.96 0.10
Enersorb Urethane paint 0.97 0.00
(non-selective)
Nextel Paint 0.98 0.89
(non-selective)
The aperture areas of commercially available collectors range from 1 to 6 m2 with the
length being larger than the aperture width. Concentration ratios range from 10 to 80,
and rim angles 9see Fig. 6.4) from 70 to 120o.
The absorber tube is usually made of mild steel or copper and has a diameter of
2.5 to 5 cm. It is coated with a heat resistant black paint and is generally surrounded by a
concentric glass cover with an annular gap of 1 or 2 cm. In the case of high-performance
collectors, the absorber tube is coated with a selective surface like black chrome and the
space between the tube and the glass cover is evacuated. In some collectors, the
concentric cover is replaced by a glass or plastic sheet covering the whole aperture area
of the collector. Such an arrangement helps in protecting the reflecting surfaces from the
weather.
The liquid heated in the collector depends upon the temperature required. Usually
organic heat transfers liquids (referred to as thermic fluids) are used. Because of their
low thermal conductivities, these liquids yield low heat transfer coefficients.
Augmentative devices in the form of twisted tapes or central plugs (which create annular
passages) are therefore used to increase the value of the heat transfer coefficient.
The reflecting surface is generally curved back silvered glass. Thin

electropolished anodized aluminium sheets and silver coated acrylic films have also been
used.
The reflector is fixed on a light-weight structure usually made of aluminium

sections. The proper design of this supporting structure and of the system for its
movement is important, since it influences the shape and orientation of the reflecting
surface. Some of the factors to be considered in designing the structure are that it should
not distort significantly due to its own weight and that it should be able to withstand wind
loads.
Compared to flat-plate collectors, there are very few manufactures of

concentrating collectors all over the world. The volume of production is also low. In
India, many experimental collectors have been built and tested. However, commercial
manufacture has not yet begun.
Orientation and Tracking modes
A cylindrical parabolic collector is oriented with its focal axis pointed either in
the east-west or the north-south direction. In the east-west orientation, the focal axis is
horizontal, while in the north-south orientation, the focal axis may be horizontal or
inclined.
Performance Analysis
We now consider the performance analysis of a cylindrical parabolic

concentrating collector whose concentrator has an aperture W, length L and rim angleφr
(Fig. 6.4). The absorber tube has an inner diameter Di and an outer diameter Do, and it
has a concentric glass cover of inner diameter Dci and outer diameter Dco around it. The
fluid being heated in the collector has a mass flow rate in, a specific heat Cp, an inlet
temperature Tfi and an outlet Temperature Tfo.
The collector is operated in any one of the modes described in Sec. 6.3.2 and the
beam radiation normally incident on its aperture is I b rb , whose value can be calculated
from the equations derived in Sec.6.3.2. In some of the tracking modes, the sun’s rays are
incident at an angle and will, therefore, come to a focus a little beyond the length of the
concentrator. We assume that the absorber tube is long enough to intercept this image.
In practice this would mean that the absorber tube might be a little longer (say about 10
per cent) than the concentrator and that the flux falling on the tube would not be uniform
along the length. For the purposes of analysis, however, we will not take into account
this extra tube length, and we will assume that the radiation flux is the same all along the
length. We will also make the assumption that the temperature drop across the absorber
tube and the glass cove are negligible.
The concentration ratio of the collector is given by*

Effective aperture area (W − Do )L
C= =
Absorber tube area πDo L
(W − Do )
=
πDo
The analysis which follows is in many respects similar to the analysis of a liquid
flat-plate collector given in Secs 4.6 and 4.7. An energy balance on an elementary slice
dx of the absorber tube, at a distance x from the inlet, yields the following equation for a
steady state:
[ ]
dq u = I b rb (W − Do )ργ (τα )b + I b rb Do (τα )b − U l πDo (T p − Tα ) dx
in which
dqu = useful heat gain rate for a length dx,
ρ = specular reflectivity of the concentrator surface,
γ = intercept factor, the fraction of the specularly- reflected radiation
intercepted by the absorber tube,
(ατ)b = average value of the transmissivity-absorptivity product for beam
radiation,
U1 = overall loss coefficient,
Tp = ambient temperature.
The first term on the right hand side in Eq. (6.13) represents the incident beam
radiation absorbed in the absorber tube after reflection, while the second term represents
the absorbed incident beam radiation which falls directly on the absorber tube. The
second term is small in comparison with the first, but cannot be ignored when the
concentration ratio is small. The third term represents the loss by convection and
reradiation.
Thus, the useful heat gain rate
q u = mC p (T fo − T fi )
CS πD o U 1 L
F'
q u = mC p + Tα − T fi 1 − exp −
U1 mC p
= FR (W − Do )L S −
U1
(T fi − Tα )
C
where FR is the heat removal factor defined by
mC p F'πD o U 1 L
FR = 1 − exp −
πDo LU 1 mC p
Equation (6.23) is the equivalent of the Hottel-Whillier-Bliss Eq. (4.48) for a flat-
plate collector.
The instantaneous collection efficiency ηI is given by
qu
ηi =
(I b rb + I d rd )WL
if ground-reflected radiation is neglected. The instantaneous efficiency can also
be calculated on the basis of beam radiation alone, in which case
qu
ηi =
I b rbWL
SOLAR CELL - PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS
The photo-voltaic effect can be observed in nature in a variety of materials, but

the materials that have shown the best performance in sunlight are the semi-conductors
as stated above. When photons from the sun are absorbed in a semiconductor, they
create free electrons with higher energies than the electrons which provide the
bounding in the base crystal. Once these electrons are created, there must be an
electric field to induce these higher energy electrons to flow out of the semi-conductor to
do useful work. The electric field in most solar cells is provided by a junction of
materials which have different electrical properties.
To obtain a useful power output from photon interaction in a semi-conductor

three processes are required.
1. The photons have to be absorbed in the active part of the material and result
in electrons being excited to a higher energy potential.
2. The electron-hole charge carrier created by the absorption must be physically
separated and moved to the edge of the cell.
3. The charge carriers must be removed from the cell and delivered to a useful
load before they loose their extra potential.
For completing the above processes, a solar cell consists of:
(a) Semi-conductor in which electron hole pairs are created by absorption of
incident solar radiation.
(b) Region containing a drift for charge separation, and
(c ) Charge collecting front and back electrodes.
The most normal configuration for a solar cell to make a p-n junction
semiconductor is as shown schematically in Fig . (5.6.1). The junction of the ‘ p type’
and ‘n type’ materials provides an inherent electric field which separates the charge
created by the absorption of sunlight. This p-n junction is usually obtained by putting a p
– type base material in to a diffusion furnace containing a gaseous n type dopant such
as phosphorus and allowing the n-dopant to diffuse into surface about 0.2 um.
Semiconductor Junctions. Modern solar cells make use of semiconductor
materials, usually based on single-crystal silicon. When doped with phosphorus,
arsenic, or antimony, the silicon becomes an n-type semiconductor as stated earlier ;
and when doped with boron aluminum, indium, or gallium, or gallium, it forms a p-type
semiconductor is brought into intimate contact with one of the n-type, they form a p-n (or
n-p) junction. If the two semiconductor materials are arrived from the same element (or
compound), such as silicon, the system is referred to as a homo-junction. It is also
possible for a p –n (or n-p) junction to be formed from two different semiconductor
materials, such as cadmium sulfide (CdS) and cuprous sulfide (Cu2 S); this is known
as outlined above, is the same regardless of the type. The Schottky junction consisting
of a semiconductor and metal. This junction is formed by depositing a thin lay or of a
metallic conductor (e.g. platinum) onto a p-or n- type semiconductor. Schottky junction
photovoltaic cells made with the so-called amorphous silicon are more efficient than
homojunction p-n cells of the same material. Cost of it, is also less.
Because of internal losses arising from minute amounts of impurities, from

defects in the silicon crystal, and from recombination of electrons and holes before they
can be separated, and external losses from reflection, most commercial silicon solar
cells have a conversion efficiency of roughly 13 to 14 per cent (average about 12 per
cent). However cells have been made with efficiencies of 18 per cent, and this level will
probably be attained in commercial cells.
The power output (in watts) of any generator of electricity, including a

photovoltaic cell, is equal to the product of the voltage and current. Theoretically, a
silicon solar cell should have a voltage of 1.1 volts, from 1.1 electron- volts energy of the
free electrons produced . In practice, however, the ,maximum voltage is about 0.6 volt
and this occurs on open circuit, when no power is product. The maximum power of a
silicon cell occurs at an output voltage of approximately 0.45 volt. In full sun light, the
current from a commercial cell is then roughly 270 amperes per sq. m of exposed
surface. The power is thus about 0.45x270 =120 watts (or 0.12kW) per sq. m (i.e.13
watts/sq.ft).
A Basic Photovoltaic System for Power Generation
A basic photovoltaic system integrated with the utility grid is shown in Fig. 5.6.5.
It permits solarly generated electrical power to be delivered to a local load. It
consists.
i. Solar Array, large or small, which converts the insolation to useful DC

electrical power.
ii. A blocking Diode which lets the array – generated power flow only toward the
battery or gird. Without a blocking diode the battery would discharge back
through the solar array during times of on insolation (recall from Fig. 5.6.3 that
the cell equivalent circuit has a forward biased diode in it).
iii. Battery Storage, in which the solarly generated electric energy may be stored.
iv. Inverter / converter, usually solid state which converts the battery bus voltage
to AC of frequency and phase to match that needed to integrate with the utility
grid. Thus it is typically a DC, AC inverter. It may also contain a suitable
output step up transformer, perhaps some filtering and power factor
correction circuits and perhaps some power conditioning, i.e. circuitry to
initiate battery charging and to prevent over charging. Power conditioning
may be shown as a separate system functional block. This block may also be
used in figure shown to function as a rectifier to charge the battery from the
utility feeder when needed and when no insolation was present.
v. Appropriate Switches and Circuit Breakers, to permit isolating parts of the

systems, as the battery. One would also want to include breakers and fusing
protection (not shown) between the inverter output and the utility grid to
protect both the photovoltaic system and the grid.
Solar cell connecting arrangements
Cells may be connected in parallel to achieve the desired current and then
stacked in series to achieve the desired voltage. The optimum operating voltage of a
photovoltaic cell is generally about 0.45 volt at normal temperatures, and the current in
full sunlight may be taken to be 270 amperes // sq. m. If the exposed area of cell is 40
sq. cm or 40 x 10-4 sq.m. the current would be 1.08 amperes and the electric power
output 0.45 x 1.08 = 0.49 watts, in full sunlight. A decrease (or increase) in the solar
radiation has little effect on the voltage, but the current and power are decreased (or
increased) proportionately.
By combing a number of solar cells in series (i.e. in a string) the voltage is

increased but the current is unchanged. For example, 110 volts, for operating
commercial tools, motors, or domestic appliances, would require 110/0.45 = 244 cells in
series. To increase the current output at the same time, several strings of 244 cells
would be connected in parallel, as depicted in fig. 5.6.6).
Suppose there were ten such strings in parallel, the current the power optimum
conditions would then be 10 x 1.08 = 1.08 amperes, and the power output would be
10.8 x 110 = 1190 watts or 1.19 kW. The so-called solar panels on space craft consist
of modules (or arrays) of cells connected in series and parallel to produce the required
voltage and power.
Applications of Solar Photovoltaic System
Various solar photovoltaic systems have been developed and installed at

different sites for demonstration and field trial purposes. The terrestrial applications of
these include provisions of power supply to :
i. water pumping sets for micro irrigation and drinking water supply,
ii. radio beacons for ship navigation at ports,
iii. community radio and television sets,
iv. cathodic protection of oil pipe lines,
v. weather monitoring,
vi. railway signaling equipment,
vii. battery charging,
viii. street lighting.
The major application of photovoltaic systems lies in water pumping for drinking
water supply and irrigation in rural areas. The photovoltaic water pumping system
essentially consists of :
a. a photovoltaic (PV) array,

b. storage battery,
c. power control equipment,
d. motor pump sets, and
e. water storage tank.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion
Advantages :
i. Direct room temperature conversion of light to electricity through a simple
solid state device.
ii. Absence of moving parts.
iii. Ability to function unattended for long periods as evidence in space
programme.
iv. Modular nature in which desired current, voltages and power levels can be
achieved by mere integration.
v. Maintenance cost is low as they are easy to operate.
vi. They do not create pollution.
vii. They have a long effective life.
viii. They are highly reliable.
ix. They consume no fuel to operate as the sun’s energy is free.
x. They have rapid response in output to input radiation Changes; no long – time
constant is involved, as on thermal systems, before steady state is reached.
xi. They have wide power handling capabilities from microwatts to kilowatts or
even megawatts when modules are combination with power conditioning
circuitry to feed power into utility grid.
xii. They are easy to fabricate, being one of the simplest of semi conductor
devices.
xiii. They have high power to weight ratio, this characteristic is more important for
space applications than terrestrial, may be favourable for some terrestrial
applications. The roof loading on a house than the comparable loading for a
conventional liquid solar water heaters.
xiv. Amenable to on site installation i.e. decentralized or dispersed power; thus
the problem of power distribution by wires could be eliminated by the use of
solar cells at the site where the power is required.
xv. They can be used with or without sun tracking, making possible a wide range
of application possibilities.
Their principal disadvantages are their high cost, and the fact that, in many
applications, energy storage is required because of on insolation at night. Efforts are
being made world – wide to reduce costs through various technological innovations.
SEMICONDUCTOR - PRINCIPLES
Certain substances like germination, silicon, carbon etc. are

neither good conductors like copper nor5 insulators like glass. In other
words, the resistively of these materials lies in between conductors and
insulators. Such substances are classified as semiconductors.
Semiconductors have some useful properties and are being extensively
used in electronic circuits. For instance, transistor a semiconductor
device is fast replacing bulky vacuum tubes in almost all applications.
Transistors are only one of the family of semiconductor devices; many
other semiconductors devices are becoming increasingly popular. In this
chapter, we shall focus our attention in the different aspects of
semiconductors.
2.1. Semiconductors
It is not easy to define a semiconductor if we want to take into

account all its physical characteristics. However, generally, a
semiconductor is defined on the basis of electrical conductor is defined
on the basis of electrical conductivity as under
A semiconductor is a substance which has resistively (10-4 to 0.5

Ω m) in between conductors and insulators e.g. germanum, silicon,
selenium, carbon etc.
The reader may wonder, when a semiconductor is neither a good

conductor nor an insulator, then why hot to classify it as a resistance
material? The answer shall be readily available if we study the following
table.
S1.No. Substance Nature Resistively
1 Copper Good conductor 1.7 × 10-8 Ωm
2 Geranium Semiconductor 0.6 Ω m
3 Glass Insulator 9 × 1011 Ω m
4 Nicrome Resistance material 10-4 Ωm
Comparing the sensitivities of above materials, it is apparent that

the resistivity of germanium (semiconductor) is quite high as compared
to copper (conductor) but it quite low when compared with glass
(insulator). This shows that resistivity of a semiconductor lies in between
conductors and insulators. However, it will be wrong to consider the
semiconductor as a resistance material. For example, nichrome, which
one of the highest resistance materials, has resistivity much lower than
germanium. This shows that electrically germanium cannot be regarded
as a conductor or insulator or a resistance material. This gave such
substances like germanium the name of semiconductors.
It is interesting to note that it is not the resistivity alone that

decides whether a substance is semiconductor or not. For example, it is
just possible to prepare an alloy whose resistivity falls within the range of
semiconductors but the alloy cannot be regarded as a semiconductor. In
fact, semiconductors have a number of peculiar properties which
distinguish them from conductors, insulators and resistance material.
Properties of semiconductors
(i) The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than an insulator

but more than a conductor.
(ii) Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient of
resistnace i.e. the resistance of semiconductor decreases
with the increase in temperature and vice-versa. For
example, germanium in actually an insulator at low
temperatures but it becomes a good conductor at high
temperatures.
(iii) When a suitable metallic impurity (e.g. arsenic, gallium etc.)
is added to a semiconductor, its current conducting
properties change appreciably. This property is most
important and is discussed later in detail.
BONDS IN SEMICONDUCTORS
The atoms of every element are held together by the bonding action
of valence electrons. This bonding is due to the fact that is the tendency
of each atom to complete its last orbit by acquiring 8 electrons in it.,
However, in most of the substances, the last orbit is incomplete i.e. the
last orbit does not have 8 electrons. The makes the atom active to enter
into bargain with other atoms to acquire 8 electrons in the last orbit. To
do so, the atom may los gain or share valence electrons with other
atoms. In semiconductor bonds are formed by sharing of valence
electrons. Such bonds as called co-valent bonds. In the formations of a
co-valent bond, each atom contributes equal number of valence electrons
and the contributed electrons are shared by the atoms engaged in the
formation of the bond.
Fig. 8.1 shows the co-valent bonds among germanium atoms. A

germanium atom hs 4 valence electrons. It is the tendency each
germanium atom to have 8 electrons in the last orbit. To do so, each
germanium atom positions itself between four other germanium atoms as
shown in fig. 8.1 (i). Each neighbouring atom shares one valence
electron with the central atom. In this business of sharing the central
atom completes its last orbit by having 8 electrons revolving round the
nucleus. In this way, the central atom sets up co-valent bonds Fig. 8.1
(ii) shows the bonding diagram.
Fig. 2.1
The following points may be noted regarding the co-valent bonds :
(i) Co-valent bonds are formed by sharing of valence electrons.

(ii) In the formation of co-valent bond, each valence electro of an
atom forms direct bond with the valence electron of an
adjacent atom. In other words, valence electrons are
associated with particular atoms. For this reason, valence
electrons in a semiconductor are not free.
CRYSTALS
A substance in which the atoms or molecules are arranged in an

orderly pattern is known as a crystal. All semi-conductors have
crystalline structure. For example, referring to Fig. 2.1, it is clear that
each atom is surrounded by neighbouring atoms in a repetitive manner.
Therefore, a piece of germanium is generally called germanium crystal.
COMMONLY USED SEMICONDUCTORS
A large number of semiconductors are known but the most

frequently used are germanium and silicon. It is because the energy
required to break their con-valent bonds is small; being 0.7 eV for
germanium and 1.1 eV for silicon. Therefore, we shall discuss these two
semiconductors detail.
(i) Germanium. Germanium has become the model substance

among the semiconductors; the main reason being that it can be purified
relatively well and crystallized easily. Germanium is an earth element
and was discovered in 1886. It is recovered from the ash of certain coals
or from the flue dust of zinc smelters. Generally, recovered germanium
is in the form of germanium dioxide powder which is then reduced to
pure germanium.
Fig. 2.2.
The atomic number of germanium is 32. Therefore, it has 32
protons and 32 electrons. Two electrons are in the first orbit, eight
electrons in the second, eighteen electrons in the third and four electrons
in the outer or valence orbit (see fig. 2.2 9i). It is clear that germanium
atom has four valence electrons i.e., it is a tetravalent element. Fig. 2.2
(ii) shows how the various germanium atoms are held through co-valent
bonds. As the atoms are arranged in an orderly pattern, therefore,
germanium has crystalline structure.
(ii) Silicon. Silicon is an element in most of the common rocks.

Actually, sand is silicon dioxide. The silicon compounds are chemically
reduced to silicon which is 100% pure for use a a semiconductor.
The atomic number of silicon is 14. Therefore, it has 14 protons

and 14 electrons. Two electrons are in the first orbit, eight electrons in
the second orbit and four electrons in the third orbit [see fig. 2.3 (i)]. It is
clear that silicon atom has four valence electrons i.e. it is a tetravalent
element. Fig. 2.3 (ii) shows how various silicon atoms are held through
co-valent bonds. Like germanium. Silicon atoms are also arranged in an
orderly manner. Therefore, silicon has crystalline structure.
Fig. 2.3
ENERGY BAND DESCRIPTION OF SEMICONDUCTORS
It has already been discussed that a semiconductor is a substance

whose resistivity lies between conductors and insulators. The resistivity
is of the order of 10-444 to 0.5 ohm metre. However, a semiconductor
can be defined much more comprehensively on the basis of energy bands
as under:
A semiconductor is a substance which has almost filled valence

band and nearly empty conduction band with a very small energy gap
(≈1eV) separating the two.
Figs.2.4 and 2.5 show the energy band diagrams of germanium

and silicon respectively. It may be seen that forbidden energy gap is very
small ; being 1.1eV for silicon and 0.7 eV for germanium. Therefore,
relatively small energy is needed by their valance electrons to cross over
to the conduction band. Even at room temperature, some of the valence
electrons may acquire sufficient energy to enter into the conduction band
and thus become free electrons however, at this temperature, the
number of free electrons available is very* small. Therefore, at room
temperature, a piece of germanium or silicon is neither a good conductor
nor an insulator. For this reason, such substances are called
semiconductors.
Fig. 2.4
2.05
The energy band description is extremely helpful in under standing

the current flow through a semiconductor. Therefore, we shall frequently
use this concept in our further discussion.
2.6. Effect of temperature on semiconductors
The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor changes appreciably

with temperature variations. This is a very important point to keep in
mind.
(i) At absolute zero. At absolute zero temperature, all the electrons

are tightly held by the semiconductor atoms. The inner orbit electrons
are bound whereas the valence electrons are engaged in co-valent
binding. At this temperature, the co-valent bonds are very strong and
there are no free electrons. Therefore, the semiconductor crystal behaves
as a perfect insulator (seed fig. 2.6 (i)].
Fig. 2.6
In terms of energy band description, the valence band is filled and

there is a large energy gap between valence band and conduction band.
Therefore, no valence electron can reach the conduction band to become
free electron. It is during to the non-availability of free electrons that a
semiconductor behaves as an insulator.
(ii) Above absolute zero. When the temperature is raised, some of
the co-valent bonds in the semiconductor break due to the thermal
energy supplied. The breaking of bonds sets those electrons free which
are engaged in the formation of these bonds. The result is that a few free
electrons exist in the semiconductor. These free electrons can constitute
a tiny electric current if potential difference is applied across the
semiconductor crystal (See fig. 2.7 (i)[. This shows that the resistance of
a semiconductor decreases with the rise in temperature i.e. it has
negative temperature co-efficient of resistance. It may be added that at
room temperature, current through a semiconductor is too small to be of
any practical value.
Fig. 2.7
Fig. 2.7 (ii) shows the energy band diagram. As the temperature is
raised, some of the valence electrons acquire sufficient energy to enter
into the conduction band and thus become free electrons. Under the
influence of electric field, these free electrons will constitute electric
current. It may be noted that each time a valence electron enters into
the conduction band, a hole represents a missing electron in the co-
valent bond. As we shall see in the next article, holes also contribute to
current. In fact hole current is the most significant concept in
semiconductors.
HOLE CURRENT
At room temperature, some of the co-valent bonds in pure

semiconductor break, setting up free electrons. Under the influence of
electric field, these free electrons constitute electric current. At the
same time another current – the hole current – also flows in the
semiconductor. When a co-valent bond is broken due to thermal energy,
the removal of one electron leaves a vacancy i.e. a missing electron in the
covalent bond. This missing electron is called a hole which acts as a
positive charge. For one electron set free, one hole is created. Therefore,
thermal energy creates hole –electron pairs; there being as many holes as
the free electrons. The current conduction by holes can be explained as
follows.
Fig. 2.8
The hole shows a missing electron. Suppose the valence electron

at L (See fig. 2.8) has become free electron due to thermal energy. This
creates a hole in the co-valent bond at L. the hole is a strong center of
attraction for the electron. A valence electron (say at M) from nearby co-
valent bond comes to fill in the hole a; L. This results in the creation of
hole at M. Another valence electron (say at N) in turn may leave its bond
to fill the hole at M, thus creating a hole at N. Thus the hole having a
positive charge has moved from L to N i.e. towards the negative thermal
of supply. This constitutes hole current.
It may be noted that hole current is due to the movement of

valence electrons from one –covalent bond to another bond. The reader
may wonder why to call it a hole current when the conduction is again by
electrons (of course valence electrons). The answer is that the basic
reason for current flow is the presence of holes in the co-valent bonds.
Therefore, it is more appropriate to consider the current a the movement
of holes.
ENERGY BAND DESCRIPTION
The hole current can be beautifully explained in terms of energy

bands. Suppose due to thermal energy an electron leaves the valence
band to enter into the conduction band as shown in fig. 2.9.
Fig. 2.9
This leaves a vacancy at L. Now the valence electron at M comes to

fill the hole at L. The result is that hole disappears at L and appears at
M. Next, the valence electron at N moves into the hole at M.
Consequently, hole is created at N. it is clear that valence electrons
move along the path PNML whereas holes move in the opposite direction
i.e. along the path LMNP.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an

intrinsic semiconductor.
In an intrinsic semiconductor, even at room temperature, hole

electron pairs are created. When electric field is applied across an
intrinsic semiconductor, the current conduction takes place by two
processed, namely; by free electrons and holes as shown in fig. 2.10. The
free electrons are produced due to the breaking up of some covalent
bonds by thermal energy. At the same time, holes are created in the
covalent bonds. Under the influence of electric field. Conduction through
the semiconductor is by both free electrons and holes. Therefore, the
total current inside the semiconductor is the sum of currents due to free
electrons and holes.
It may be noted that current in the external wires is fully electronic

i.e. by electrons. What about the holes? Referring to F.g 2.10. holes
being positively charges move towards the negative terminal of supply.
As the holes reach the negative terminal. B, electrons enter the
semiconductor crystal near the terminal and combine with holes, thus
canceling the. At the same time, the loosely held electrons nerar the
positive terminal are attracted away from their atoms into the positive
terminal. This creates new holes near the positive terminal which again
drift towards the negative terminal.
Fig. 2.10
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
The intrinsic semiconductor has little current conduction

capability at room temperature. To be useful in electronic devices, the
pure semiconductor must be altered so as to significantly increase its
conducting properties. This is achieved by adding a small amount of
suitable impurity to a semiconductor. It is then called impurity or
extrinsic semiconductor. The process of adding impurities to a
semiconductor is known as doping. The amount and type of such
impurities have to be closely controlled during the preparation of
extrinsic semiconductor. Generally, for 10s atoms of semiconductor, one
impurity atom is added.
The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the number of

free electrons or holes in the semiconductor crystal. As we shall see, if a
pentavalent impurity (having 5 valence electrons) is added to the
semiconductor, a large number of free electrons are produced in the
semiconductor. On the othe hand, addition of trivalent impurity (having
3 valence electrons) creates a large number of holes in the semiconductor
crystal. Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic
semiconductors are classified into;
(i) n-type semiconductor (ii) p-type semiconductor.
n-type semiconductor
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure

semiconductor, it is known as n-type semiconductor.
The addition of pentavalent impurity provides a large number of

free electrons in the semiconductor crystal. Typical examples of
pentavalent impurities are arsenic (At. No. 33), and antimony (At. No.
51). Such impurities which produce n-type semiconductor are known as
donor impurities because they donate or provide free electrons to the
semiconductor crystal.
To explain the formation of n-type semiconductor, consider a

pure germanium crystal. We know that germanium atom has four
valence electrons. When a small amount of pentavalent impurity like
arsenic is added to germanium crystal, a large number of free electrons
become available in the crystal. The reason is simple. Arsenic is
pentavalent i.e. its atom has five valence electrons. An arsenic atom fits
in the germanium crystal in such a way that its four valence electrons
form covalent bonds with four germanium atoms. The fifth valence
electron of arsenic atom finds no place in co-valent bonds and is thus
free as shown is fig. 2.11. Therefore, for each arsenic atom added, one
free electron will be available in the germanium crystal. Though each
arsenic atom provides one free electron., yet an extremely small amount
of arsenic impurity provides enough atoms to supply millions of free
electrons.
ENERGY BAND DESCRIPTION…..contd.
Fig. 2.12
Fig. 2.12. Shows the energy band description of n-type semi-
conductor. The addition of pentavalnet impurity has produced a number
of conduction band electrons i.e., free electrons. The four valence
electrons of pentavalent atom form covalent bonds with four
neighbouring germanium atoms. The fifth left over valence electron of
the pentavalent atom cannot be accommodated in the valence band and
travels to the conduction band.
The following points may be noted carefully
(i) Many new free electrons are produced by the addition of

pentavalent impurity.
(ii) Thermal energy of room temperature still generates a few
hole – electron pairs. However, the number of free electrons
provided by the pentavalent impurity far exceeds the number
of holes. It is due to this predominance of electrons over
holes that it is called n-type semiconductor (n stands for
negative).
n-type conductivity. The current conduction in an n-type
semiconductor is predominantly by free electrons i.e., negative charges
and is called n-type or electron type conductivity. To understand u-type
conductivity, refer to fig. 2.13. When p.d. is applied across the n-type
semiconductor, the free electrons (donated by impurity) in the crystal will
be directed towards the positive terminal, constituting electric current.
As the current flow through the crystal is by free electrons which are
carries of negative charge, therefore, this type of conductivity is called
negative or n-type conductivity. It may be noted that conduction is just
as in ordinary metals like copper.
Fig. 2.13
p-tye semiconductor
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure

semiconductor, it is called p-type semiconductor.
The addition of trivalent impurity provides a large number of holes

in the semiconductor. Typical examples of trivalent impurities are
gallium (At. No. 31) and indium (At. No. 49). Such impurities which
produce p-type semiconductor are known as acceptor impurities because
the holes created can accept the electrons.
To explain the formation of p-type semiconductor, consider a pure
germanium crystal. When a small amount of trivalent impurity like
gallium is added to germanium crystal, there exists a large number of
holes in the crystal. The reason is simple. Gallium is trivalent i.e., its
Fig. 2.14
atom has three valence electrons. Each atom of gallium fits into the
germanium crystal but now only three co-valent bonds can be formed. It
is because three valence electrons of gallium atom can form only three
single co-valent bonds with three germanium atoms as shown in fig.
2.14. In the fourth covalent bond, only germanium atom contributes one
valence electron while gallium has no valence electron to contribute as
all its three valence electrons are already engaged in the co-valent bonds
with neighbouring germanium atoms. In other words, fourth bond is
incomplete; being short of one electron. This missing electronb is called
a hole. Therefore, for each gallium atom added, one hole is created. A
small amount of gallium provides millions of holes.
Fig. 2.15 shows the energy band description of the p-type
semiconductor. The addition of trivalent impurity has produced a large
number of holes. However, there are a few conduction band electrons
due to thermal energy associated with room temperature. But the holes
far outnumber the conduction band electrons. It is due to the
predominance of holes over free electrons that it is called p-type
semiconductor (p stands for positive).
SOLAR POND
INTRODUCTION
In order to reduce the cost of large solar thermal installations, it is

necessary to devise more economical ways of collecting and storing solar
energy. In this context, attention has been focused on the possibility of using
large expanses of water of small depth for absorbing and storing solar radiation
instead of using flat-plate collectors and hot water storage tanks. However,
experience shows that the water in such a pond usually heats up only a few
degrees, because of the natural convection currents which are set into motion as
soon as heat is absorbed at the bottom. One would obtain a significant rises in
the water temperature only if the convection could be prevented. An artificially
constructed pond in which significant temperature rises are caused to occur in
the lower regions by preventing convection is called a “solar pond”.
The usual method adopted to prevent convection is to dissolve a salt in

the water and to maintain a concentration gradient. For such ponds, the more
specific term ‘salt-gradient solar pond’ is used. In this chapter, we will essentially
discuss only the ‘salt-gradient solar pond’ since this concept has made good
progress.
In the last fifteen years, many salt-gradient solar ponds varying in size
from a few hundred to a few thousand square metres of surface area have been
built in a number of countries, mostly on an experimental basis. The indications
are that they appear to be economical for applications requiring low temperature
process heat up to 70 or 80oC. it is therefore likely that they will be used more
extensively in the future, as problems connected with their operation and
maintenance are resolved.
The concept of a solar pond is derived from the observation that in some
naturally occurring lakes, a significant temperature rise (of the order of 40 to
50oC) does occur in the lower regions. This is because of the fact that there is a
natural salt concentration gradient in these lakes, whereby the water at the
bottom remains denser even when it is hotter than the water at the top. Thus,
convection does not occur and heat is lost from the hot water only by conduction.
The salt concentration gradient in such lakes is maintained naturally because of
the presence of salt deposits at the bottom of the lakes, which cause close to
saturation concentrations in the lower regions and because of fresh water
streams which flow across the top.
The working of a solar pond can be explained with reference to Fig 8.1.
Consider a pond of depth L having salts dissolved in the water. We assume that
the concentration at the top (C1) is less than that at the bottom (C2) and that a
concentration gradient exists from the top to the bottom. The variation of density
with temperature for the two concentrations is as shown. Let T1 and p1 be the
temperature and density of the top layer of water indicated by point A, and T2 and
p2 be the temperature and density of the bottom layer indicated by point B.
Similar points are located for the intermediate layers and the curve AB is drawn
showing the variation of density as one moves downwards in the pond. It is
obvious that no convection will occur so long as the slope of the curve AB is
positive.
For solutions of salt in water under the conditions encountered in solar ponds,
the value of the term (v + α)/(v + D) is about 1.15. Thus, the criterion for stability
given by Eq. (8.3) is a little more stringent than the criterion given by Eq. (8.2).
Equation (8.2) 0r (8.3) can be used for calculation the minimum concentration
gradient required for maintaining a given temperature gradient at a particular
level in a solar pond. In actual practice, a certain margin of safety is
recommended and the actual concentration gradient is maintained at about twice
the value given by Eq. (8.30.
The first experimental solar ponds were constructed in Israel in the early
sixties by Tabor and his co-workers. Although the principle of working was
demonstrated effectively and temperatures close to the maximum possible value
of 100oC were obtained at the bottom, many practical difficulties were
encountered and the work was abandoned. However, in the last few years, there
has been a renewed interest in developing solar ponds. So far, about sixty solar
ponds have been built all around the world and the heat energy stored in them
has been used in a variety of applications. In USA, small ponds for research
activities have been constructed at Ohio State University, University of New
Mexico and Los Alamos national laboratory. Larger ponds include one of 2000
m2 at Miamisburg, Ohio to provide hot water for a swimming pool and one of
3500 m2 at El Paso, Texas to provide hot water for a factory. The largest solar
pond built so fart is the 250 000 m2 pond at Bet Ha Arava in Israel. The heat
collected in this pond has been used to generate 5 MW of electrical power using
an organic fluid Rankine cycle.
In India, the first solar pond having an area of 1200 m2 was built at the
Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar in 1973.
Experimental research ponds having areas of 100 and 240 m2 respectively were
operated for a few years at Pondicherry and at the Indian institute of Science in
Bangalore, while a 1600 m2 solar pond was built in Bhavnagar again in the
eighties. A solar pond having an area of 400 m2 has been constructed at Masur
(Karnataka) to meet the hot water needs of a rural community; and one having
an area of 300 m2 has been built to supply hot water for the students hostel of an
engineering college at Hubli (Karnataka). The largest pond built in India so far is
located at Bhuj (Gujarat). (Refer Photo No.6) The pond has an area of 6000 M2.
It has been operation since September 1993 and supplies the process heat
needs of a nearby dairy.
DESCRIPTION
A schematic diagram of a solar pond is shown in Fig. 8.2. As stated earlier, it

combines the functions of heat collection with long-term storage and can provide
sufficient heat for the entire year. Typically, it is about 1 or 2 metres deep with a
thick durable plastic line laid at the bottom. Materials used for the liner include
low density polyethylene (LDPE), high density polyethylene (HDPE), woven
polyester yarn (XB-5), and hypalon reinforced with nylon mesh. Salts like
magnesium chloride, sodium chloride or sodium nitrate are dissolved in the
water, the concentration varying from 20 to 30 per cent at the bottom to almost
zero at the top. Left to itself, the salt concentration gradient will disappear over a
period of time because of upward diffusion of the salt. In order to maintain it,
fresh water is added at the top of the pond, while slightly saline water is run off.
At the same time, concentrated brine is added at the bottom of the pond.* The
amount of salt required for this purpose is about 50 g/m2-day, which is a large
quantity when considered on an annual basis. For this reason the normal
practice is to recycle the salt by evaporating the saline water run off from the
surface in an adjacent evaporation pond.
In order to extract the energy stored, hot water is removed continuously
from the bottom, passed through a heat exchanger and returned to the bottom.
Alternatively heat is extracted by water flowing through a heat exchanger coil
submerged at the bottom. Because of movement and mixing of the fluid both at
the top and the bottom, the solar pond is characterized by three zones: a surface
convective zone, a non-convective concentration gradient zone, and a lower
convective zone (Fig. 8.2). The surface convective zone (SCZ) usually has a
small thickness, around 10 to 20 cm. It has a low, uniform concentration, which
is close to zero, as well as a fairly uniform temperature, which is close to the
ambient air temperature. The non-convective zone (NCZ) is much thicker and
occupies more than half the depth of the pond. Both concentration and
temperature increase with depth in this zone. It serves principally as an
insulating layer and reduces heat losses in the upward direction. Some of the
heat collection also takes place in this zone and its serves also as part of the
thermal storage. The lower convective zone (LCZ) is comparable in thickness to
the non-convective zone. Both the concentration and the temperature are nearly
constant in this zone. It serves as the main heat-collection as well as thermal
storage medium. The lower convective zone is often referred to as the storage
zone or as the bottom layer.
Typically, the temperature in the lower convective zone of a well designed

large pond operating in India might fluctuate cyclically between a maximum value
of 85o to 95oC in summer and a minimum of 50o to 60oC in winter. This is shown
in Fig. 8.3, in which the variation of the ambient air temperature is also indicated.
It will be noted that there is a phase difference of a month or two between the two
curves. The annual collection efficiency generally ranges between 15 and 25 per
cent. These values are lower than those obtained for a flat-plate collector.
Nevertheless, solar ponds are more cost-effective, since their cost per square
metre is much less than that for a liquid flat-plate collector system. This is
particularly true when the area is of the order of 1000 m2 or more.

Solar Energy

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Solar Energy

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Er.N.

The basic research in solar energy is being carried in universities and

1. Heating and cooling of residential building.

DIFFERENT SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS

Solar water heating systems for domestic, industrial and commercial

The basic method of solar distillation is to admit solar radiation through a

Solar refrigeration is intended for food preservation (or storage of biological

There are two methods of solar refrigeration.

a. Vapour absorption refrigeration system that utilizes low grade thermal

Solar refrigeration with an absorption system is a better way of direct

Electricity from Solar Energy

Electricity is directly generated by utilizing solar energy by the photo voltaic

In a solar thermal power production system the energy is first collected by

In solar tower concentration system (Tower power concept), the incoming

Solar Radiation and its Measurement

The major drawbacks to the extensive application of solar energy are:

1. The intermittent and variable manner in which it arrives the earth’s

Energy is radiated by the sun as electromagnetic waves of which 99 per

Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface

The insolation at a given location on the earth’s surface depends, among

Sun at Zenith. Position of the sun directly over head.

m = sec θz when m > 3.

Solar Radiation Geometry

It is complementary angle of sun’s altitude angle. it is a vertical angle

Solar Azimuth Angle γs.

The local solar time

(n is the day of the here = 170 on June 19)

TRANSMISSIVITY OF COVER SYSTEM

Transmissivity like reflectivity and absorptivity, is a function of the

A surface with transmissivity τ = 0 is known as an opaque surface. For

Transmissivity in partially transparent (i.e., translucent) materials is

i. The transmissivity τρ is first calculated considering reflection alone.

Transmittance – Absorptance Product

For solar collector analysis, it is necessary to evaluate the transmittance –

The transmissivity – absorptivity product is defined as the ratio of the

Energy Balance Equation and Collector Efficiency

The performance of solar collector is described by an energy balance that

An overall heat transfer coefficient value of less than 0.69 W/m2 0K is

ii. Convectivel Losses

iii. Radiative losses

Radiative losses from the absorber can be reduced by the sue of

Under steady conditions, the useful heat delivered by a solar collector is

Qu = Ac [HR (.J& )e – UL (tp-ta) ] ….(3.5.1)

Ac is the collector area, m2

Solar Energy Collectors

A solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and transfer

i. Non concentrating or flat plate type solar collector.

Physical Principles of the Conversion of Solar Radiation into Heat

Glass easily transmits short – wave radiation, which means that it

In fig.3.2.2 a black – painted plate absorbs the incoming sunlight. About

Flat – Plate Collectors

Heat Transport System

The heat generated in the absorber is removed by continuous flow of a

Water is a very effective heat – transport medium, but it suffers from

Basically air heaters are classified in the following two categories.

1. Non – porous absorber plate type collectors.

Performance of air heaters is improved by:

2. Collectors with porous absorbers

These defects are eliminated in a porous absorber type collectors in

Applications of Solar Air Heaters

Advantages of Flat – plate collectors

SOLAR AIR HEATERS

Applications of soilar Air Heaters

3.Forced Convection Solar dryer for Fuits and Vegetables