Macroscopic and Microscopic Analysis of The Cardiovascular System

MACROSCOPIC AND
MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS OF
THE CARDIOVASCULAR
SYSTEM
Finals Laboratory Session 1
First Semester
Our Lady of Fatima University
COLLEGE OF MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE – VALENZUELA CAMPUS / JOSHUA LUIGI D. RAMEL, RMT / jdramel@fatima.edu.ph
UNIT OUTLINE
1. Differentiate blood vessels of the body both macroscopically and microscopically
MACROCSCOPIC ANALYSIS
Image Source: Lecture Notes, Ramel, Jonas Mikko D., MD (2017)
I. MACROSCOPIC ANALYSIS
CORONARY ARTERIES
1. Right Coronary Artery (RCA)

- supplies the: Right Atrium, Right Ventricle, parts of Left
Ventricle (posterior side, by the posterior interventricular
artery)
2. Left Coronary Artery (LCA )– Left Ventricle and a

small portion of the Right Ventricle (via the Left Anterior
Descending Artery), LA auricle – nonmuscular extension
of the atria, adds volume to chambers of heart
CORONARY ARTERIES
2.a.) Left Anterior Descending Artery (LAD)

- Passes along the IV groove to the apex of the heart
- Supplies adjacent part of the ventricles; gives rise to a
lateral branch that descend on the anterior surface of the
heart
2.b.) Circumflex artery

- Runs through the left border of the heart to its posterior
surface
- Left marginal branch: follows the left margin of the
heart; supplies the left ventricle
- Terminates in the coronary sulcus in the posterior
aspect of the heart
CARDIAC VEINS
1.) Coronary sinus
- Venous drainage of most of the coronary circulation
- Empties into the RA, via the coronary sinus
Major veins draining into the coronary sinus:

a.) Great cardiac vein
- Drains the areas of the heart supplied by the LCA
b.) Middle cardiac vein

– Accompanies posterior IV artery
c.) Small cardiac vein

– Accompanies right marginal artery
d.) Anterior cardiac vein

– Drains directly into the right atrium
AORTIC BRANCHES
Main branches of the arch of the aorta:
1. Brachiocephalic trunk
- Arises posterior to the manubrium
- Anterior to the trachea and posterior to the left of the
brachiocephalic vein
- Branches into right subclavian and right common carotid arteries
2. Left common carotid

- Arises posterior to the manubrium, slightly posterior and to the
left of the brachiocephalic trunk
- Enters the neck by passing posterior to the left SC joint
3. Left subclavian
- Arises from the posterior part of the arch, just posterior to the left
common carotid artery
Thoracic Aorta
- Begins on the left side of the inferior border of the body of
the T4 vertebra
- Descends in the posterior mediastinum on the left sides of
T5- T12 vertebrae
- Branches of descending aorta
AMDOMINAL AORTA
1.) Inferior phrenic artery – First branch of abdominal

aorta; supplies inferior portion of diaphragm
2.) Coeliac artery – Supplies stomach and liver, first half

of duodenum
3.) Superior mesenteric artery

- Last half of duodenum, small intestine, parts of large
intestine, pancreas
- Supplies part of the gastrointestinal tract derived from
midgut
4.) Inferior mesenteric artery

- Large intestine: distal third of transverse colon up to the
rectum
- Supplies part of gastrointestinal tract derived from the
hindgut
AMDOMINAL AORTA
5. ) Renal artery
- Kidney
- Arise at the level of the IV disc between L1 and L2
vertebrae
6.) Gonadal artery
- Supply blood to gonads;
- Male: testicular artery; transverses inguinal canal and
enters scrotum; supplies abdominal ureter, and
epididymis
- Female: ovarian artery; supplies abdominal and /or
pelvic ureter, ovary, and ampullary end of uterine tube
7.) (Four to five) Lumbar arteries – supplies blood to

posterior abdominal wall
8.) Common iliac arteries – branches off into internal and

external iliac arteries
VEINS IN THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY
2.) Right, middle, and left hepatic veins

- Drains blood from the liver into the IVC just inferior the
diaphragm
3.) Renal veins

- Drains each kidneys into the IVC
- Lie anterior to the right and left renal arteries
4.) Right gonadal vein – empties directly into IVC

5.) Left gonadal vein – empties into renal vein; testicular /
ovarian vein
6.) Varicosyl – worm-like structure found more commonly
in the veins of the left scrotum, because of higher pressure
in the left renal vein
7.) Common internal and external iliac veins
II. TISSUES OF THE VASCULAR WALLS
3 Concentric Layers of Blood Vessels:
1. Tunica Intima
2. Tunica Media
3. Tunica Adventitia
1. Tunica Intima - includes the endothelium,

connective tissue, and an internal elastic lamina
2. Tunica Media - contains alternating layers of
smooth muscle and collagen or elastic lamellae
3. Tunica Adventitia - contains connective tissue,
small vessels and nerves and vasa vasorum
III. VASCULATURE
Arteries:
1.Elastic
2.Muscular
3.Small
Microvasculature
1. Arteioles
Veins: 2. Capillaries
1. Small 3. Venules
2. Medium
3. Large
III. VASCULATURE
Arteries:
1. Large Elastic Arteries
- aka Conducting Arteries
- with fenestrated elastic laminae in the thick tunica media
- Contains Vasa Vasorum
2. Muscular Arteries
-less elastic material than Elastic Artery
- Distribute blood to all organs and maintain steady blood
pressure and flow with vasodilation and constriction
III. VASCULATURE
Arteries:
3. Small Arteries
- no vasa vasourm
- Distribute blood to arterioles, adjusting flow
with vasodilation and constriction
III. VASCULATURE
Microvasculature
1. Arterioles
-Endothelium; no connective tissue / smooth
muscle
- Resist and control blood flow to capillaries;

major determinant of systemic blood pressure
III. VASCULATURE
Microvasculature
2. Capillaries
- Endothelium only
- No Tunica Adventitia
- Exchange metabolites by diffusion to and
from cells
III. VASCULATURE
Microvasculature
2. Capillaries
Types of Capillaries
A. Continuous Capillaries – tight junctions; allow cellular
exchange
B. Fenestrated Capillaries – small pores (fenestrations)

C. Discontinuous Capillaries
- AKA Sinusoids
- Large Lumen
- Discontinued Basal Lamina
III. VASCULATURE
Microvasculature
3. Venules
- Endothelium; no valves
- No Tunica Adventitia
- Drain capillary beds; site of leukocyte exit
from vasculature
III. VASCULATURE
Veins
1. Small Veins
- Connective tissue, thicker than media
- Collect blood from venules
2. Medium Veins
- Thicker than media; longitudinal smooth muscle
may be present
- Carry blood to larger veins, with no backflow
III. VASCULATURE
Veins
3. Large Veins
- Thickest layer, with bundled longitudinal
smooth muscle
- Return blood to heart
REFERNCES
Lecture Notes, Ramel, Jonas Mikko D., MD (2017)
Lecture Notes, Ramel, Joshua Luigi D., RMT (2019)
Lecture Notes, Tan, Christine Faith, MD (2020)
Mescher, Anthony L (2018) , Junqueira’s Basic Histology Text and Atlas 15th Edition
MACROSCOPIC AND
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
First Semester
UNIT OUTLINE
1. Demonstration of the Components of the Digestive System
2. Observation of the Microscopic Anatomy of the Organs of Digestive System
I. ORAL CAVITY
Nonkeratinized stratified
squamous epithelium (soft plate
cheeks, floor of the mouth and
pharynx), with keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium
on the (hard palate and gingiva )
Tongue
- Striated Muscle
- 4 papillae
Filiform papillae with keratinized epithelium
Nonkeratinized foliate papillae
Fungiform papillae
Large vallate papillae
I. ORAL CAVITY
Filiform papillae with keratinized epithelium
- Heavily Keratinized, Elongated Cone Shaped
- Provide a rough surface that facilitates food movement
Nonkeratinized foliate papillae

- Consist of several parallel ridges on each side of the
tongue, anterior to the sulcus terminalis
Fungiform papillae
-Lightly keratinized, and interspersed among the filiform
papillae; mushroom-shaped
Large vallate papillae

-Largest papillae, with diameters of 1-3 mm
- Consist of Serous Salivary Glands (von Ebner Glands)
I. ORAL CAVITY
TEETH
Each tooth has enamel covering its
crown and neck and a vascularized,
innervated central pulp cavity within the
dentin that makes up the roots and
extends into the neck.
I. ORAL CAVITY
Dentin – secreted by
odontoblasts
- tall polarized cells derived

from the cranial neural
crest that line the tooth’s
pulp cavity
Enamel - 96% calcium

hydroxyapatite and only 2%-
3% organic material including
very few proteins and no
collagen
II. ESOPHAGUS
- Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
- Striated Muscle and Smooth Muscle
- At the esophagogastric junction, stratified squamous
epithelium changes abruptly to simple columnar
epithelium.
III. STOMACH Four major regions:
Superior cardia
Inferior pylorus
- Continue the digestion of carbohydrates Intervening fundus
initiated by the amylase of saliva Body
- Add an acidic fluid to the ingested food and

mixing its contents into a viscous mass called
chyme by the churning activity of the
muscularis
- Begin digestion of triglycerides by a secreted

lipase, and
- Promote the initial digestion of proteins with

the enzyme pepsin.
III. STOMACH
Mucosa of the stomach

fundus and body is
penetrated by numerous
gastric pits, which are
lined like the stomach
lumen with surface
mucous cells and which
lead into branching
gastric glands.
IV. SMALL INTESTINE
Three regions:
1. Duodenum with large mucous glands in
the submucosa called duodenal glands;
2. Jejunum
3. Ileum with the large mucosal and
submucosal Peyer patches.
- All regions of small intestine the mucosa

has millions of projecting villi,
V. LARGE INTESTINE
Three major regions:
1. Cecum, with the appendix;
2. Colon, with its ascending,
transverse, descending, and sigmoid
portions;
3. Rectum.
Presence of intestinal glands, lined

by lubricant goblet cells and
absorptive cells for the uptake of
water and electrolytes.
VI. ANAL CANAL
Simple columnar epithelium lining the

rectum shifting abruptly to stratified
squamous epithelium of the skin at the
anus.
VII. SALIVARY GLANDS
Saliva: digestive, lubricating and protecting functions
* Drained by simple cuboidal intercalated ducts
-> Merge to form interlobular/ excretory duct
* Three Pairs of Salivary Glands:

-> Parotid
-> Submandibular
-> Sublingual
* Three Types of Secretory Cells:

-> Serous cells (oval or acini)
-> Mucous Cells (elongated tubules)
-> Myoepithelial Cells (surrounds acini)
VIII. PANCREAS
* Mixed Endocrine-Exocrine Organ
*Retroperitoneal Organ; has head
and tail regions
* Mostly comprised of Serous acinar
tissue
Panceatic Acinar
-> Pyramidal
-> Contain Secretory Granules
(Zymogens)
-> Round, basal nucleus
-> Drained by an Intercalated duct
Exocrine Function of Pancreas

-> Secretion of Pancreatic Juice
-> Secretion of Digestive Enzymes
IX. LIVER
-> Largest Internal Organ
-> Digestive Function: Production of Bile
-> Major interface between digestive system
and blood
-> Functional Unit: Hepatocytes
Hepatocytes
-> Large epithelial cells
-> Large central nuclei (often binucleated)
-> Endocrine Fxn: Plasma Protein Secretion
-> Exocrine Fxn: Bile Secretion
-> Other Functions:
- Glucose Storage
- Detoxification
- Vit. A Storage
- Storage of Iron
- Removal of effete RBC’s (Kupffer Cells)
X. BILIARY TRACT AND GALLBLADDER
* Bile Canaliculi, Bile Ductules and Bile Ducts
* Forms Common Hepatic Duct and Common
Bile Duct
* Delivers Bile produced from Hepatocytes
*Bile Ductules and Bile Ducts:

-> Simple Cuboidal or Columnar Cells
(Cholangiocytes)
*Common Hepatic Duct

-> Leads to Cystic Duct
*Cystic Duct
-> Delivers Bile to Gallbladder (Temp.
Storage)
X. BILIARY TRACT AND GALLBLADDER
Gallbladder
* Hollow, pear-shaped organ
* Stores up to 30-50ml of Bile
* Mucosa of Gallbladder Contains:
-> folds (surface area)
-> Lamina Propria
-> Lining of Cholangiocytes
*Contraction of the gallbladder sends bile

to the duodenum via the common bile
duct
* Bile - induced by cholecystokinin

(CCK) from enteroendocrine cells in the
duodenum when food is present.
REFERNCES
MACROSCOPIC AND
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
First Semester
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1. Testis
2. Genital Ducts
3. Accessory Glands
4. Penis
Overall Functions of Male Reproductive System:

1. Production of Sperm
2. Secretion of Hormones
3. Production of substances required for sperm activity
* Semen - spermatozoa + secretions
I. TESTES
Regions:
1. Tunica Albuginea (dense connective tissue)
2. Mediastinum Testis ( fibrous regions)
3. Testicular Lobules
-each lobule contains seminiferous tubules
containing interstitial cells (of Leydig).
Leydig Cells/ Interstitial Cells

- Round, Polygonal
- Central Nuclei
- Eosinophilic Cytoplasm
I. TESTES
Seminiferous tubules
- 250 – 1000 tubules per Testicular Lobule
Contains:
>Spermatogenic epithelium
> Basement Membrane
> Myoid Cells ( for contraction)
>Sertoli cells
Steroli Cells
>Physically and metabolically support developing sperm
cell precursors
>Produce androgen-binding protein, which concentrates
testosterone
>Phagocytoses shed debris from differentiating
spermatids,
>Secrete fluid that carries sperm along the tubules
I. TESTES
II. EXCRETORY GENITAL DUCTS
1. Epididymis
2. Ductus Deferens/ Vas Deferens
3. Urethra
Collective Function: transport sperm from scrotum to penis during ejaculation.
1. Epididymis
4-5m in length
Regions:
a. Head
b. Body
c. Tail
* Passage of Sperm through

epididymis takes 2-4 weeks.
* WHERE MATURATION OCCURS
* Lined with pseudostratified
columnar epithelium
2. Ductus/ Vas Deferens
- Also has pseudostratified column.
Epith.
- Has three layers of smooth muscle
> Peristaltic movement
III. ACCESSORY GLANDS
- Produce Secretions mixed with sperm to produce
semen
1. Seminal Gland/ Vesicle
2. Prostate Gland
3. Bulbourethral Gland
- Produce Secretions mixed with sperm to produce
semen
1. Seminal Gland/ Vesicle
2. Prostate Gland
3. Bulbourethral Gland
Seminal Vesicles
* Lined with both simple and pesudostratified
columnar epithelium (containing secretory cells)
* Exocrine Glands
* Secretion makes up 70% of ejaculate, containing:
> Fructose
> Prostaglandins
> Fibrinogen
Prostate Gland
* Collection of 30-50 tubuloacinar glands
embedded in a dense fibromuscular stroma
Contains three zones (arranged around the urethra):

a.) Transition Zone (5%)
- contains mucosal glands
b.) Central Zone (25%)
- contains submucosal glands
c.) Peripheral Zone (75%)
- contains main prostate glands
Bulbourethral Gland
* AKA Cowper glands
* Empties into proximal part of penile urethra
IV. PENIS
* Contians three cylindrical masses of
erectile tissue, penile urethra and skin
1. Corpora Cavernosa (dorsal)

2. Corpus Spongiosum (ventral)
3. Penile Urethra
> pseudostratified columnar epithelium
*Foreskin (prepuce)
- Retractable fold in skin with sebaceous
glands
IV. PENIS
Penile Erection
> Blood filling cavernous spaces in tissue
> Triggered by external stimuli to CNS
> Controlled by autonomic nerves
Parasympathetic Stimulation
> Relaxes muscle of the small helicine arteries and adjacent
tissues, allowing vessels of the cavernous tissue to fill with blood
> Enlargement of corpora muscles
Sympathetic Stimulation
>Occurs at ejaculation
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1. Paired Ovaries
2. Paired Oviducts (Uterine Tubes)
3. Uterus
4. Vagina
5. External Genitalia
6. Mammary Glands
> Not part of Reproductive System per se, but undergo
changes directly connected to the functional state of
reproductive organs.
V. OVARIES, FOLLICLES AND OOCYTES
Ovaries
- “almond shaped”
- Contains a Cortex and Medulla
* Contain the following epithelium:

> Cuboidal
> Surface/Germinal
> Tunica Albuginea
Medulla – loose connective tissue

- blood vessels
Cortex – cellular connective tissue
- contains ovarian follicles
Ovarian Follicles
- Consists of an oocyte surrounded by layers of
epithelial cells and lamina
Primordial Follicles
-Formed from developing fetal gonad
-Contains one primary oocyte arrested in meiotic
prophase I
Primary Follicles
- Develop from primordial follicles
- Enlarging primary oocyte surrounded by larger
epithelial cells now called granulosa cells.
Granulosa Cells
-Responsible for steroid hormone production
during maturation
Zona Pellucida
-Contains glycoproteins (ZO proteins) to which
the sperm surface must bind to reach the oocyte at
fertilization.
Follicular Growth and Development

> Onset of Puberty
> Initiated by Follicle Stimulating Hormone
> Growth of Oocytes
> Proliferation and Changes in Follicular Cells
> Formation of Secondary/Antral Follicles
> Formation of Graffian Follicles
What happens at follicular growth?

1. Formation of Unilaminar Primary Follicle
2. Formation of Multilaminar Primary Follicle
3. Formation of Zona Pellucida
4. Formation of Follicular Theca
> “ Outer Covering”
Theca Interna
Theca Externa
OVULATION AND THE CORPUS LUTEUM
Ovulation
*Involves movement of a very large, dominant graafian
follicle to the ovary surface
*Completion of meiosis I,
*Release of a polar body from the oocyte
Forms the Corpus Luteum:

Cells – Granulosa Lutein (estrogen)
- Theca Lutein (progesterone)
VI. UTERINE TUBES OR OVIDUCTS
* Where the secondary oocyte enters
* Where oocyte degenerates if not fertilized
Regions of Uterine Tubes:

1. Infundibulum
> with fimbrae
2. Ampulla
> longest region
> where fertilization normally occurs
3. Isthmus
> narrower portion near the uterus
4. Intramural part
> passes through uterine wall
VII. UTERUS
“Pear Shaped” Organ Uterine Wall
Regions: * Three Layers:

1. Fundus 1. Perimetrium
> entry point of the uterine tubes > covered by mesothelium
2. Isthmus
2. Myometrium
3. Cervix > highly vascularized
> cylindrical structure
> Has two openings: 3. Endometrium
- Internal Os (main uterine lumen) > simple columnar epithelium
- External Os (to vagina)
VIII. CERVIX, VAGINA, AND MAMMARY GLANDS
CERVIX
*Narrow, inferior end of uterus.

*Endocervical Mucosa is lined with
simple columnar epithelium
* Contains cervical glands
> secretes mucous
* Exocervical Mucosa is lined with
nonkeratinized simple sq. epithelium
VAGINA
*Lacks Glands
* Consists of the ff:
>Mucosa
> Muscular Layer
> Adventitia
* Epithelium of vagina is stratified squamous
* Squamous cells accumulate glycogen which
is later metabolized by bacteria into lactic acid,
giving low pH of Vagina
EXTERNAL GENITALIA
*AKA Vulva:
• All contain stratified sq. epithelium
1. Vestibule
> contains tubuloacinar glands
2. Labia Minora
> lacking hair follicles; has oil glands
3. Labia Majora
> similar histologically to skin of
scrotum
4. Clitoris
> erectile structure similar to penis
MAMMARY GLANDS
*Alveolar secretory units develop after puberty
on a branching duct system with lactiferous
sinuses converging at the nipple.
* Highly modified Apocrine Sweat Glands
*Milk secretion (lactation), which begins in late

pregnancy and continues until weaning, involves
both protein exocytosis and apocrine secretion of
lipid droplets.
REFERNCES
MACROSCOPIC AND
THE URINARY SYSTEM
First Semester
I. COMPONENTS OF URINARY SYSTEM
Kidneys Bladder
Ureters Urethra
RENAL FUNCTIONS:
1. Acid-Base Balance
2. Excretion of metabolic wastes
3. Excretion of bioactive substances
4. Secretion of renin
5. Secretion of erythropoietin
6. Conversion of Vitamin D
7. Gluconeogenesis
I. KIDNEY
Components:
1.Cortex (outer)
- stains darker than medulla
2. Medulla (inner)
- contains 8-12 renal pyramids containing a
renal lobe
Renal Pyramids
- apical end contains renal papilla and minor calyx
that eventually become one of three major clayces
- Renal Pyramids are separated by structures called

renal columns
I. KIDNEY
Components:
1.Cortex (outer)
- stains darker than medulla
2. Medulla (inner)
- contains 8-12 renal pyramids containing a
renal lobe
3. Renal Hilum
- Where renal artery and vein are located
- The ureter exits the kidney from here
II. RENAL
VASCULATURE
1. Renal Artery
- Largest
- Divides into 2 segmental arteries at hilum
2. Interlobar Arteries
- Branch from segmental arteries
- Extend between renal pyramids towards
corticomedullary junction
II. RENAL
VASCULATURE
3. Arcurate Arteries
- Branches from interlobar arteries
4. Interlobular Arteries
- Branches from arcurate arteries
- Extend all the way to renal cortex
In the cortex afferent arterioles enter capillary
clusters called glomeruli
- Where blood is filtered in the kidney
- drained by efferent arterioles
Efferent arterioles
- branch into peritubular capillaries
College COLLEGE
of Medical Laboratory
OF MEDICAL Science / SCIENCE
LABORATORY Canellie–Canlas, RMT,CAMPUS
VALENZUELA MSMT //JOSHUA
Jonna Tacsay,
LUIGI D.RMT, MSMT/
RAMEL, Joshua Ramel, RMT
RMT / jdramel@fatima.edu.ph
III. NEPHRONS
Functional units of the kidney
* 1- 4 million
Major Divisions of Nephron:
1. Renal Corpuscle
2. Proximal Tubule
3. Loop of Henle
4. Distal Tubule
5. Connecting Tubule
- links nephron to collecting ducts
III. NEPHRONS
III. NEPHRONS
1. RENAL CORPUCSCLE
- Dilated part enclosing a tuft of capillary loops
- SITE OF BLOOD FILTRATION
* Contains the ff:

- Glomerulus
- Glomerular Capsule ( Bowman’s Capsule)
> Simple Squamous Epithelial
- Podocytes
> Satellite Epithelial Cells
> Compose the apparatus for renal
filtration
IV. GLOMERULUS
Three Parts:
1. Fenestrated Capillary Endothelium
2. Fused Basal Laminae
> Contains Type IV Collagen
> Produced by Podocytes
3. Slit Pores
V. NEPHRON TUBULES
For Reabsorption and Secretion of Substances
1. Proximal Convoluted Cuboidal Tubule

- located at renal cortex
> Simple Cuboidal Cells
> Contains Microvilli
> Abundant Mitochondria
> Basolateral Folds
Molecules Reabsorbed:
Glucose Amino Acids
Electrolytes Water
V. NEPHRON TUBULES
2. Loop of Henle
- With Thin Ascending and Thin Descending parts
- Loop of Henle contains SQUAMOUS epithelial
- Also contains Thick Ascending Limb

> Further thickens to macula densa
Macula Densa
- Specialized smooth muscle cells
- Have juxtaglomerular cells
> Secrete renin
V. NEPHRON TUBULES
3. Distal Convoluted Tubule

> Where Electrolyte Levels are adjusted further
4. Connecting Tubules
- Join to form the cortical collecting ducts
> simple cuboidal epithelium
V. NEPHRON TUBULES
VI. URINARY TRACT
Principal Cells
> pale staining
> few mitochondria
> contain cell membranes rich in aquaporins
- for passive water reabsorption
> delivers filtrate of plasma into minor calyces
Filtrate is now called urine.
The calyces, renal pelvis, ureters, and urinary

bladder are lined by urothelium
VII. UROTHELIUM
- Contain Large Bulbous superficial cells called
umbrella cells that contain uroplakin
> protect cytoplasm
VIII. URINARY BLADDER
- Where urine temporarily is stored
- Contains folded mucosa which unfold
as bladder fills.
- Transitional epithelium gets thinner as
bladder fills.
IX. URETHRA
- Drains the bladder
- Lined initially by urothelium
- For Males:
> Urothelium is followed by stratified and pseuostratified
columnar epithelium
> Last portions of male urethra is stratified squamous
epithelium
- Male Urethra has three regions:

> Prostatic Urthera
> Membranous Urethra
- passes through urogenital diaphragm
> Penile Urethra
REFERNCES
MACROSCOPIC AND
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
First Semester
UNIT OUTLINE
1. Differentiate blood vessels of the body both macroscopically and microscopically
FUNCTIONS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
* Providing Oxygen
* Production of Sound
Regions of the Respiratory System:
* Conducting Region
- Cleans and Humidifies Air
- Provides conduits of movement along alveoli
> Nasal Cavity > Larynx
> Pharynx > Trachea
> Bronchi
* Respiratory Region
> Respiratory Bronchioles
> Alveolar Ducts
> Alveloi
I. Nasal Cavities
*The left and right nasal
cavities
*Lie within the skull as
two cavernous chambers
separated by the osseous
nasal septum
* Conchae – bone like
projections
Components:
-> Vestibule
-> Internal Nasal Cavity
I. Nasal Cavities
Vestibules:
*Contains the nares (nostrils)
-> preliminary filtration of inspired air
* Also contain vibrissae (hairs)
* Also contains the ff:
> Capillary loops
> Goblet Cells (secretes mucus w/ IgA)
> Ciliated Columnar Epithelial Cells
> Brush Cells ( Chemosensory)
> Small Granule Cells
- Klutchisky Cells
> Basal Cells
II . Olfactory Epithelium
- specialized region of the mucous

membrane covering the superior
conchae at the roof of the nasal cavity.
- pseudostratified epithelium
II . Components of Olfactory Epithelium:
-> Olfactory Neurons

- Bipolar Neuron
- Send nerve impulses that pass through
the cribriform plate of the ethmoid
bone
- Forms CRANIAL NERVE I
-> Supporting Cells

- Columnar Epithelium
- Maintain Microenvironement
II . Components of Olfactory Epithelium:
-> Stem Cells/ Basal Cells
- Spherical, cone shaped
- Replaces Olfactory Neurons (2-3mos)
-> Serous Glands

-> Olfactory Glands (of Bowman)
III . Pharynx
-> First part of the nasopharynx
-> Contains Respiratory Epithelium
-> Connects to the middle ear

cavity
IV. Epiglottis
- Flattened structure projecting from the

upper rim of the larynx
- Made of both stratified squamous and

pseudostratified columnar epithelium
- Prevents swallowed food from

entering air passageways
V. Larynx
-> Passage for air between the pharynx

and the trachea
-> Contains Hyaline Cartilage
-> Also contains Elastic Cartilage
Both cartilage here are for structural

support and sound production
V. Larynx
Vestibular Folds
-> Bilateral projecting vocal folds
->Contain nonkeratinized stratified
squamous epithelium
-> Have underlying vocalis muscles
that change pitch and sound of voice
VI. Trachea
-> Lined with typical respiratory mucosa
-> Contains numerous seromucous glands
producing watery mucus
-> Supported by C-shaped rings of hyaline
cartilage
-> Trachealis Muscle

- Smooth Muscle and Fibroelastic
Tissue
- Relaxes during swallowing
- Contracts during coughing
VI. Trachea
VII. Bronchial Tree
->Left and right primary bronchi
->Secondary, tertiary, and smaller
segmental bronchi
* Branches are lined by respiratory

mucosa
*Branches have bands of smooth
muscle and hyaline cartilage.
VIII. Bronchioles
-> Branches of the
bronchial tree with
diameters of 1 mm or less.
-> Lined by simple
columnar or cuboidal
ciliated cells.
Terminal Bronchioles
-> Last branches to lack alveoli

-> Lined by simple cuboidal epithelium
VIII. Bronchioles
Terminal Bronchioles
-> Last branches to lack alveoli
-> Lined by simple cuboidal epithelium
Cuboidal Cells are called CLUB CELLS
-> have various functions, including the following:
•Secretion of surfactant lipoproteins and mucins in the fluid layer on the epithelial
surface
•Detoxification of inhaled xenobiotic compounds by enzymes of the SER
•Secretion of antimicrobial peptides and cytokines for local immune defense

IX. Respiratory Region
-> Subdivision of Terminal

Bronchioles
-> Simple cuboidal epithelium
-> Interrupted by scattered
squamous evaginations called
alveoli, the sites of gas exchange.
IX. Respiratory Region
Alveolar Duct
-> lined by a continuous series of alveoli and
which ends in a cluster of alveoli called the
alveolar sac.
-> Also Contain elastic and Reticular Fibers

-> Contain Capillaries
X. Alveoli
- Saclike evaginations, each about 200 μm
in diameter
- Responsible for spongy structure of
lungs
Interalveolar septa
-> Consist primarily of elastic and
reticular fibers and a dense capillary
network.
-> Enables Alveoli to expand
X. Alveoli
*Wall of each alveolus consists of
alveolar cells, or pneumocytes, of two
types:
Type I
Type II (Cuboidal)
- surfactant secreting
- immune properties
*The surfactant material secreted by exocrine club cells and type II alveolar cells is an oily
mixture of cholesterol, phospholipids and surfactant proteins, which forms a film and lowers
surface tension in alveoli.
X. Alveoli
REFERNCES

Macroscopic and Microscopic Analysis of The Cardiovascular System

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MACROSCOPIC AND

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Ramel, Jonas Mikko D., MD (2017)

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Ramel, Jonas Mikko D., MD (2017)

1. Right Coronary Artery (RCA)

2. Left Coronary Artery (LCA )– Left Ventricle and a

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Ramel, Jonas Mikko D., MD (2017)

2.a.) Left Anterior Descending Artery (LAD)

2.b.) Circumflex artery

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Ramel, Jonas Mikko D., MD (2017)

Major veins draining into the coronary sinus:

b.) Middle cardiac vein

c.) Small cardiac vein

d.) Anterior cardiac vein

2. Left common carotid

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Ramel, Jonas Mikko D., MD (2017)

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Ramel, Jonas Mikko D., MD (2017)

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Ramel, Jonas Mikko D., MD (2017)

1.) Inferior phrenic artery – First branch of abdominal

2.) Coeliac artery – Supplies stomach and liver, first half

3.) Superior mesenteric artery

4.) Inferior mesenteric artery

7.) (Four to five) Lumbar arteries – supplies blood to

8.) Common iliac arteries – branches off into internal and

2.) Right, middle, and left hepatic veins

3.) Renal veins

4.) Right gonadal vein – empties directly into IVC

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Ramel, Jonas Mikko D., MD (2017)

1. Tunica Intima - includes the endothelium,

- Resist and control blood flow to capillaries;

B. Fenestrated Capillaries – small pores (fenestrations)

Nonkeratinized foliate papillae

Large vallate papillae

- tall polarized cells derived

Enamel - 96% calcium

- Add an acidic fluid to the ingested food and

- Begin digestion of triglycerides by a secreted

- Promote the initial digestion of proteins with

Mucosa of the stomach

- All regions of small intestine the mucosa

Presence of intestinal glands, lined

Simple columnar epithelium lining the

* Three Pairs of Salivary Glands:

* Three Types of Secretory Cells:

Exocrine Function of Pancreas

*Bile Ductules and Bile Ducts:

*Common Hepatic Duct

*Contraction of the gallbladder sends bile

* Bile - induced by cholecystokinin

Overall Functions of Male Reproductive System:

* Semen - spermatozoa + secretions

Leydig Cells/ Interstitial Cells

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Ramel, Jonas Mikko D., MD (2017)

Image Source: Lecture Notes, Ramel, Jonas Mikko D., MD (2017)

Collective Function: transport sperm from scrotum to penis during ejaculation.

* Passage of Sperm through

Contains three zones (arranged around the urethra):

1. Corpora Cavernosa (dorsal)

* Contain the following epithelium:

Medulla – loose connective tissue

Follicular Growth and Development

What happens at follicular growth?

Forms the Corpus Luteum:

Regions of Uterine Tubes: