Vehicular Emission Report G.T Road, Lahore.

Acknowledgement
We are grateful to ALLAH for providing us enough opportunities in life, for providing us power
and strength to continue our work and because of that we are able to meet our requirements
and deadlines for our dissertation.
We are grateful to Dr. Zunaira for all the support and help we have received while working on
this dissertation. Our sincere gratitude goes to our course consultant Engr. Mareeha Gull for her
realistic, encouraging and constructive approach throughout our study and her efforts during
working of our report. Thanks to her thoughtful guidance and management that provided us a
great environment for developing our skills, exchanging ideas and eventually generating high –
quality work.
We would also like to thank our family for supporting us. In the list of all these respected ones,
we would also like to include all of our friends who helped us and prayed for us.

Authors

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Vehicular Emission Report G.T Road, Lahore.

Abstract
Transportation is an element of prime importance for every country. A growing demand of
passenger and public transport has led to more air pollution and greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions.
The concerned report focuses on the calculation of vehicular emissions using different models.
Automobiles are one of the major source of air pollution in troposphere. It is because
automobiles are ground level sources of air pollution. They tend to impose the maximum impact
on local population. These effects mainly included respiratory diseases, based on pollutant
characteristics.
Number of vehicles has increased tremendously in the metropolitan areas of the city.
Researchers have shown that the urban air quality is suffered by vehicular emissions. Air
pollution is a serious and widespread problem in India and Pakistan. According to WHO Annual
Survey Report, Pakistan ranks second in the world in the spread of lung cancer due to air
pollution.
The area selected for this study is Begum Pura, main GT Road, Lahore. Geographically the reach
of study can be determined by the coordinates 31⸰34' 42.34" North and 74⸰ 21' 31.9" East. The
reference place is University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Gate 0 to Gate 5. The study
is conducted in working days of the week. Load was counted once for normal hours from 8:30 to
9:00 pm, and once for peak hours from 12:15 to 12:45 pm.

This report focuses the emissions from the vehicles estimated in accordance with changes of the
total number of vehicles on the road outside UET by using different models. Determination of
number of vehicles is not sufficient to estimate the vehicular emissions. To make a correct
acceptation, fuel types of specified vehicles should be determined correctly.
The aim to calculate the amount of pollutants is to establish legal measures that must be
implemented to protect the delicate balance of our environment and safeguard human health.

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Table of Contents
1 Introduction: 5
2 Objective: 6
3 Air Pollution 6
3.1 Sources of air pollution: 6
3.1.1 Stationary Sources: 6
3.1.2 Area Sources: 6
3.1.3 Mobile Sources: 6
3.1.4 Agricultural Sources: 6
4 Automobile Pollution 7
4.1 Types of Vehicular Emissions 7
4.1.1 Exhaust Emissions 7
4.1.2 Evaporative Emissions 7
5 Pollutants Emitted from Vehicles 8
5.1 Particulate Matter (PM) 8
5.1.1 Types of PM 8
5.1.2 Sources of PM 8
5.1.3 Harmful Effects of PM 9
5.2 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) 9
5.2.1 Sources 9
5.2.2 Effects 9
5.3 Oxides of Sulphur (SOx) 9
5.3.1 Sources 9
5.3.2 Effects 10
5.4 Carbon dioxide (CO2) 10
5.4.1 Sources 10
5.4.2 Effects 10
5.5 Carbon monoxide (CO) 10
5.5.1 Sources 10
5.5.2 Effects 10
5.6 Hydrocarbons (HC) 10
5.6.1 Sources 10

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5.6.2 Effects 10
5.7 Lead: 11
6 Traffic Situation in Lahore: 11
6.1 Reason of traffic congestion: 11
7 National Ambient air quality standards: 12
8 Estimation of Vehicular Emissions Load 13
8.1 Methods of Estimation 13
8.1.1 Direct Method 13
8.1.2 Emission Factor Method 13
8.2 Emission Factor 13
8.3 Parameters affecting Emission Factors: 14
8.4 Units of measurement: 14
9 Emission Models 14
9.1 MOBILE 14
9.1.1 Use of MOBILE Results 15
9.2 MOVES 15
9.3 CMEM 15
9.4 EETM Model 15
9.5 EMFAC Model 16
10 Site Survey and Characteristics 16
10.1 Sampling Time 16
10.2 Road Length 16
11 Methodology: 16
12 Observations and Calculations: 17
13 Result of Vehicular Emissions from different Models: 17
13.1 EETM Model 17
13.2 EMFAC Model: 18
13.3 Move Model 19
14 Carbon Emissions from Vehicles: 20
15 Recommendations 21
16 Control Measures 21
17 Steps taken in Pakistan 22
17.1 Lawsuit Establishment 22
17.2 Formation of Action plans 22

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18 Comments & Discussion 23

19 Conclusion: 23
20 References 23

1 Introduction:
The increasing levels of air pollution pose a serious threat to the environment all over the globe.
It intensely affects the highly populated urban areas. The density of buildings, industries and
vehicles in the urban areas prevents pollutants from dispersion.

The major pollutants that pose risk to ecological systems include suspended particulates i.e.
PM10 and PM2.5, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide
and toxic trace metals such as lead and noise. The control of environment involves two levels:
● Periodic monitoring of the atmosphere of the areas for which the control is to be
accomplished
● Application of environmental control processes to bring the pollutant concentrations to the
permitted levels.

Thus, air quality monitoring is the scientific foundation upon which air quality plans are erected.
The ultimate goal of monitoring is not only to collect data, but also to provide the information
necessary for scientists and planners to make decisions for managing and improving the
environment. The control of environment is not the concern of an individual state, province or a
country. It is a matter of concern for the whole globe.
Pakistan is also facing extensive environmental problems out of which increasing air pollution
stands at the top. Mega cities of Pakistan are facing major apprehension for air pollution due to
climbing population and traffic. Lahore is a junction point of national highway system with a lot
of heavy traffic. Level of total suspended particulates (TSP), PM10, SO2, NOx and ozone were
reported to be highest in Lahore. Emissions from vehicles are a key factor for these pollutants.
Although, Pakistan became actively involved in strategic framework for control of environment
at international level, it took a late start in monitoring the air quality of its urban areas.

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Government of Pakistan has already taken some steps to reduce the amount of pollution. For
example, attempts are being made to gradually shift the Country to natural gas in domestic and
industrial uses. Air pollution is responsible for approximately 20-30 percent of all respiratory
diseases which appear to be caused by air loaded with these pollutants. Clean air being an
important requirement for sustainable development, its importance is well realized in Pakistan.
Thus, departments such as EPD Islamabad, EPD Lahore and similar environmental protection
establishments in other provinces of Pakistan have been actively involved in air quality
monitoring.

2 Objective:
The main objectives of this study are:
● To quantify the level of vehicular pollution on Begum Pora, G.T. Road.
● To propose various strategies for management of On-road Air Quality.
It may help know whether the emissions are according to the standard as suggested by USEPA
and NEQS. It will help identify possible hazards. Possible reasons for the pollution would be able
to be identified. In the long run, the study would be able to suggest the ways the hazards and can
be resisted and emissions can be minimized.

3 Air Pollution
Air Pollution maybe defined as the disruption caused to the natural atmospheric environment
by the introduction of certain chemical substances, gases or particulate matter, which cause
discomfort and harm to structures and living organisms including plants, animals and humans.

3.1 Sources of air pollution:

3.1.1 Stationary Sources:
A stationary source of air pollution refers to an emission source that does not move, also known
as a point source. Stationary sources include factories, power plants, dry cleaners and
degreasing operations.

3.1.2 Area Sources:

The term area source is used to describe many small sources of air pollution located together
whose individual emissions may be below thresholds of concern, but whose collective emissions
can be significant. Residential wood burners are a good example of a small source, but when
combined with many other small sources, they can contribute to local and regional air pollution
levels. Area sources can also be thought of as non-point sources, such as construction of housing
developments etc.

3.1.3 Mobile Sources:

Mobile sources" is a term used to describe a wide variety of vehicles, engines, and equipment
that generate air pollution and that move, or can be moved, from place to place. In general,
mobile sources imply "on-road" transportation, which includes vehicles such as cars, trucks,
bikes, and buses. In addition, there is also a "non-road" or "off-road" category that includes farm
and construction equipment, recreational vehicles, boats, planes, and trains.

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3.1.4 Agricultural Sources:

Agricultural operations, those that raise animals and grow crops, can generate emissions of
gases and particulate matter. For example, animals confined to a restricted area (rather than
field grazing), produce large amounts of manure. Manure emits various gases, particularly
ammonia into the air. This ammonia can be emitted from the animal houses, manure storage
areas, or from the land after the manure is applied. In crop production, the misapplication of
fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides can potentially result in increase of these materials and
harm may be caused.

3.1.5 Natural Sources:

Although industrialization and the use of motor vehicles are overwhelmingly the most
significant contributors to air pollution, there are important natural sources of "pollution" as
well. Forest fires, dust storms, and volcanic activity also contribute gases and particulates to our
atmosphere.

4 Automobile Pollution
The pollution caused due to the emissions from vehicles is generally referred to as automobile
pollution. The transportation sector is the major contributor to air pollution. Vehicular
emissions are of particular concerns, since these are ground level sources and hence have the
maximum impact on the general population. The rapid increase in urban population have
resulted in unplanned urban development, increase in consumption patterns and higher
demands for transport and energy sources, which all lead to automobile pollution. The
automobile pollution will be higher in congested urban areas. The vehicle obtains its power by
burning the fuel. The automobile pollution is majorly caused due to this combustion, which form
the exhaust emissions, as well as, due to the evaporation of the fuel itself. The chemical reactions
occurring during ideal combustion stages may be represented as follows:
Fuel (HC) + Air (O2, N2) −> CO2 + H2O + unaffected Nitrogen
Similarly, the typical engine combustion which occurs in vehicles can be represented by the
below chemical equation.
Fuel (HC) + Air (O2,N2) −> Unburned HC + NOx + CO + CO2 + H2O

4.1 Types of Vehicular Emissions

The fuel loss of vehicles may be due to emissions or refueling. The emissions maybe evaporative
or exhaust emissions.

4.1.1 Exhaust Emissions

Exhaust emissions are those which are emitted through the exhaust pipe when the vehicle is
running or is started. Hence, the exhaust emissions maybe of 2 types - start up emissions and
running emissions.
4.1.1.1 Startup Emissions
Emissions when the vehicle is started initially. Based on how long the vehicle had been turned
off after use, they may be cold start and hot start. Cold start refers to when the vehicle is started

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suddenly after a long gap of use, whereas, hot start refers to when the vehicle is started without
the vehicle getting enough time to cool off after its previous use.
4.1.1.2 Running Emissions
Emissions during normal running of the vehicle, i.e., when the vehicle is in a hot stabilized mode.

4.1.2 Evaporative Emissions

These include running losses and hot soak emissions produced from fuel evaporation when an
engine is still hot at the end of a trip, and diurnal emissions (daily temperature variations).

5 Pollutants Emitted from Vehicles

The pollutants which are emitted from the exhaust pipe of the automobiles are known as
exhaust pollutants. They are formed as a result of combustion of the fuel in the engine. These
pollutants are harmful to the atmosphere and living things in particular. The major types of
exhaust pollutants are:

5.1 Particulate Matter (PM)

Particulate matter (PM) also known as particle pollution, is a complex mixture of extremely
small solid particles and liquid droplets that get into the air. Most PM particles form in the
atmosphere as a result of chemical reactions between pollutants. Some particles such as dirt,
dust, soot or smoke are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. Others are so small they can
only be detected using an electron microscope.

5.1.1 Types of PM
⮚ PM10
Inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 10 micrometers and smaller.

⮚ PM2.5
Fine inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers and smaller. How
small is 2.5 micrometers? Just think about a single hair from your head. The average human hair
is about 70 micrometer in diameter – making it 30 times larger than the largest fine particle.
⮚ PM0.1
Refers to particles with a diameter 0.1 microns, and are called ultra-fine particles. These
particles are usually exhaled but can penetrate into the bloodstream.

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Figure 2: Size of PM10 and PM2.5

5.1.2 Sources of PM
These particles come in many sizes and shapes and can be made up of hundreds of different
chemicals. Some are emitted directly from a source, such as:
⮚ Construction sites
⮚ Unpaved roads
⮚ Fields
⮚ Smokestacks or fires
Most particles form in the atmosphere as a result of complex reactions of chemicals such as
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides which are pollutants emitted from:
⮚ Power pants ⮚ Industries ⮚ Automobiles
Non-Human –induced sources include forest fires, volcanic eruptions, wind and dust storms, salt
sprays etc.

5.1.3 Harmful Effects of PM

Particulate matters are so small that they can be inhaled and cause serious health problems.
Particles less than 10 micrometer diameter pose the greatest problems, because they can get
deep into lungs, and some may even get into bloodstream. Premature death in people with heart
or lung disease

5.1.3.1 Effects on Human Health

⮚ Nonfatal heart attacks
⮚ Irregular heartbeat
⮚ Aggravated asthma
⮚ Decreased lung function
⮚ Increased respiratory symptoms such as irritation of the airways, coughing or difficulty
in breathing

5.1.3.2 Environmental Damage

Particles can be carried over large distances by wind and then settle on ground or water.
Depending on their chemical composition, the effects of this settling may include:
⮚ Making lakes and streams acidic ⮚ Affecting the diversity of ecosystems
⮚ Depleting the nutrients in soil ⮚ Contributing to acid rain effects
⮚ Damaging sensitive forests and
farm crops

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5.2 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

5.2.1 Sources
The main sources of NOx are
⮚ Industries
⮚ Motor Vehicles

5.2.2 Effects
Following are the effects of NOx:
⮚ Reduced plant growth ⮚ Acid rain
⮚ Asthma, Bronchitis ⮚ Global Warming
⮚ Produce Photochemical Smog ⮚ Metal Corrosion
⮚ Form small particles (PM) ⮚ Fading of Textiles
(ammonia, moisture & other
compounds)
5.3 Oxides of Sulphur (SOx)
5.3.1 Sources
The main sources of SO2 are:
⮚ Transportation ⮚ Industrial sources
⮚ Burning of fossil fuels in stationary ⮚ Miscellaneous
sources (Power Plants etc.)

5.3.2 Effects
Following are the effects of SO2:
⮚ Acid Rain
⮚ Irritation of Respiratory tract
⮚ Reduced Plant growth
5.4 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
5.4.1 Sources
The main sources of CO2 are:
⮚ Burning of fossil fuels
⮚ Motor vehicles

5.4.2 Effects
Following are the effects of CO2:
⮚ CO2 is a greenhouse gas and cause global warming
5.5 Carbon monoxide (CO)
5.5.1 Sources
The main sources of CO are:
⮚ Transportation

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⮚ Fuel combustion in stationary ⮚ Industrial processes

sources (Power Plants etc.) ⮚ Solid waste disposal

5.5.2 Effects
Following are the effects of CO:
⮚ CO reduces the blood carrying capacity
5.6 Hydrocarbons (HC)
5.6.1 Sources
The main sources of HC are:
⮚ Automobile exhaust
⮚ Fuel evaporation

5.6.2 Effects
Following are the effects of HC:
⮚ All HC except CH4 produce photochemical smog
⮚ Methane (CH4) causes global warming

5.7 Lead:
It is a blue-gray metal that is very toxic and is found in a number of forms and locations. Outside,
lead comes from cars in areas where unleaded gasoline is not used. Lead can also come from
power plants and other industrial sources. Inside, lead paint is an important source of lead,
especially in houses where paint is peeling. Lead in old pipes can also be a source of lead in
drinking water. High amounts of lead can be dangerous for small children and can lead to kidney
problems. For adults, exposure to lead can increase the chance of having heart attacks or
strokes.

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6 Traffic Situation in Lahore:

The transport sector is growing fast with the increase in urban population in the city of Lahore.
Lahore’s urban transport traffic has one of the highest growth rates in the country. The
congestion in the junctions or hotspots of the Lahore metropolitan areas especially in Multan
road, Ghari shahu and Shalimar creates environmental problems and causes vehicle exhausts,
noise pollution associated with road vehicles. Motor vehicles propelled by engines using petrol,
or diesel as a fuel emit a wide range of gaseous and particulate materials some of which have a
potential to be harmful to human beings, the amount of the pollution depending on the
condition and type of the engine and on operating condition. The hotspot areas mostly consist of
main activity zones. The motor cycle and scooter population is also growing in Asia; however the
benefits of these traffic modes have been at least partially offset by excessive pollution and the
adverse health and environmental effects that result from air pollution.

6.1 Reason of traffic congestion:

Traffic problem in Lahore has become a major issue at the moment and it is getting even worst
with every passing day. Main reasons are there which are accelerating the intensity of this
problem.
⮚ With the mounting population of Lahore, the vehicles have also increased to an
incalculable number causing a mess of traffic jam in almost every hour of the day.
⮚ Few reasons are; lack of proper system, bad quality of roads, lack of proper
transportation system, violation of traffic rules, negligence of traffic wardens, using
mobile phones while driving, parking on the main roads and construction of commercial
buildings at the main and busy roads.
⮚ Lack of awareness among people about the traffic rules, which are made for their safety.

Table 1: Volume of fast moving traffic at some selected junctions of Multan road, Lahore

Rapid growth in transport sector increases energy consumption which led to greenhouse gases
emissions. In Pakistan the transport sector is growing fast with the increase in urban population
while in the city of Lahore the urban transport traffic has one of the highest growth rates in the
country which ultimately led to the increase in the emission of air pollutants.

7 National Ambient air quality standards:

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These standards are given below:

Table 2: National Ambient Air Quality Standards

POLLUTANTS AVERAGE TIME CONCENTRATION

Annual average 60 µg/m3
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
24 hour 80 µg/m 3

A.A 60 µg /m3
Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2)
24H 80 µg /m 3

A.A 140 µg/m3

Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
24H 200 µg/m 3

A.A 0.75 µg/m3

Lead
24H 1.0 µg/m 3

A.A 2.0 µg/m3

Carbon Monoxide
24H 4.0 µg/m 3

8 Estimation of Vehicular Emissions Load

8.1 Methods of Estimation
There are two common methods for calculating the air pollutants from vehicles:
● Direct method
● Emission factor method

8.1.1 Direct Method

It is the measure of amount of pollutant at specific place by using different instruments.

8.1.2 Emission Factor Method

It is the measuring of pollutant amount by knowing “power of vehicle, its fuel consumption,
distance travelled and its emission factor.”

8.2 Emission Factor

The emission factor may be defined as the ratio of average amount of pollutant discharged to the
total amount of the fuel discharged. It is expressed in kg of particulate / metric ton of fuel. The
emission factors used in the emission models reflect different levels of congestion.
Table 3: Emission Factors of Various Pollutants

Engine Size CO HC NOX CO2 PM

(CC)
70 1.65 0.61 0.27 24.97 0.035
125 1.48 0.50 0.54 24.82 NA

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200 2-Stroke 1.15 1.63 0.16 71.50 0.043

200 4-Stroke 2.29 0.77 0.5 73.50 0.015
660, 700, 800 1.30 0.24 0.20 126.37 0.004
1000, 1300 3.01 0.19 0.12 126.50 0.006
1600 2.74 0.19 0.21 142.86 0.006
2000 0.66 0.25 0.61 166.14 0.180
2500, 2800 0.25 0.19 0.67 225.98 0.096
3500, 4000 3.66 1.35 2.12 401.25 0.475
6000 6.0 0.37 9.30 762.39 1.240

8.3 Parameters affecting Emission Factors:

The parameters that affect the emission factor values are as follows;
⮚ Vehicle/Fuel Characteristics ⮚ Driving mode and engine Load
⮚ Fuel quality ⮚ Maintenance and tampering
⮚ Operating Characteristics
⮚ Vehicle age and mileage
accumulation
Higher average temperatures, Poor fuel quality, poor vehicle maintenance culture, more the load
of old vehicles, Higher Value of Emission Factor .
8.4 Units of measurement:
Air pollution can be directly measured as it is emitted by a source in mass/volume of emission
(e.g., grams/m3) or mass/process parameter (e.g., grams/Kg fuel consumed or grams/second).
Air pollution can also be measured in the atmosphere as a concentration (e.g., micrograms/m3).

9 Emission Models
Emission models are commonly used to provide the traffic emission information for the
prediction and management of air pollution levels near roadways. The model helps in
comparing the actual pollution levels with emission standards set. Hence, the abatement of
pollution can also be carried out. The basic schematic diagram of an emission model is given in
the fig. below:

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Figure 9: Schematic Diagram of an Emission Model

Emission models estimate the emission quantity using the emission factor. There are different
models developed by USEPA:
✔ MOBILE ✔ EETM
✔ MOVES ✔ EMFAC
✔ CMEM
9.1 MOBILE
This model was proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency of the United States. The
MOBILE model estimates the emission rates from on – road motor vehicles. The outputs of the
MOBILE model are emissions per unit time or distance of a fleet or vehicle type (i.e. grams/mile
or grams /hour) of HC, CO, NOx, CO2, PM, NH3, SO2 and six toxic air contaminants such as lead.
MOBILE estimates emissions of both exhaust and evaporative emissions, and particulate
emissions from brake and tire wear. MOBILE does not apply the vehicle operation such as
distance travelled and the number of starts.
The MOBILE model was first developed as MOBILE 1 in the late 1970s, and has been updates
periodically to reflect improved data, changes in vehicle, engine, and emission control system
technologies, changes in applicable regulations and emission standards and test procedures, and
improved understanding of in–use emission levels and the factors that influence them. Each
generation of the MOBILE model became more sophisticated in its approach to modelling
average in-use emissions and has provided the user with additional options for tailoring
emission factor estimates to specific times and geographic locations. MOBILE 6.2 is the current
version of the model.

9.1.1 Use of MOBILE Results

MOBILE results were used to calculate current and future inventories of these emissions at the
national and local level. These inventories were used to make decisions about air pollution
policy and programs at the local, state and national level. Inventories based on MOBILE were
also used to meet the federal Clean Air Act’s state implementation plan (SIP) and transportation
conformity requirements, and were sometimes used to meet requirements of the National
Environmental Protection Act (NEPA).

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9.2 MOVES
EPA's Motor Vehicle Emission Simulator (MOVES) is a state-of-the-science emission modeling
system that estimates emissions for mobile sources at the national, county, and project level for
criteria air pollutants, greenhouse gases, and air toxics.
MOVES2014a is the latest version of MOVES:
● It incorporates significant improvements in calculating on road and non-road equipment
emissions.
● It does not significantly change the criteria pollutant emissions results of MOVES2014, and
therefore is not considered a new model for SIP and transportation conformity purposes.
9.3 CMEM
The “Comprehensive Modal Emissions Model”, or CMEM, was developed at the University of
California, Riverside and is fine-scale emissions predictions model. CMEM 2.0 is the latest
version. The model predicts emissions based, not only on the average speed of the vehicles, but
also on the fuel consumption and power of the vehicles.

9.4 EETM Model

This model depends upon:
⮚ Road characteristics
⮚ Road distance
⮚ Average number of vehicles
Ei = Ly * EFi * No. of Vehicles

Ly = Distance travelled in a year (km/year)

EFi = Emission factor (kg/km)
Ei = Emission of pollutant in a year for a specific type of engine (kg/year)

9.5 EMFAC Model

The “Emission factors” model is developed by the California Air Resources Board. The model is
similar to the MOBILE model, except that it is pertained to California only. The emission
standards of California are different from rest of the US. The EMFAC 2007 model uses two
inputs: activity data and emission factors that are based on tailpipe tests.
The analysis of emissions from different vehicles by EMFAC model is done by using following
formula:
Emission = Emission factor * Traffic Load * Fuel Consumption * Average Speed
Fuel Consumption = Vehicle Travel Distance * Fuel Intensity
Average Speed of Vehicle = 40 km/hr

10 Site Survey and Characteristics

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The road selected for the estimation of vehicular pollution load is GT Road, Near Shalamar Bagh,
Lahore.

10.1Sampling Time
The vehicles are counted in 2 days with different timings.
1. Firstly we counted vehicles on Monday at 1:00-2:00 (Off-Peak Hour) and 2:30-3:30
(Peak-Hour)
2. Then, we counted cars on Thursday at 9:30-10:30 (Peak Hour) and 11:00-12:00 (Off-Peak
Hour)

10.2Road Length
The length of the road is 0.16 km.

11 Methodology:
A framework for air quality modeling is developed. The procedure adopted is as follows;
⮚ Traffic count survey was performed at GT Road, Near Shalamar Bagh during peak and
normal hours.
⮚ Emission factors were collected from a draft report by Air Quality Monitoring Project
Indian Clean Air Programme (ICAP), 2008.
⮚ Different mathematical models were used in order to quantify the emissions of major air
pollutants.
⮚ Impacts of air pollution were identified and compared with standards.
⮚ Mitigation measures were discussed in order to bring the emissions to/ below the
desired levels.

12 Observations and Calculations:

No of Vehicles Passing through Shalimar Bagh

Monday ( 07-10-19) Thursday (10-10-19

Vehicle Type 1:00 -2:00 PM 2:30 - 3:30 PM 9:30 - 10:30 11:00 - 12:00
Truck 43 32 48 39
Small cars 513 734 22 272
Large Cars 368 516 372 402
CD70 Bike 3872 5213 4714 6813
CG125 Bike 980 1378 1124 1570
Qingqi 878 1498 1008 1123

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2 stroke Rikshaw 164 215 180 194

4 stroke Rikshaw 368 713 472 512

13 Result of Vehicular Emissions from different Models:

13.1EETM Model
According to this model:
Ei = Ly * EFi * No. of Vehicles

Ly = Distance travelled in a year (km/year)

EFi = Emission factor (kg/km)
Ei = Emission of pollutant in a year for a specific type of engine (kg/year)

EETM Model
HC NOx PM
Vehicle type CO kg/year kg/year kg/year kg/year
Truck 340588.8 21002.976 527912.64 70388.352
Small cars 701956.32 129591.936 107993.28 2159.8656
1748699.23
Large Cars 2 110383.008 69715.584 3485.7792
11917033.9 4405691.32 1950060.09
CD70 Bike 2 8 6 252785.568
2619926.78
CG125 Bike 4 885110.4 955919.232 88511.04
3616488.91 1216024.65
Qingqi 2 6 789626.4 23688.792
2 stroke Rikshaw 303428.88 430077.456 42216.192 11345.6016
4 stroke Rikshaw 1656989.04 557153.52 361788 10853.64

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13.2EMFAC Model:
According to this model:
Emission = Emission factor * Traffic Load * Fuel Consumption * Average Speed
Fuel Consumption = Vehicle Travel Distance * Fuel Intensity
Average Speed of Vehicle = 40 km/hr

EMFAC Model
Vehicle type CO kg /year HC kg/year NOx PM
kg/year kg/year
Truck 544942.08 33604.7616 844660.224 112621.4
Small cars 187188.352 34557.8496 28798.208 575.9642
Large Cars 746111.6723 47096.75008 29745.31584 1487.266
CD70 Bike 1906725.427 704910.6125 312009.6154 40445.69
CG125 Bike 479072.3262 161848.7589 174796.6596 16184.88
Qingqi 661300.8296 222358.7942 144388.8274 4331.665
2 stroke Rikshaw 77677.79328 110099.8287 10807.34515 2904.474
4 stroke Rikshaw 331397.808 111430.704 72357.6 2170.728

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Vehicular Emission Report G.T Road, Lahore.

13.3Move Model
According to this model:

Moves Model
Vehicle CO HC g/year NOx g/year PM g/year
type g/year
Truck 340.5888 21.002976 527.91264 70.388352
Small cars 701.95632 129.591936 107.99328 2.1598656
Large Cars 1748.699232 110.383008 69.715584 3.4857792
CD70 Bike 11917.03392 4405.691328 1950.060096 252.785568
CG125 2619.926784 885.1104 955.919232 88.51104
Bike
Qingqi 3616.488912 1216.024656 789.6264 23.688792
2 stroke 303.42888 430.077456 42.216192 11.3456016
Rikshaw
4 stroke 1656.98904 557.15352 361.788 10.85364
Rikshaw

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Vehicular Emission Report G.T Road, Lahore.

14 Carbon Emissions from Vehicles:

CO2 Emissions (tons/year) = No. of Vehicles * Fuel Consumed (L) * CO2 Emission (kg/L)

Carbon Emissions
Vehicle Avg. Milage Distance Fuel Consumed CO2 CO2 Emissions CO2 Emissions
type No. of (Km/L) (Km) (L) Emission (Kg/Year) (Tonns/Year)
Vehicle (kg/L)
Truck 41 4 0.16 0.04 2.64 37464.768 37.464768
Small 385 24 0.16 0.006666667 2.392 53816.6512 53.8166512
cars
Large 415 15 0.16 0.010666667 2.392 92644.26496 92.64426496
Cars
CD70 5153 40 0.16 0.004 2.392 431902.199 431.902199
Bike
CG125 1263 35 0.16 0.004571429 2.392 120981.9472 120.9819472
Bike
Qingqi 1127 35 0.16 0.004571429 2.392 107930.6485 107.9306485
2 stroke 188 25 0.16 0.0064 2.392 25245.28282 25.24528282
Rikshaw

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Vehicular Emission Report G.T Road, Lahore.

4 stroke 516 32 0.16 0.005 2.252 50921.661 50.921661

Rikshaw

Hence, total CO2 emissions are 920.907 tonns per year in 160 m distance.

15 Recommendations
Some of the steps that may be adopted to reduce the fuel consumption and air pollution are as
follows:
✔ Use catalytic converters ✔ Installing fuel testing laboratories
✔ Modification in engines ✔ Burn less fuel
✔ Replacement of fuel ✔ Vent controls
✔ Vehicle pollution monitoring ✔ Preventive vehicle maintenance

An integrated Transport policy need to be announced and route rationalization strategy for
introduction and operation of public transport is to be made necessary.
Financial earning at cost of environment should stop immediately. Hence forth
commercialization policy needs to be withdrawn. Requirement for change in land use may be
met through spatial planning which is now mandatory function of City District Government
Lahore.

16 Control Measures
Vehicular emissions can be controlled or reduced by:
● Providing mass transport facilities.
● Public and private institutions especially educational institutions must have their own
parking places.
● Separate lanes for non-motorized traffic.
● Phase out gradually private cars carrying smaller number of people.
● Urban planners must consider that the educational institutions should be located away from
hospitals, public areas and the roads with heavy traffic flow.
● Promote carpooling.
● Widening of roads to avoid traffic congestion but it requires some construction cost.
● Switch towards the alternative fuels.
● Smooth and signal free roads construction.
● Implementation of polluter pay principle.
● Use of hybrid cars.
● Preventive maintenance of vehicle.
● Use new cars having charcoal canister.
● Identification of possible shortest route of journey.
● Promote plantation and discourage the deforestation practices.

Table: Annual Costs of Health Impacts of Ambient Particulate air Pollution (Billion Rs)

Sr. No. Health End - points Attributed Total Cases Total Annual Costs

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Vehicular Emission Report G.T Road, Lahore.

       
1 Premature Mortality : Adults 21,791 58-61
2 Mortality: Children under 5 658 0.83
3 Chronic Bronchitis 7,825 0.06
4 Hospital Admissions 81,312 0.28
5 Emergency Room Visits 1,595,080 0.8
6 Restricted Activity Days 81,541,893 2.06
Lower Respiratory Illness in
7 4,924,148 0.84
Children
8 Respiratory Symptoms 706,808,732 0
  Total   62-65

17 Steps taken in Pakistan

17.1Lawsuit Establishment
To control pollutant emissions from vehicles, a lawsuit had been filed in Pakistan to ban 2 stroke
engine vehicles in the country which are a great cause of pollution. In 2008, the Punjab
Transport Department had banned the registration of two-stroke engine motorcycle rickshaws
as public transport in Lahore, Gujranwala, Rawalpindi, Faisalabad and Multan. The Punjab
Environment Ministry has announced that two-stroke engine rickshaws would be banned from
May 2008 and only four-stroke engine rickshaws, which worked on Compressed Natural Gas
(CNG), would be authorized to run in the city. The two-stroke engine rickshaws would be sent to
smaller cities so the owners can still make a living out of them.

17.2Formation of Action plans

The Environment Protection Department presented a five-year action plan to the government to
reduce vehicular pollution in four major cities of the Punjab. The department suggested a ban on
the import, manufacture and grant of route permits to two-stroke engine public service vehicles
especially auto rickshaws.
To combat air pollution, the government has formulated acts and policies, including the
✔ National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP)

NEAP reflects a renewed commitment to environment and focuses on taking immediate

measures in four priority areas of concern – air, water, solid waste, and ECO system
management – to achieve a visible improvement in the quality of environment, including air.
✔ Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997 (PEPA)

PEPA-97 covers air, water, soil and noise pollution, including hazardous waste disposal and
vehicular pollution. Its section 15, sub-sections 1 to 3, pertain to regulation of motor vehicles.

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Vehicular Emission Report G.T Road, Lahore.

18 Comments & Discussion

⮚ According to Results, 70 cc vehicles are producing maximum amount of vehicular
emissions (CO, CO2, PM, HC, NOx, SO2) i.e. by motorcycles.
⮚ Conditions are severe in peak hours.

19 Conclusion:
Automobiles are large contributor to the environmental pollution. The different fuel
consumption and air pollution models discussed in this report help us to estimate how much
fuel we are using and the amount of pollutants we are releasing in the atmosphere. As the
population and number of vehicles are increasing abruptly, more amounts of pollutants are
being discharged. If this trend continues, there will not be any more energy sources left for the
future generations. Also, the world will be so polluted that living organisms may not be able to
thrive. Hence, we need to understand the importance of saving the environment. Alternate
sources of fuels for e.g. renewable sources can be used which also help in reducing the pollution.
Our aim must be to preserve the nature and have the environment, along with a sustainable
transportation system.

20 References
1. Fuel Consumption and Emissions Studies (Chapter 43), Transportation Systems Engineering
2. Emissions from India’s transport sector: Statewise synthesis, T.V. Ramachandra, Shwetmala
3. Quantification of Vehicular Emissions Report
4. Air Quality Monitoring Project-Indian Clean Air Programme (ICAP), ARAI, Pune
5. Estimation of vehicular emissions by capturing traffic variations, K.S. Nesamania,_, Lianyu
Chub, Michael G. McNallyc, R.
6. NOx emissions from light weight vehicles, Naz Imtiaz, Tayyab Aftab, Muhammad Tariq and
Tahira Shafiq
7. A Review of Transport and Urban Air pollution in Pakistan, Syed Zafar Ilyas
8. http://www.bcairquality.ca/topics/vehicle-pollutants.html
9. http://www/sample-chapters/c90/e4-14-05-02.pdf.eolss.net
10. AMBIENT AIR QUALITY IN PAKISTAN Article by: Zulifikar H. Lodhi (Pak-EPA)
11. http://www.thenews.com.pk/article-129413-Rising-air-pollution-badlyaffectingKarachiites
12. http://www.dawn.com/news/1119031
13. http://www.epa.state.il.us/air/vim/guide/air_pollution.html

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