Cell

Division
Mitosis &
Meiosis

Image: Cell Division, Wikipedia From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Prokaryotic cell
• Binary Fission
• asexual reproduction by a
separation of the body into two
new bodies.
 Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
– Cell grows.
– DNA is replicated.
– Mitotic cell division produces
daughter cells identical to the
parent.
– Repeat.

The timing of replication and

cell division is highly
regulated.

Image: Cell cycle by Richard Wheeler From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
2 major phases:

• Interphase (3 stages)
– DNA is not condensed

• Mitosis (4 stages + cytokinesis)

– Nuclear division & division of
cytoplasm
– DNA condensed

Image: Cell cycle by Richard Wheeler From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Interphase
Non-dividing state
with 3 sub-stages:
Gap 1 – cell grows in size
– organelles replicated

Synthesis – replication of DNA

– synthesis of proteins
associated with DNA

Gap 2 – synthesis of proteins

associated with mitosis

Image: Cell cycle by Richard Wheeler; Interphase in Onion Cell

Drawing & Photo, Source Unknown From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Mitosis
Division of somatic cells (non-reproductive
cells) in eukaryotic organisms.

A single cell divides into two identical

daughter cells.

Daughter cells have same number of

chromosomes as does parent cell.
 Packing for the move…
When the cell is not dividing…
• DNA molecules are in extended,
uncondensed form = chromatin
• Cell can only replicate and
transcribe DNA when it is in the
extended state.

When the cell is preparing for

division…
• DNA molecules condense to form
chromosomes prior to division.
• each chromosome is a single
molecule of DNA
• easier to sort and organize the
replicated DNA into daughter cells
From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Mitosis
4 sub-phases:
1st – Prophase

2nd – Metaphase

3rd – Anaphase

4th – Telophase

followed by

Cytokinesis

Image: Mitosis diagram, Marek Kultys From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 1. Prophase
chromatin condensing
nucleus
chromosomes
nucleolus

Three Major Events

centrioles
1. chromosomes
condense
2. spindle fibers form
1. (spindle fibers are
specialized microtubules
radiating out from centrioles)
3. chromosomes are captured by spindle
From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 2. Metaphase
• chromosomes align along the
equator of the cell, with one
chromatid facing each pole

centrioles

chromosomes

spindle fibers

Images: Metaphase drawing, Henry Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body;

Metaphase Onion Cell Drawing & Photo, Source Unknown
 3. Anaphase
• sister chromatids separate

• spindle fibers attached to

kinetochores shorten and pull
chromatids towards the poles.

• free spindle fibers lengthen and

push the poles of the cell apart

Images: Anaphase drawing, Henry Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body;

Anaphase Onion Cell Drawing & Photo, Source Unknown From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 4. Telophase
• spindle fibers disintegrate
• nuclear envelopes form around both groups
of chromosomes
• chromosomes revert to their extended state
• cytokinesis occurs, enclosing each daughter
nucleus into a separate cell

Images: Telophase drawing, Henry Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body;

Telophase Onion Cell Drawing & Photo, Source Unknown From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Cytokinesis – Plant vs. Animal Cell

• Plant cells undergo cytokinesis

by forming a cell plate between
the two daughter nuclei.

• Animal cells undergo

cytokinesis through the
formation of a cleavage furrow. A
ring of microtubules contract,
pinching the cell in half.

Images: Telophase drawing, Henry Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body; Ciliate
dividing, TheAlphaWolf; Telophase Onion Cell Photo, Source Unknown From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Genetics Terminology
SEXually reproducing eukaryotes have two types of body cells…

Made
you
look!

1. somatic cells

2. sex cells
(a.k.a. gametes, germline)

Image: Superficial human anatomy, Mikael Häggström& Rainer

Zenz; Sperm & egg, Wikipedia From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 What is cell division of gametes called?

Meiosis
- A single germ cell divides into four unique daughter cells.

- Daughter cells have half the # of chromosomes as parent cell, so

they are considered haploid.

Image: Overview of Meiosis,

National Institutes of Health From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
Genetics Terminology: Ploidy
Refers to the number of sets of
chromosomes in cells.
● Haploid – one copy of each chromosome
– designated as “n”, the number of
chromosomes in one “set”
– gametes

● Diploid – two sets of chromosomes (two of

each chromosome)
– designated as “2n”
– somatic cells
Diploid organisms receive one of each type of
chromosome from female parent (maternal chromosomes) and
one of each type of chromosome from male parent
(paternal chromosomes)

From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com

 Genetics Terminology: Homologues

Chromosomes exist in homologous pairs in

diploid (2n) cells.

Exception: Sex chromosomes (X, Y).

All other chromosomes (autosomes) have homologues.

From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com

 Karyotype

• Q: How many homologous

pairs are in each
karyotype?

• Q: How is the bottom

karyotype different from
the top two?

From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com Image: Karyotype, National Human Genome Research Institute
 Sexual Reproduction

• Fusion of two gametes to

produce a single zygote.

• Introduces greater genetic

variation, allows genetic
recombination.

• Zygote has gametes from

two different parents
(except in cases of self-
fertilizing organisms).

Rose + Greg = Steven

Images: Rose, Greg, and Steven, Steven Universe From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Sexual reproduction in humans …
• At fertilization, 23 chromosomes
are donated by each parent.
(total = 46 or 23 pairs).

• Gametes (sperm/ova):
– Contain 22 autosomes and 1 sex
chromosome.
– Are haploid (haploid number “n” = 23
in humans).

• Fertilization results in diploid zygote.

– Diploid cell; 2n = 46. (n = 23 in humans)

• Q: Most cells in the body are produced through what type of cell division?
(Remember, only gametes are produced through meiosis)

Image: Superficial human anatomy, Mikael

Häggström& Rainer Zenz; Sperm & egg, Wikipedia From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Meiosis - Sex Cell (Gamete) Formation

In meiosis, there
are 2 divisions
of the nucleus:
meiosis I
&
meiosis II

Image: Overview of Meiosis,

National Institutes of Health From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com Image: Meiosis diagram, Marek Kultys
 Meiosis & Sexual Reproduction
Life Cycle

Mitosis * *
*

From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com Image: Animal Life Cycle, Dr. T’s Bio 328 Genetics
 Genetic Variation in Diploid Organisms

Fusion of sperm and egg results in unique

offspring…
…but not only because the young are a product
of two individuals with different genetic
makeup.
Meiosis also “shuffles” the genes so that the
an individual’s gametes are genetically
different from one another.
How is this shuffling accomplished?
From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com Image: Meiosis diagram, Marek Kultys
 Meiosis
• The form of cell division by which gametes,
with half the number of chromosomes, are
produced.

• Diploid (2n) → haploid (n)

• Meiosis is sexual reproduction.

• Two divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II).

 Fertilization

• The fusion of a sperm and egg to form a zygote.

• A zygote is a fertilized egg

sperm
n=23 n=23
egg
2n=46
zygote
 Meiosis
• Sex cells divide to produce gametes (sperm or
egg).
• Gametes have half the # of chromosomes.
• Occurs only in gonads (testes or ovaries).
Male: spermatogenesis
Female: oogenesis

• Meiosis is similar to mitosis with some

chromosomal differences.
Spermatogenesis
n=23
human
sex cell
sperm
n=23
n=23

2n=46
haploid (n)
n=23
diploid (2n) n=23

n=23

meiosis I meiosis II
Meiosis – mouse testes
Parent cell
1st division

2nd division

4 gametes
 Interphase I
• Similar to mitosis interphase.

• Chromosomes replicate (S phase).

• Each duplicated chromosome consist of two

identical sister chromatids attached at their
centromeres.

• Centriole pairs also replicate.

 Interphase I
• Nucleus and nucleolus visible.

chromatin nuclear
membrane

cell membrane

nucleolus
 Meiosis I (four phases)
• Cell division that reduces the chromosome
number by one-half.

• four phases:
a. prophase I
b. metaphase I
c. anaphase I
d. telophase I
 Prophase I
• Longest and most complex phase (90%).
• Chromosomes condense.
• Synapsis occurs: homologous chromosomes
come together to form a tetrad.

• Tetrad is two chromosomes or four

chromatids (sister and nonsister chromatids).
 Prophase I - Synapsis
Homologous chromosomes

sister chromatids sister chromatids

Tetrad
 Homologous Chromosomes
• Pair of chromosomes (maternal and paternal) that are
similar in shape and size.
• Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry genes controlling
the same inherited traits.
• Each locus (position of a gene) is in the same
position on homologues.
• Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes.

a. 22 pairs of autosomes
b. 01 pair of sex chromosomes
 Karyotype
• A method of organizing the chromosomes of a
cell in relation to number, size, and type.
Homologous Chromosomes

eye color eye color

locus locus

hair color hair color

locus locus

Paternal Maternal
Humans have 23 Sets of Homologous Chromosomes
Each Homologous set is made up of 2 Homologues.
Homologue

Homologue
 Autosomes
(The Autosomes code for most of the offspring’s traits)

In Humans the
“Autosomes”
are sets 1 - 22
21 trisomy – Downs
Syndrome

Can you see the

extra 21st
chromosome?

Is this person
male or female?
 Sex Chromosomes
The Sex Chromosomes code for the sex of the offspring.
** If the offspring has two “X” chromosomes it will be a female.
** If the offspring has one “X” chromosome and one “Y”
chromosome it will be a male.

In Humans the
“Sex
Chromosomes”
are the 23rd set

XX chromosome - female XY chromosome - male

 Boy or Girl? The Y Chromosome “Decides”

Y chromosome
X chromosome
 Crossing Over

• Crossing over (variation) may occur between

nonsister chromatids at the chiasmata.
• Crossing over: segments of nonsister
chromatids break and reattach to the other
chromatid.
• Chiasmata (chiasma) are the sites of crossing
over.
 Crossing Over - variation
nonsister chromatids Tetrad

chiasmata: site variation

of crossing over
 Another Way Meiosis Makes Lots of
Different Sex Cells – Crossing-Over

Crossing-over multiplies the already huge number of

different gamete types produced by independent
 Sex Chromosomes

XX chromosome - female XY chromosome - male

 Prophase I

spindle fiber centrioles

aster
fibers
 Metaphase I
• Shortest phase
• Tetrads align on the metaphase plate.
• INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT OCCURS:
1. Orientation of homologous pair to poles is random.
2. Variation
3. Formula: 2n
Example: 2n = 4
then n = 2
thus 22 = 4 combinations
 Metaphase I

OR

metaphase plate metaphase plate

 Question:
• In terms of Independent Assortment -
how many different combinations of
sperm could a human male produce?
 Answer
• Formula: 2n
• Human chromosomes: 2n = 46
n = 23

• 223 = ~8 million combinations

 Anaphase I
• Homologous chromosomes separate and
move towards the poles.

• Sister chromatids remain attached at their

centromeres.
Anaphase I
 Telophase I

• Each pole now has haploid set of

chromosomes.

• Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid daughter

cells are formed.
Telophase I
 Meiosis II
• No interphase II
(or very short - no more DNA replication)

• Remember: Meiosis II is similar to mitosis

 Genetic shuffling of Meiosis I
In addition to a new combination of chromosomes resulting from
fertilization, there are also events in Meiosis I that shuffle the
genes.

1. Crossing over in Prophase I.

2. Independent assortment in Metaphase I.

From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com

 Crossing Over
• Homologues break at identical
locations, then rejoin opposite
partners.

• This creates new combinations

of the alleles on each
chromosome.

• Occurs randomly several times

on every chromosome.

• Results in mixing of the genes

you inherited from your
parents.
From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
Independent Assortment
 Variation from genetic
recombination
• Independent assortment of chromosomes
– meiosis introduces genetic variation
– gametes of offspring do not have same
combination of genes as gametes from parents
• random assortment in humans produces
223 (8,388,608) different combinations in gametes

new gametes
from Mom from Dad offspring made by offspring
 Mitosis vs. Meiosis
• 2n • 1n
• Daughter cells different
• Clone
from parent cell and from
• Same genetic each other.
information in parent
cell and daughter cell. • Daughter cells have ½ the
number of chromosomes
• Give me another one as somatic cell.
just like the other
one! • Shuffling the genes
(Mix it up!)

From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com

Image: Mitosis diagram & Meiosis diagram, Marek Kultys From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
Drawing and Labeling Chromosomes

Centromere

Sister Sister
Chromatid Chromatid

Unreplicated
Uncondensed Replicated
Chromosome Uncondensed
Chromosome
(chromatin)
(chromatin)

From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com

 Drawing & Labeling Homologous Chromosomes

Unreplicated, Replicated,
Condensed, Condensed,
Homologous Homologous
Chromosomes Chromosomes

From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com