Cell

Division
Mitosis &
Meiosis

Image: Cell Division, Wikipedia

What is Chromosome?

A thread-like structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most
living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

Human Chromosome:
In humans cells, there is a set of 46 chromosomes organized in pairs -23 pairs
per cell- and it is divided into two types:
• 22 pairs of autosomes
• One pair of sex chromosomes (Either XX or XY)

Role of Chromosome:
• Carry genetic material
• Heredity
• The intact set is passed to each daughter cell at every mitosis
 Cell division is :
The series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its
DNA (DNA replication) to produce two daughter cells.

 There are two distinct types of cell division which

Cell Division (Extra)

are:

① Mitosis ❷ Meiosis

Mitosis VS Meiosis:
• Mitosis is a vegetative division, whereby each daughter cell is genetically identical to the
parent cell.

• Meiosis is a reproductive cell division, whereby the number of chromosomes in the

daughter cells is reduced by half to produce haploid gametes.
 The Cell Cycle:
• Cellular components are replicated =
Interphase
• Cell distributes its contents into two daughter
cells = Mitosis
Cell Division

• G1 and G 2 = cell duplicates specific molecules

and structures
• S phase = cell replicates DNA

EXPLANATION :
o The first step in the Cell Cycle is the INTERPHASE, which is divided into : G1 , S , G2 .
o Interphase :the cell is growing and preparing to divide (it copies the DNA in preparation for
mitosis), it spends most of its life in this phase.
o G1: the chromosomes will UNTWISTED.
o S: the genetic material will be replicated.
o G2 : after replication they will be condensed again.
o Following the interphase, the cell enter into MITOSIS which has FOUR phases : Prophase,
Metaphase, Anaphase , Telophase.
o The last step is the CYTOKINESIS : which is the division of the cytoplasm.
Animation of cell division

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EoxjEV1ItB4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=axkILX1-Jag
 Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

2 major phases:

• _Interphase(3 stages)
– DNA uncondensed

• Mitotic phase (4 stages + cytokinesis)

- Nuclear division & division of cytoplasm
– DNA condensed

Image: Cell cycle by Richard Wheeler From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Interphase
Non-dividing state
With 3 sub-stages:
___ – cell grows in size
– organelles replicated

___ – replication of DNA

– synthesis of proteins
associated with DNA

___ – synthesis of proteins

associated with mitosis

Image: Cell cycle by Richard Wheeler; Interphase in Onion

Cell Drawing & Photo, Source Unknown From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Packing for the move…

When cell is not dividing…

● DNA molecules in extended,
uncondensed form = chromatin

● Cell can only replicate and transcribe

DNA when in extended state.

When cell is preparing for division…

● DNA molecules condense to form
chromosomes prior to division.
– each chromosome is a single molecule of DNA

– easier to sort and organize the

replicated DNA into daughter cells

From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com

 Mitosis
Division of somatic cells (non-reproductive cells)
in eukaryotic organisms.

A single cell divides into two identical

daughter cells.

Daughter cells have same # of chromosomes

as does parent cell.

Images: Cell cycle by Richard Wheeler;

Overview of Mitosis, Mysid From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Mitosis
4 sub-phases:
1st – Prophase

2nd – Metaphase

3rd – Anaphase

4th – Telophase

followed by

Cytokinesis

Secret to remembering phases in order…

Image: Mitosis diagram, Marek Kultys From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 1. Prophase

3 Major Events

- chromosomes condense

- spindle fibers form

(spindle fibers are specialized microtubules
radiating out from centrioles)

- chromosomes are
captured by spindle
Fluoresced eukaryotic cell.
Chromosomes in blue. Mitotic spindle
apparatus in green.

Images: Prophase drawing, Henry Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body; Prophase
Onion Cell Drawing & Photo, Source Unknown, Fluoresced cell, National
Institutes of Health From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Prophase
chromatin condensing
nucleus
chromosomes
nucleolus

centrioles
 2. Metaphase
• chromosomes align along
equator of the cell, with one
kinetochore facing each pole

centrioles
chromosomes

spindle fibers
Kinetocores not pictured in this illustration.

Images: Metaphase drawing, Henry Gray's Anatomy of the Human

Body; Metaphase Onion Cell Drawing & Photo, Source Unknown
 3. Anaphase

• sister chromatids separate

• spindle fibers attached to

kinetochores shorten and
pull chromatids towards the
poles.

• free spindle fibers lengthen

and push poles of cell apart

Images: Anaphase drawing, Henry Gray's Anatomy of the Human

Body; Anaphase Onion Cell Drawing & Photo, Source Unknown From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 4. Telophase
• spindle fibers disintegrate

• nuclear envelopes form around both

groups of chromosomes

•chromosomes revert to their

extended state

• cytokinesis occurs, enclosing each

daughter nucleus into a separate cell

Images: Telophase drawing, Henry Gray's Anatomy of the Human

Body; Telophase Onion Cell Drawing & Photo, Source Unknown From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Cytokinesis – Plant vs. Animal Cell

• Plant cells undergo

cytokinesis by forming a cell
plate between the two
daughter nuclei.

• Animal cells undergo

cytokinesis through the
formation of a cleavage
furrow. A ring of
microtubules contract,
pinching the cell in half.

Images: Telophase drawing, Henry Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body;

Ciliate dividing, TheAlphaWolf; Telophase Onion Cell Photo, Source Unknown From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Stages of Mitosis

Image: Onion Cell Drawing & Photo, Source Unknown

 Genetics Terminology
Sexually reproducing eukaryotes, have 2 types of body cells…

1. somatic cells

2. sex cells
(a.k.a. gametes)

Image: Superficial human anatomy, Mikael Häggström&

Rainer Zenz; Sperm & egg, Wikipedia From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 What is cell division of gametes called?

Meiosis
- A single germ cell divides into four unique daughter cells.

- Daughter cells have half the # of chromosomes as parent cell, so

they considered haploid.

Image: Overview of Meiosis,

National Institutes of Health From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
 Meiosis - Sex Cell (Gamete) Formation

In meiosis, there
are 2 divisions
of the nucleus:

meiosis I
&
meiosis II

Image: Overview of Meiosis,

National Institutes of Health From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
Meiosis Interphase
Meiosis is preceded by
interphase. The
chromosomes have not
yet condensed.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html
Meiosis Interphase

The chromosomes have

replicated, and the
chromatin begins to
condense.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html
Meiosis Prophase I

The chromosomes are

completely condensed.
In meiosis (unlike
mitosis), the
homologous
chromosomes pair with
one another

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html
Meiosis Metaphase I

The nuclear
membrane dissolves
and the homologous
chromosomes attach
to the spindle fibers.
They are preparing to
go to opposite poles.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html
Meiosis Anaphase I
The chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html
Meiosis Telophase I & Cytokinesis

The cell begins to divide

into two daughter cells.
It is important to
understand that each
daughter cell can get any
combination of maternal
and paternal
chromosomes.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html
Meiosis Prophase II
The cell has divided into two daughter cells.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html
Meiosis Metaphase II
As in Meiosis I, the chromosomes line up on the spindle fibers.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html
Meiosis Anaphase II
The two cells each begin to divide. As in Meiosis I, the chromosomes
move to opposite ends of each cell.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html
Telophase II & Cytokinesis
With the formation of four cells, meiosis is over. Each of these
prospective germ cells carries half the number of chromosomes of
somatic cells.

http://morgan.rutgers.edu/MorganWebFrames/Level1/Page7/meiosis1.html
Meiosis & Sexual Reproduction
Life Cycle

*
Mitosis * *

From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com Image: Animal Life Cycle, Dr. T’s Bio 328 Genetics
 This table is IMORTANT (Focus on the Red)
Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
One Division Two Divisions

Two daughter cells per cycle Four daughter cells per cycle (Haploid)

Daughter cells genetically identical Daughter cells genetically Different

Chromosome number of daughter cells Chromosome number of daughter cells half

same as that of parent cells (2n) that of parent cells (1n)
Occurs in somatic cells Occurs in germline cells (ovum and sperm)

Occurs throughout life cycle In humans, completes after sexual maturity

Used for growth, repair, and asexual Used for sexual reproduction, producing
reproduction new gene combinations
Take Home Messages (don’t

• Normal human karyotype is 46,XY or 46,XX

• Chromosome abnormalities can be numerical or structural.

Skip!!)

• Numerical abnormalities include aneuploidy and polyploidy.

• In monosomy or trisomy, a single extra chromosome is absent or present, usually as a

result of nondisjunction in the 1st or 2nd meiotic division.

• Structural abnormalities include translocations, inversions, deletions, isochromosome &

rings.
 Down Syndrome:
• Also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused by the
presence of all or part of a third copy of chromosome 21. (Extra)
Chromosome Anomalies

 Karyotype:  Type of anomaly:

• 47, XY, +21 (Trisomy 21) Numerical anomaly in autosome
• Three copies of chromosome 21 (Extra)

• Most cases arise from nondisjunction restricted to meiotic errors in the egg.
• Mothers are the source of the extra chromosome in the majority of cases.
• Advanced maternal age was significantly associated with both meiosis I
(MI) and meiosis II (MII).
• Nondisjunction occurred in MII, mothers were 15.1 times more likely to be
≥40 years compared to 8.5 times of nondisjunction in MI
• The father contributing the extra chromosome in 15% of cases (i.e. Down
syndrome can also be the result of nondisjunction of the father's
chromosome 21).
• A small proportion of cases are mosaic and these probably arise from a
nondisjunction event in an early zygotic division =Mitotic.
 Down Syndrome Features: Dr Maram said read it with coffee
Chromosome Anomalies

Developmental
delays (mental
retardation)
Head and facial Life expectancy
malformations: (Small increased from
round face, protruding 25 in 1983 to 60
tongue = Sticks to the today
mouth floor)
Low muscle tone =
Heart malformations
loose and floppy side
Abnormalities of the Impotency in males =
extremities: (Short and Inability to sustain an
broad hands, Stubby erection sufficient for
fingers), single deep sexual intercourse or
crease across the the inability to
center of the palm ejaculate
 Sex chromosome imbalance is much less
deleterious
Sex chromosome imbalance

47,XYY Syndrome :
• (May be without any
Klinefelter symptoms).
• Males are tall but
Syndrome (47,XXY)
normally proportioned.
• 10 - 15 points reduction in
IQ compared to sibs.

Trisomy X (47,XXX)
•females:
It seems to do little harm.
• Individuals are fertile and do Turner Syndrome
not transmit the extra (45,X and
chromosome. variants)
• They do have a reduction in IQ
comparable to that of Klinfelter
males.
 Turner Syndrome (45,X and variants) :Dr Maram said read it with coffee

• Monosomy of sex chromosome: (Monosomy X: 45, XO) i.e. only one X

Turner syndrome

chromosome is present.
• Note that it can be written 45,X or 45,XO ( the O is just to show that there
is a missing chromosome).
• Occurrence – 1 in 2500 live female births.
• The only viable monosomy in humans.
• Individuals are genetically female, not mature sexually and sterile.

Turner Syndrom
e
(Video)
 Features of Turner Syndrome:Dr Maram said read it with coffee

Lack of ovarian
development (Streak
Turner syndrome

ovaries) = No ovaries
(infertile)
Neck abnormalities Normal life span
(webbed neck) Increased risk of
Short stature, osteoporosis,

Broad chest, Low cardiovascular anomalies

e.g. constriction of aorta
hairline Skeletal disorders and hypertension
(e.g. scoliosis, No developmental
delays, Normal
dislocated
intelligence
hips/elbows)
 Rapid Aneuploidy Screening by Fluorescence in situ
hybridization (FISH):
• Available on amniocentesis sample.
• Uncultured amniocytes.
• FISH probes for X,Y, 21
• Result in 24-48 hours.
• Proceed onto full karyotype (11-14 days).
Tests

New techniques:

• Cell-free fetal DNA from

• Quantitative Fluorescence maternal plasma – at 6-8
PCR (qf PCR): weeks of gestation:
is able to measure number of It is a non-invasive prenatal
copies of a chromosome – used diagnostic tool for chromosomal
aneuploidy. It can be used to
for trisomy screening. determine the fetus sex–: look for
presence of Y chromosome material.